Tur WonloIs A GHETTORace and DemocracY Since

World War II

HOWARD WINANT

A Mcmlt€r ofthc l)cflrco$ ll(x,ks Or{)trt)

I

TO

nrd GatrielWinail:

TI]INKERS, DOERS, DREAMERS.

$tc llN

Coptright O 200r by HoMrd WinantPublished by Baric Books,A Menb€r of the Perseus Book Crcup

Al nghts reserved. PriDted in rhe United Stat€s ofAmerica. No part of this bookmay be reproduced in any manner whatsoever wirhout Miuen pemission exceptin the case of brief quotations embodied in cnfcal articles and rfliews. Forinformation, addresr Baric Books, 10 East 53rd Srreet, New york. NY 10022-5299.

Dcsigned by Bookcomp, Inc.

tr ts f t,lDITIoN

( lll'r llt k)g rccorcl of rhis book i'r avnilablc riom rhe l,ibrary ofcongrcss.

lsBN {14t;tlt}4j,10-20l 0l 0$04ll0 1riJ7(;54 32I

Ih..l)tlx!ui({lhrthhInrl,lil1llkllnrr.trtll(rc(lLtltclx,!!llr,ltlx, nrrlkr Nlrti{)rlnl

?i''r:- -r --'-].-l--

THE BIRTH OF A NEW PARADIGM, EXPANDING DEMOCRACY BY RENDERING VISIBLE

NEW IDENTITIES WHICH DEMAND CONSIDERATION OF IHEIR ASPIRATIONS, I5 THE

CONCERN OF RADICAL SOCIAL MOVEMENTS. . , . ID]EMOCRACY I5 NOI A SPHERE TO

BE MANAGED OR ENLARGED, IT IS A CONTINENT TO BE DISCOVERED. FROM ONE

CENTURY TO THE NEXT.

(:0 tenrs

-Alnin L;?ieP (J 994)

19

37

51

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Preface

Introduction

FRoM ITiE AByss: RACE ND MoD}jRN HIsroRY

The Historical Sociology of Race

Learning to Catch Hetl: Race and Modernity

The Empire Strikes Back: Rcsis6nce to Racial Rule

Nineteenth4entury Nightmares, Twenticth-CenturyDrcams

THx CoNTEMPoRARy SocIol-ocl- oF RAcx

Notcs on the Postwar Break

United States: The End ofthe Innocencc

South Africa: When the System Has Fallen

uittcn uith Cq S?idman

Brazili Back to the Futurc

Europe: Thc Phanton Menace

Curclusion: Millennium Arrives?

Notcs

Ilibliograplry

lrrrlcx

8.1

147

177

2t9

249

289

317

371

l'reface

llrs BooK rs AN tFroRrtoexplaiDlyhlraceissucha important rccial fact.

I wt,rteit bccause Iwanted tosituate ra.e atthe trrn of thc tllenly-filr;t century.

r l,, slart (a.cording to \ Iestem, Chlistian-inflected cal€ndars, arl)avay) ofa ncw

rrillcnnium. I wanted to understand our racial history our collective' rvortd-

\v!lc racial history: how did wc get to this racirl pres€nt?

Ihis huge agerda came. of course, from my persoDal as wcll as my inteL

l(! ru.rl trajectory For many years, when asked abortt my background and my

iIk]rcsts,I lvould replythatlike so manyothers I was a child of"the movement."

I\vxsan adolescenti the early 1960s, and a university student in thc lateryearc

, ,I r hrt decade. I was politically active in youth grouPs and especially in college;

I \us drawn into antiracist activities whcn I was still quite youngr and I have

rr.mained so ever since. So my respo'rse to such ques&rns wottld runBut actually the sources of ly political and intellectuat cornmitments, and

rlros of this book. go deeper than that. They ini'olv€ fascis and the Pdmor-(lirl racism it rcpresentedi andsemitism

Myparentsrvcre refugees,Jewish refugees liom Nazism My late father Karl

\\t ininger (1918-91) grew up in Vienna, and exPerienced the ,{h-crlrrr ofNhrch 1938 (he was h{enry years old that same month). Soon after knowing

r lrrt.lcwish men aDd boys ltere b€ing rolrnded up and sent ofl to forced labor

,)r worsc. he went to thc train station arld took the first train he could out oIr(,\\,n. Hc Nas determined to escape, but cscapewas notso easy lhe trah took

l,iD to BerlinlAnd there, in dre Nazi caPital, he encountercd iar less .ln1i-scmi-

risn) than hc had in MeDna. Berlin, then as rrow, was a relati\€ly 'progrcssive"

, iry. Hewent to the museus, and swam in rhe Wannsee (of .ou$e prohit'i1cd

ro lcss). H€ was in Berlin on thc night orJune 22, 1938. whiJl loc Lortis

trocked oltt Max Schrnc]iDg in Ncw York 0naDy Bcrline$, hc saicl, wclcomed

schmeling's defeat). As (he news of the "brown bomber'J tritnnph came

rbr ough-itwas alrcady the mo.Dingofthe 23,d-mydad determincd ro make

ir ro thc Unilcd Slarcs. Through .r {r'nPlex series of manerNers hc filally,'rrivcd rhoc, si( k Irn(l btoke but lo(rng ^nd

srlc, belbre wa. bcgan in LllIoPc.

So I larcw ut) ir rhc shark^t,'l thc lli)lo(trrrsl. I wrs boru iD 1046. My par

{ llts wcre r()l l! crrx rxk)rrsly tnlili,Irl, lnrl tl( } haterl lirscisn artd (nctv racisttt

Nl( ll rll, y siu! il. (l\4t rrr I l)(: lliurli, 'rs

\vi's rr r( lirAtt lir), li0rrr lln N.lhct-lrrrr<lsrslrr'h:rIlr:rIrrrr|rrsi.r lirrr( ti|llirrl.t,,rrl,'l llrrr,,ln )Wlr,\voItl! li'srisls

in America? In their viewr.loe Mccarlhy,.l. Edgar Hooler: rhe young RichardNixon. lames Uastland. Slrom'Ihurmond. I remember my dad watching theArmy-Mccarthy hearings on oar rrew aNl dren-rathrrjnira.ulous TV in 1953.''Wal(h this, Hoftard," he told

'ne. "This iswhat liscisn kDks like." I was seven

My nrtellcctual work florvs from thesc two placcs, then: from "the movenrcnt, and fron a.hildhoo.l fra'ned by the llolocaust, shapedby reirgee par-cnts an.l bya sccular Jcwish, Ncrv%rk Dlilieu.I harc bee'r working on t?ce fora tong limc- MI iDitial interest-s&ere vetf mor€me'rt{rn€n, v€ry North Amer-ican. I still retain that set ofcon€erns, but as my kDowl€dge and experience has

broaclened. so too has my arvareness of the globali(y ofrace.

'lhis book is an extended essay, nol x !vo.k ol pftn,try research. k is ana(empr to clarify the world-historical dnnensions ol r,rcc, but its primary focusis lrained on the conternporary eu, thc pern)d dlat extcnds from World WarIl to the prcscnt day. k is alrc an cffort k) smnd a p<rlili.al

^latmt aU amund thc

lto tl the nonmtun ofth. sttuggk agninst racisn is sla1"',a1./ The su.cesses of antira.ist and anti coloni^l rnovement! in recent decades are being tmnsformedinto new patterDs ofra(ial iDeqrnlity and injr$tice. The new world racial sys-

t(]ln," in sharp conrrast ro the old srruc(ures ofexplicit colonialism and srate-

spoDsored segregarior, r) or! presenLs il-selt as "beyond ra.e," "color+hrd." mul-ticulnnal, and posuacial. 11 seeks 10 render racism invisible: it attempts todismiss rrce as a holdovcr' lio a bcnightcd past, $mething now rvell on theway to bcnrg u"rtscended. It prcscnts racc as a "problem" that is finauy being''solvcd. Ironically enough, these claims are asserted at a moDeDhvheD tbedisparitics bctwccrl thc world's North (more white dran noo and irs South(morcdark than Dot) are i'rtensifying, andwhen northem teaN of 'swamping"bv immig'dnL' drc ven n,u' l, pre.enr nrr e rgnin.

Tha( race is slill largely perceived as a problcm, rnthe. than as a flcr<iblednnension of human vaiety thar is laluable and permancnt, is ilscil au indi-cation of the continunrg dangcr tlht thc "ncw w()rld rrcial systcrf cmbodics.I havc addresscd dtis thcnrc h an earlicr work, lln.ial (:onniti."1r (1994), hL]n

itl rhis l)ook I scck k) cxpan.l an.l .l(!rp$ onr rwa&rn ss ol i(. Ollr cll;r mustr'(n Itr l()'tlo away wilh ru(c, r() "gct b.yoDd n.ci this is rlo Dr(rr possiblcllrr',ir i\r()'tkta$ay with orhcr lirrrsol huDrnnrirric$ llalhcrrlc rn ( rcnc$'i)|r itI(ar r(' r{hkt rr.iirl i'r.qullilr, rr(ill hn f.rr.h}, rn(inl srl)illtjlti,)n. lhisi\r!'t th( lir!r'\!, kl rr( ;ll slst|,rr" wc bl!( r'!('(.\lx,i(r,(c(liitNillr!)tlx thc

l\,.r.,ll, {l .",,1 (,,,,,sthIl,rl \!irlt l l]r.ll ,rll\ tra,l'1,. llr{rl thi\ rrnk.s,'r,,,'l llrsi lin(11l!l{11 r'ril.rrl.,IIr,rl(11,'r1l,rtf !rli,rrs,,l llr(.rriurrr! rrr'r l,rlro\ lrlri\lr1l rr( lrillr rr,rl,,i,rl\ ,r r( L rori, s. /\r(l ,,i1,,.!\ r,!'k

\.,lls r)r tea with me. In more ways ihan I can enumerate, the PcoPle listed

li l(trv hclped me keep,ny Pcrspective on dre material covered or the argu-

I lrs olltred here.I ( xD harclly name everyone who hclPcd rnei many did so in ways thevcould

r, 'r

hn'w and I canDot acknowlcdge. But drose wtro must be menlion€d ntclude;

Ir,tri(l i\nttrony, Peter Baeh! Robin Blackburn, Frcd Block' Dalid Brundage'

Nl,rt rin BulmcrAuroB Camacho de Sch'nidt, Randatl Collins'Jim Cliffod, Doo-

[l's l)ow.l, Ptlil Elanson, Adrian Favell, Joc [eagnr, Gcorge Frcdrickson. Pnul

i ih1,y, Eddie Glaude, Lnrda Gordon, Peter (;1?n, Michael Hanchard. Chcster

I L,rrnrur, Dienke Hondius, SydJeficrs, Dai'id Kairys, Robin D. G Kelley, Martin

l!l\,,n. Nonnan Koelner, Michile l,amont. Magali Sarthtti In$on, Douglas

N,NsctJames O'Connor, Mi.hael Omi, Lucn$ outla$! Rob Perelman,.lan Rath,

t ,,r'(1 Saroy, Jim Shoch, Nikhil Pat Singh, Thoma! Skidmore' Chris S'najc'

\r( t'lrcn Small, B:Lshar 'far abich, Ed$"ard l'elles, Daniel lomPkirrs. France Wind'

,l,U( c lwine, Vro'r Warc.-Jonatltan Warrcn, S. Craig\\ratkins, RobertVitalis, and

li'kulu Zubcri. Of course none of thos. lisred bean any responsibilit' fb' lhe

l[xlwork, bul each dcsen€s thanks for dialogue, dcbate, aDd discussion'

lhis book was begun as a collaboraft't with Gay Seidman Aldrougtr the

I'roiccr did not remain ajoint eftbrt, it coDtirues in many ways to be a Product

',1 lhat association. Cay took part in extensive preparations and planning for

rl(. book. She ^nd

I togethcr gave severat talLr hased on rhis work at coDfer-

r.rns and unirersity forrnN. I visitcd th€ University ofWisco)rsin se\€ral times

,rr Icr irlvitalion, cnjoying both the opPortuDity to present preliminary mater-

r,'l Irom this pmject, an(t the hosPitality of her trome and thmilyr IIeinr' Ben,

.rr(i Matth.w. She wrote an initial draft ofChaPter Eighl that chaPter is truly

rIc product ofboth our hands, although the final respoDsibility for ilscontent

!(r!'ainswith e. Gay continues 1() be 'ny

good friend and admired collcague'

I have had two editors at llasic Books Tnn Barttett adl'ocatcd lbr the book

,,rl-r3rd St. and provided importart cilicism andsupPort in thc crrlystagcs ol'

fls prcparation. Vanessa Mobley 2bty took o\tr when Tim lrx)ved to nnolllcr

tx,siridl. l he ovcrsight aDd suPPort of a skiltcd editor is an enonrxnrs gili ro

lx'(h lvritcr and rcader. I n gmteful to both. I also grcatly aPJ'recittk' the

\ltill(d.opycdiling ard bookProducti{)n efforts ()l Mada and Davi'l dcu ltoer'

.",.1 Chrisri,'. iuara.I havc had th bcncfit ofsaterial and logistic.rl supPort fioDr sclcral insti-

llrlnr)s. lcnrl)lc tJnivc'sity grrnre(l mt:r)car's lealc fiom ny lcachingrespon'

'il)ilirics, tlhi(l na(lc a lor ol r.adnrg and wri tin g possible l found a grcat deal

(,1 srt)lx)r1 Irr rhc tlrri\crsiry ol l'(r rsyllrnir, whcrc Doug Massc} chair of thc

l)( l,rr lnx Il 1rl S{! i,)l()gr rror r lv lr ovirkrl rn| rilh ar) ol]icc and a risitrt's

rirl, lnrt l.'.ililrlc(l ll! rrlxilirl,il;ly I'l virri(,rrs csscrrrirl rcs()rrr(cs Al lhc tlrri_

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ilt)i,i,;r tl, t,:, "^. 1,,,,;;; i;;l ;;:l:,;l,T l;,11T.::il: ;::;,';;,Xl;;;'il" t"'"{d'{ an rL'rnb) $. bdn.r wa' ,^;.";; ;:, ",;.

INTRODUCTION

l{ r,:r rr^s Rr,),rN lirndamcnhl iI global polirics and culrurc Ibr half I rniltcn-||,!r. lt continues to signify and stru.nrre social lile nor oDly cxpcrie lirlly,rrl k,calll, bltt nationally and globally. Race is p.esenr cvcryavhc'( r it is e!i(tcnr!, rLc .lis. ibution of rcsourccs md power a di thcdesi'csandlirlsoti'rdi\ i,i'als from /lberta to Zimbabwe. Race has shrpcd the Dodcrn c( orrnny rn.tr,,li{Dilate. It has permeated all avajlablc so.ial idcDriries, cultrual l{r Drs, rtrd,\sr(rns of signilication. Infinitely incarnarcd in institu(ion rnd posoDrtiry,,.r( hcd on the human body, racial phenoncna affecr the thought, cxpcrid(i,.,r(l accomplishmcnts ofhuman individuatsand collectiviries in rnny laDriliur\!,rrs. and in a host ofunconscious partcrns as well.r

Only a 1e$' dccadcs ago-ler us say bctbre World War ll-thc "so.ial ln(l", ,I Hcial incquality and thoroughlaoing racial differ ence was takcn lor granled.,\lrhoulah there r,ras always borh srnall- and large,scale resistancc, rhis$,aswidclyrrrt as cxceptional, anomalous, oratleast conlainablc.In rhe ruling circles-I lrc metropoles, the world's capitals both imperial and pcriphcul irwaslakenl,)r grantcd as natural, ineluctablc, an 'objecrive" reality, rhafiobe$,hire (how-cvcr that is defined) confcred a d$.med ad\amaga on those so idenritic(t,\Lhile a dark skin y'rral) signified inferioriry. Thc name for this ser ofhcln,l\,rhis mcial idcology, is whitc supremacy.

Within the past twogenerations, holvever, the rvorld has$'irncsscd rr r(t ct.rrted challengc to the continuity of world\ride whire suprenrcy. lr hls s..Irhe Holocaust and the massive popularion shifts accompanlnrg rrr I s (.(.dirlq World 14'ar II. There hare bccn powerful movemenrs lbr dcr r)l( ilIlrion,.ivil rights, and the €nd ofomcial aparrheid. ADd $'e harc liv(ll rhro[gh lhc.lwilight struggte' that neo-coloniatism and rhe Cold \\hr l)trnrght lo rhejunglcs and deserts oflhe world's South.

In the aftermalh ofthcsc. as well as counlless orhcr Dnrili,na(ions of rhelvorldwide rupture oflhe racial stanN quo, the ironic vicw has dlcrged rhal $crre noir in a posGracial, cohr'btnrd world. Ar prcscnt, y ri(nr! argumenb arcbcin8made dratthe racc-concept is outmoded, ata\nsd., a reli( ol earlierrimcs.'Ihe very idea oll"ce has come in for deprc.atnD. And what remains ofraciatdiscourse has a ncw tonc, as evidenccd in claims abour "color,blindness and

''rrrki( rlt rirlii . l{,r( tllt l,!tr} 1,.(.Its itn.l irs (tixtil.rriiUr, I(sl!!ltlllot'i Ilrrr,rl(lilli r( r(r,, 1[{t, rtx^1. r' , l) Irxr(.. t.hc xppcimr(a.:ll(i1t)Dsrnta,rn)I ol su(h lr,st,rr(iirl 5cnrilr(Dts is ll rr(cDt pl(rrorncnoo; il has rcshapc(l(onk!nporary ulldo.srandiD8 rn(l drbakjs over rnce.

Thjs post rddal ric\{ is al od.lj wirh the ccnr|xl (:laioN oI this book: rharra.ial hicrarchy lir€s orri thal ir coueiaks \€rl, $,eI with ,! or l.l,!idc and naln,ratsys(ems ofslrarifi.ation aDd inequality! thar it .orrcspon(ls 10 gtariDg dispari-tics in labor condiiions and refl.rcts .liflerenlial a((css ro dcmo;m1i. ;nd;om,rnunicative insrnrmenraliries and litc chan(cs. Myvicwis that rhc mce_concepris anydrnrg bur obsolore and thal its significancc is nor dcclinnrg. \4,e e n;r

w}rat is obsolete, howe\cr are rradjtional or pdochial rvays ofanalyrng rhemaltcr of race. Ar the beginDing of rhe t fenry_first centrrry at the da}ri ot anew millenniu$, there is a pressing need for a newgloralapproach 10 race rha(lakes into-accounr rhe nc$,, ..ctcaned-up.' m.ial ideokrgie.s or post-raciat pcrspectives I have rneDforrcd. Adequarcly to undershnd rfrc i,npo,r,nce

"rra.c*hisbrical md conre'nporary,-rcquirrs us ro reconsider mmv ()1. ouri,l, a\ and d'\' ,,prro,F Jho' In,,.tFrniD. d.\, topn,, nr.lab,,, .temi,.rd, r. i.len_rir\.,rll'I'..' .liI'1.'.1.ur".1,n(.pr,ot \.ridldrri,,rdI,t,rgcnty. tdkcnrsawhok:. thcse rrc rhc coordinates of all social lheorn \\'c need a rrerv, racialtvr,'fi .rl,q . i. rl,,"{trr:rt i,'npJs it \r.hJnr r,, nd\ir.i,rc pr,,perty i,, rlret'rcrty-lirsccrnlrL y wodd.

My rhcsis is thrt rhc upsuryc ofanti-racist activiry since World War II .{rn,.rruri\., l ItJ ri ,.rldIl hFr,{i,dt\tritr.dgt,,hal Iuprrrreor .t Fr(,.rnrhccon I iDr rity ol workh{i.le whir e suprcmacy. Throughout rhis book I usc rhe tenn,?./i k) rciir ro rhc mid{cn(urychalle ge ro thc conrin ui(y of world racial rulett|ct tht h,tg t d !,ol thc modern cpoch. The od{ains ancl conrirrs of thatshili are al lhc c(!rtcr ol rhis work.

l),rR r L FRoM Trnr Arryss: RA(ir. ^ND

NIoDTRN IIrsir)pv

'lhc lirstsection of the bookeu,nnrcs rhc hisroricat socblogy of race. ID Chaprcrs livo through Five I consi.ler the $ays tharrace hasbccn a kcy forcc clrivnigs(,rl(1.(l( trlopme t, one of rhe ccntral piltars ofrhe cd;r;cc oI moclerniry Tht:lxx)t kx arcs the timndrtio)s ofn.e horh .on(eplual1l, anct sociat srruclurally.:rl tlx rlrtrvl Irl lhcmodcm epoch arouDdthe,,ear 1500. tt thcD t.accslheworllthrr rr.c lnrill, Iiom thc appearance of Cc,lumbus.s saik on rhe Atlanric hor;,/o'r r(, l1r(. tr)sr-$brld \4lir II break.

1h(sc linrr cllnpkas oUrtinr rlrc racial dimensn)ns of rhe risc ot.lhc mod_ctn worl(l sy\rcDr. Ihc ttftecnth ccDlury, wheD th. planct,!:is fi$r cilrumDa\,i-€akxl.liFl lni cd k)gclhcriDloa sjDgle and 0nitc elrlir),, firsr strbjecrcd, albeil

rr,\,!h,rr(lirrtxrle,lly,1,,lhclrrl( tllr.,", Ur,nrl)r,l rlr(nrrslalcs rvirs aln)

\l! | 'xrill ,ol li'sr xt)t!a'c(l irt st,trl(lhirrg apP'r'xitlrrting Drxlcru lbtmI lr,,|'tlr l'ir r I ()l lhc b(x)[ I lt r( e {,r( lhis ltisl()rn:al so(tulogT {)f race' culmi

r1,,r irl.l rlirh r h( .rtr irl r opur al nn)nrert ol World SIar Il.(:lrirt)rcr 'lifo spccilicllly liames dre outlilres ol a historical th(.,ry o1 ft.e'

$1,i, h s.cs rhc pbcnolncnon rs a kcy faclor in the creatior of the modetn

Nrrl(1. Ildc I arg[c thal thc foundation or m-.l.r n,rion-srzres the con-

',rrr( (i(rl ol an it)lcrnaiionxl econorn)', and thc artic|lalioD ot a unifi€d world

, l rlrrrc Nerc all deeply racialized processes. Thc chapter do.uments the wavs

rlr,rr rlrvcbpmcnt occutrcd comPkrx nneraction with a serics of differeDt

Ir, !k s ofmcial dornination, racially bascd resistaDces, and mcjat significatioDs'

lr shows how rhc problematic ol race camc to Permcate most of thc lbnnalivc( r r rgliles of the modern age, shrpiug clebates al)d coDflicls over labol regimes,

,l,.rno.rac},, nalional nrdependcrlce atrd idcntit), and citizcnshiP-

lhis chapter also iitroduces *re argumeDt that I havc hrked to Mlrdal\rll!ry ofcircular and cumrtlativc causatioD (MyI dal 1963): the racialization ofrlrr rvorld is both thc cause and (tlsequenco of modemitv ll is importattt to

lr'rr in m d, as one lentures decPer into this te!t. lhe ..nll.iltl) I claim

l,' race. both historically and in thc Present da): Race must bc grasPed as a

lrrrdamenral coldirion oI nrdividual and (ollecti\c idcntitt! a pennane'lt,

,rlrbough tremerldously flexible, dhnension olthe modem global social strtrc-

rIc. The epochal phenomeDon of race has been the basis for thc rostcom-

tr.hcnsive systeDrs ofopPressior and injusti.c everorganized, aDCl siniultan€

,,,rsly thc fbundation fi)reverydrcan ofliberation. at leastsilrce the inception(,1 rhe modern world. The theory Presented h ChaPler Two is that ra.e "accu

,,)rlated" ir all the lissures and laultlines olmodern society

Chapter Three, "Lcar ing (o Catch Hell.' follows rh€ risc and consolida-

(i(rr ofthe rlorld mcial system fronr thc late lifteenth to dre early nineteentlt( drluries. Ilcre I highlight the rehft)nship ofconquest and slavclf to thc oriHins of modernity.I first considcr precurKns to racial moderniry cxPkning thc

, rcalbn of Eutopc as a racial Proiect. Thc toundartun and consoli(llri(nr ol

,ri{ion-states aloDg the EuroPcar Adantic raised cmciat qucslions allnrt (l)e

r( r)snD between peoplehood (lhc lraiional ) atrd the slNctLUc ()l (lotrrilration

( statism"), ques(ions thaiwere ncvcrmore than partiallli csolv(d bI inra- and

cxrra-Iluropcan impeial nriliatives.

Nextl addrcss the t'vo prircipal rcgionsinlvhnll liuoPc lin'rrd its Nodcrn''()thel]s": Alrica and lhe Amcrjcas ? Boft ihese v.Lst rcgidrs rrn{lcrwent exten-

sivc muotions as lheir fatcs $'ere linkcd to tbe gl()bal s)'sltDr ot exploitation

rnd stratification. These social .elalionships were coDrlncheDsivclv racialized'

.r rc ity that {lew back to Europe as well as ltierarchiTnrg rhe periPltertr 't hus

rhe lorvcr srranat home were ircrcasingly nrlcd by techDiques perl€ctcd h the

colonics, and i)rdecd lound their cultural traits (including their resistance to

, \t,1, '.',r,', .,,,,t .,Ir.!,L|||\III L1t,,.,r,a t r,, rt,ta,.,,t ,,,t,, ,,t \ tr(tr\ ,{,",,".,.'rrlsr,rl, , t',,,/, ,,,tr,rl,r.,.,,,rit,rl,\t,r,,,,,.i,f,.,,,,qrf,,.,r,,,,,,,,,,r,,t,,r,:,r.

, l' \ r,, iht'.r.,1 "rt,

. rt,, L( ,(.Fhq r,.rFi,,,\ r{,,rrrhr .,t!{ t^ . t . , \ , . , ) . . i , , , t rt!|l"1,.r, I i,t r.\,.t.,r r,,r\ Irr ,t, IIr ,,rril, r {r.

-, Fr,,rnrl,' \rJI.ltur,ri.t ri,,iatrhcurv.rtri..,rrq,,i/. i, ,(rntt,,),{t,Drtr\i.

i hdpr, r\. JId mor' s.rh.r., \ il' td,r I ol rtri\ h,,ut_rt., ,r i.r,,,1_ ,,,.t iNrno,l.[' , h,'. -hi.\,,m, , tFr i, t.r im irJ, io {. t,, ir\ tu n! i.,m.Ir., ,iDot.,, irvir nenl(, r\ rtr t,iRt,t\ di\,.,p.n, p.,re,,,{ nt hi{o,t,"t,,,",",,;",,,,;1,.;";,peoptes and nrdeed conrinents.In other ilrjlings r r,^"..iri.;*r lip;-."._cepts of race.:r Although I do not reduce ra.e i)r rhis book 10 a mrtt;r otblackand $'hire, rhere are ccrrainly points a1rlhich I vc, ge "" a ,i,nit_ e,,"r;" ,";atlempts to cxplain the hisrorical interscclion bdwecn tlxr nxdern wo d,l'ai

idllnrion lnd j'\ c\l,to\i!c dc\eti,pn..nr i\. i Jt rtFr. rdri{, rId ,e, utdr_

',,ing plJ'rcr. In rnr .i.e. rtrcr.. $(.re i, rrnilt\ InJn\ -otlx.ri.: nor $hiri., nolblack, Do1 Nalive Ameri.an (how inadequate thesc ctassificrrior$ secm inworld-hisbricat pcrspectivet). Indced rher. werc mDy truropean iclenrjries

as r1'ell as rhe myriad of.brhe$." There were many localizcd rac.iai svsterns ro.Inrhr \n*.ir\\\\rcm.,,trJ.idt,td*iti,.,rion\a,,.,1 ,,h.",,,;ti,;,.,t;;;s'rni ,^uql r,,,ln,irq,ri\tr ,,,.,1:ol, Ih n{ po$,bt, tcr\eel whiri\:r,r,t ortrcrs. 'r'rprn\rrqror rl'hp[rp,a(,rt,\pndr-.enr rHn,ri,t.16.{rnroledrop,ule'v\r,1r',,l r.ur.,l ,.'r.x,,ril. n{r

' )rtr, r\ r.tic,t ,,n J r4 j.t ,onrinu nri,i,,,."rll'.,r ,1,llllilr, ,l llr, {, llll, Lrxrtr.,r,. p, ^i'ur, { arv ,r, , ,,,",, ,.,,;,;

"ri;;r,;;vrricry (l orhcr hybfttiznl i.lcDtirics). predomilaDce of rtre tb.*_ ";;.has bccn link.d ro hnish- (aDd proresranG) based T,srcms ofensiavcDrerr and(ok)ni/ariou, parri(utrrty (tur no( cxclN;i€ly) i,, ,rr. e-*i."r, *frtr. ,ir. r"u

r, I \.,rii,r'r\ l,.tri.tna.r trIt,..l ,.rqiin. ,.pc,;ath ir rh,. lunc i i,r/ wirh | ltil:t:ti;,ll:,,iirl,:';ll';;l::,i,':;:1:t;i,il,JJi:,"n:,:li:i:;;:, [,]t:;*"two variaDB in rr.. rcta(ioDi, ntenrilted b) Hoethk (t97t: sec also Davis1991). Most rcllin!a: rhxmalx)u1 rhc Americas rnd iDaeea across the tner.giDg\,rld rdi iJl$i,1'r. Lx i.rl Ln.r.r,, tr) fr.\Jilcd.

\ll rlr.t'peoptt\..,1t rt,i.,i, r,ipr. ho,rl.t utrirndr. h Lr ernptollti rt,e,,{',pri \ prujc,' i,r tni'r jIq r,,ll..r1,(r rt,(,nudcnr so, td: d $our; rn,*, jprht\

l;:.,:::l::l'lllll'^ '' -$i{rd'o'i' \ 'n N',\,i,,, il.n,r', ourrrr.r-rlurerri,t h tr,pte , i,r,n., rio,,, .,,,t r,,t,1,,,," i t .n..'lr..xl\r'x-Dl'urrdrn\d,1r.i,,rroto, .i|lrencrrtu rlrrArti,nri,,nr,rptc\.Nrrr'', rL,l lix ,^ ot rnod..rni/arior: Lk t,r,klc,tqc rnr r,.tJrr,, ,,.g1,.,,

"r .r.i.,.,,r1.\i.,,'tna,t,t,* rndor ,tri, p,,,,i,,,ta,,,,,dc^o,,,$It, morrc,;,ir\.Bu|t,i\r\tI\trlr'r'rArr.llinr,,t rt! mdnv!^i,.iqtrr\tjrJr,.,,,n L,r,.t,rrmv1 r*rrnprcn Dl,rl( wr'.kl ot rodny as pos",ssiDg a racinl 1ir.,,g", .,r.;,,ti..a e",1"ti",,,a gc'r'lk),.1"y (n lrr(i^l IoD tion

ID ()rrprcr IitrDt .,The E'npirc Shikcs tlack,.,the histori.al fb.rN shitis ro

rl,(./,4\^,nrlr( s,rl,irg,rrt!1. ll,!, 1(rrrsirk, rlr.(lvrrrtrrri(srtril.(,nsc(lrr(r!r's

'l r, sisr.rr( r' 1,, ( tn!l(r'sl ,rrr(l .!rslrvc')! rrl, ld)lLirrg at crcr'ydar hirth arrcc rtrd,r,il(.slr\cr.l!lli,rrirr(l ,rr)!,rr$ rrrl lilrlly arivilrg rt lboliti('ri n. rcvchrri,!r, !rrlrrri(r,lollialisrr- Re\isrrrr(:( atld oPpositio'r,like racinl rulc itself'

rr,rrerscrl srx(ssivc hisl{ni(rl srrgcs, in gcnctal movnrg fiom whal Gratnsci

r l1,r- l, 229-235) (rllc(l wrr of maneuvcr" to 'war of position." Ib€ chaPtcr

l '.,rir s with l h ( car ly strsc! ol racial t csi!(aDcc, when cnsla\ed subjec$ lackcd

\r rrrrlly rll ishts and *tre ellirctircly dePrivcd ol personhood (not tri mcn-

rhr .irizcrship): in such circumstmces resistancc logicalll focused on su}}

\, , \nD, cscape, and, whcrc possiblc, on relolt. As racial l.tlle evotvcd in world-

l,i\r,n icat (an(l tlarional political) 1erms, the torms ofrcsistan.e and oppositiorl

nrilrcd ns wcll. Slolvly and unelenly, Polilical and cultural conflict became

r r,,rc possiblc. Opponents ot racial Nlc fin'nd themsclves gradually o. interlri(ctrtly a(quirnrg leveragc rtrd allies Thc] Nerc no'! able to Prcss some

, Irirns on the slatc, and even t() operate in thc transnati<tral political systcm.

ll( chrpter @ncludes lry examitring (he first global social N)ve'ncnt, rboli-

ri,,ris, comparhg its North Amcican, British, and BraTilia marrilcstatbns(lhrptcr Fi\€.'Ninctcen(h-CeDtull Nigh0nares, Tnentieth{cntlrry Dreass,"

,.\pl(rcs the aftermath of slavery and the emergcnce of contcmPoftry anti-

,.( isn aud anti col(mialism. Wilh thc general obsoles.encc ol slavcrt and

rl,{ su(ccss/incorporatiolr of abolitiorist demands, rhe $orld racial sysiem

, rrrcred a ncq rrdligbt phase ofracial subjugation. The dest'uctnn ofslavetf, i ( upied the cntire ninetecnth cen(lnt', although its.ru.ial banle was dle U.S.

( nil War With (ha(el-based firms ol(oerccd mass labor on dre runc, colo-

rirl:rnd planlation-based tabor demand gave rise to srstenrs ofpeonagc based

i,! p rnary goods-cxporting trrnomies and racial Policnrs ol segreglftn (ala

,l{rna(ation ol 'Dative re$enes"). This sitrntbn combined unelenlv with mas-

\^. rlo{ wales ol migration (both .r)crced and "Iicc"). exPaDding nrdr$trial-

r/irrir)n and urbaDization of labor (both Nhite attd non whitc) and militarf,,r,1)ilizrtnm, particularll th.tl occasbncd by $/orld War l. As a significa"r l!'l),,lrrion of cx-sl)tes and fo rcr.olonials (orthei' Pro'iclry) Dr.le rL(ir Bl,! ro

ilrc cilier, ihc) lbr red political aud cultrual mo\€ menls that wor rl(l l)r r cly h avc

llor .onceirable a cenlu'a carlier: anli olorialism. .ivil righrs. I'uFAIri(.r'li\Dr. lhcy iought to express and encomPass, nr le,d or ar l{ r\r ro airl rhc hosts

r.nunlnrg 'do{n hotne," whom Du Bois characle ^diD l{)00rs lhc millions

,,1 bla.k iren (sic) h Alrica, and tltc Islands of ttrc Sca, Drn r() sPcrk ol the

ln (^{D and yelhN myria(ts everywhcrc" (Du&)is 1995 [l1X]01.63!)) Olienlirk-rrg rhcirfbr(uDes $'ith Nlarist aDd sociaiist (uucn1s (as wcll rs with such othet'

.,ll.Dlatilcs as exislcd: lvitsonian sclfdeterDriDalidr. ncgrilrdc etc.), lhcsc

rrn\'(rnorts pavcd the way lbr the nassirc uPsurges of$brld $hr lI and alierllrG chapt.ir dclails tbesc dcrelopnenrs a d shows how rhe) laid thc ground-

\,)r'k lbr thc break.

TIIF WdFI D IS A GH' TO

I'art I rhus.on.ludcs bI ar ving at thc .orltcnporary pe )d, thc rnid-twentieth century This brings the analysis to thc threshold of Part II of thisbook. Ih€re the optic shifts, so to speak, from thediachronic to the syrchronic,from the genealogy of the world racial sl'stem to the (omparison ofsome ofthat system's main present{ay instances.

Butfirsta final word on the historical sociology of rac€. Myp'€sentation ofthat subject in Part I is more than an eflort to set the stage for contemporarystudies of race, although it is that as well. h is an etrort to ftinin E untralitJ oI

'ul. both historicallyand in th. prcscnt day. This argument hlks to the preseing political agcnda ofthe present ng€, uhich once morc I take to be a ncialmattc. To say that racc endurcs is to rccognize that both dre nnge of"socialprobiems" associated with racial stratification-incquality, cxclusion, bigotryindeed disdain and ignoEnce endure. But it is also to rccognizc somcthingmore, something racial thai is not a "problem" but is thc oppositc ofa ProLlemr .he dr€am of liberatioD eDdures, the goal of dcmocra.y endures. Theepochal phenomenon of race ha! been both the basis for the most comprehensiv€ system ofoppression and injustice everorgani^d, and simultaneouslythe lbundation fbr e\cry drcrm ofliberation. at least since the inception ofthemodern world. Why is the .oncept of race subjecl 1() such continual conflictand rcintcrprctation? Notbc.auscitis asocialproblem, but because itis a fun-damcntal social fi.tl To sny that racc cndures is to say ttnt thc modern world

PAR'l ll, lir!] (loNrr,iMpoRARy Socror,ocy ol RAc!l

'lhe post-worl(l wnr ll break was at best a partial shift away from formatlyavowed whitc suprcmrcy. Ihr deNtilion of the racial sobiugation that createdthe modcm worl.l is lir lion .ornplctc. Rathcr we c in a racial interregnum:we are on a voyagc bctwccn thc disircditcd but undcad racial past and themuch anticipatcd bu1 far liom rcalizccl racial fulurc.

The World War II ruphRr rcsrlr(l nr a worldwidc stalcmate, an unstablecqnilibrium b€tween the old aDd lhc ncw world racial orders. Since that timc,lwo openly contradictory world-hislo'.ical racial //d€.lr have coexiited: deeplyrooted and dearly held altachmenLs to white supremacy on the on-e haDd. and0erce and implacable and partially inslitutioDalized legal and social cot'mitments to racialjuslice, universalism, phnalism, and dcmocracy on tbe other

'Ihe sccond section of the book is x .ompnriuivc sociological srudy thartracks th. proccss ofthis tra'rsiri,,r ir l,trr'(lisrill{ I s.rrirgs. It lr'rccs rhc vicissitudesofthcracc-con(t'rrrxl,)l rlr.yi"i{n'sr tirrrrrl rrrrlgl<,bal expclicncr:sofra.e (or ra.i^li,(rl s{! irlrr r( ll'l (a), rlrir\.lr( irlatitrg hrv tll lrrerrk-rr rrrassivc shili nwtry liorr ,/y'.r//r!lrir(, !|t,r'r[, y r,t!,r,rr,rlirrlilli,!,r'rgl,)l)rlxr(l

,rrlidral corr(cxls. Scparatt (haPtcr'! oD thc tiDir"'l Sran { Sonth Alrica Bmzil

rDd the t'luropcan Union scek to shed ligltt oD ho$' the break has played iself,rt in lhe world s Norlh aud South, iD its 'devcloped" and "less developed"

r ('untries, in irl post-colonial northern menopoles and ils newly 'manciPated

Conirovcrsv over the mcanins and significancc ofra€c ilas greatly height'

|ne<t afte| World War Il. Thc war iLseu had significant racial dimensions' and

lcli a legacy of revulsion at racism{ and geno'i'le The social movements and

r cvohrt;nary upsurges thatsucceeded the war and brought the colonial era to

iur eDd also rai;ed the question of race to a new level ol moral and Pohicat

Itrominence. The cMl righb movemcnl in rhe tlnitcd Statcs and the anti-

ripartheid struggle in South Africa are but the most prominent c)€mPlcs' As it

A:,lnedits indefendence, the post-colonial wortd quicklvbecanc embroiled in

ii. comp.titio" "rthe cold Wat a situation lhat Placed notonlv the legacyof

imperiairule but also the racial Policies of the superPowers (esPcciallv those

,,t it'e Unlt a Stat.") uDdcr additional s.rutiny- Another consequence of the

\var was enormorN migratory {lows liom thc t{orld's rural South &) iG mclro-

tx)litan Northi in thesc demograPhic shifts "the emPire si'xck back" pluraliz--

i,'g tr'. fot-"t -"Ot.t'countries" (Centrc for ContemPomry Cultrtral Stud-

i"*-1982). Arl these develoPmenl! nised significatlt questions about the

The five chapters of Part II fbcus on the rcntemPomry sociology of race'

(rking the break a! their point ofdeparturc. After an initial discussbn ot m,i

'q,proacr' to the"e stual"s, which fnmes andexplains the political-sociological

nr;thod, these chaPlers conc€ntrate on selected arioDal cases The nation

nntc is a Dccessary unit of ana\'sis tbr any comParative Political sociologv Yet

,rr rhe same time coutltiy sPccilic studies of Slobal racial dynamicFeven those

,( rcernecl mosrcenxallywith the Political dimensions ofrace-have clearlim

irrtions. In thc contemporary period' the )€ars si'rc' th€ Postwar break' rrcial

rlrcmes, which have bce elobal in scope ercr since their fist apPcaran(c on

rl(l world-historical stage. have become in many wals even rore Planctatv',1' " mure rrdn:rdriondl.:

A further problem nI fte Political sociology ol race con'crns rht non- /\rlrisl dimcnsi;ns of racial Politics: the sPhere of ivil socicty. and ill(k{]d that of

| lrsonal politics, or the '\nicr(}lerel " As I hale detailed in othcr work (Omi and

wi,,nn{ Ii94;Wnlant 199h), raci politi.s can hardlvbe srasP(al lrtctlv as mat-

r( rs ol statc maDagcmen( or of contention $'i(hir established Political nrsdttL

ri(trrs (turrs, legislatNe!, etc ). One must also consider lhc cxlcDt and dynam

(s,'lrhc plblir sphcrc" (Ilabcnnas 1989; Ualhom, ed 1992)' rhe emergcnce

,r,rrl polirital ploicss ol srial nrcvcrncDts (McAdam et al, eds 1996)' and

rlrc rv;rolc rrxrr(r ol lulrunl Polilics'(Axli'(l l0{11"); Bevcrlcy 1996i l}habha

l!)1)l:l.r^tcrrnlIl(,v(1,e(ls llX)?) ,\rrlt rDi(tr!k\(l rr(cis"sigrrillilgtrdi(n)"

'I rrr w()rL D rs a GHFr10

(l'c ul,aDrrya|jrm lgtllt, a kirrd ol politics bcsr theoizcd through thc prag-malisl ladirir)n ol Mead (193U; sce also.loa! 1993, 1996), rhrough Rlurner'ssy rbolic interactionism (1958; 1969). and rhrough Du Bois's rhoughr (Wcsr1989, 138-150).

So, as the world lurches forward into rhe nexr millenniu'n, widesprcad con-tusn)n and anxiety remain about race: abour irs polirical significancc and evenits meaning. Around thc world, a kiDd ofsplir or dualisric mentaliry has devet-oped on the subiect. On the one hand, there is coDrinuirg conccrn ro opposeracism and undo the weighty legacy ofracial ineq ality letiby cenruries ofcolenialism, slavery and white supremacy. On the odrer band, therc is a prominent,ind€ed growing, tendency to con6ider rhis task as largely accomplished: rooperale. in oihcr words, as if mcial oppression had ar"adr been largely over-come. as if the erront ofwhitc supremacy had l'Irlzdl bccn correcred. To sorrout and arla\ze ttre rariadons ofrhis new racial dualis is rhc aim of rhis part

Tl\e rerm rdciil dualilm ectloes the double conscnnN'ress and veil concepLsso .cntral in W E. B. Du Bois' a'ralysis of racc. A full cenrury afier he intrcduccd thcm thcse ideas rnay still be applied, nor only to U.S. racial conctitionsbut to the world racial siruarion. Orso I argue herc:ihe race{oncepr is ar oncedr ni..l .,n,lalli

'r('1. \.i',i,1'h\.rlrmpcdirnirr ri,tlemo,rd,\and,q,'aliDiris

s(udiursly ignorcd or c('nsign€d to the dcad past while ar an effecrive meansof alh ating rcsoruccs, shaping polver relatbns, and contiguring idenrity irronains as t$scntial as cvcr:

Ra('ial dualism takcs on very dificrcnr forms in dislinct rrtional seftings at(hc lum ol thc llldrr).fil-st cenl ry In the Unired Slares, rhc incr€asingly popula. \'icw is rhrr wirh lhc enactmenr of civil righrs tesistation and (hc formal

'€pudia& ol st^i('spoDsored m.ial discriminarion, thc counrrf has ar lasrmoved "beyond racc." l he ralismm olthe current 'cok'r,blind 'discoune aboutrace in the Unircd Shrcs has bcen rhe resurgence offaith nr dochines ofindi-vidualism and merilocrlcy. Thns there ha5 been a heightened efiorr ro repealafllrmatirc actioD policies, tbrcxample, on rhe gr)unds rhat they are no Iongerncccssaryand rnay evcl constitute a new kind ofdiscriminarion in rcverse.c

Elsq{here in the world too, orjust about every^here, parallel instances ofra(ial dualism can bc cited. Debares simmcr-and occasionally rage abourwhcrhcr or not racial iniustice perseveres, and nbour how ir can bcst be con-fi'olt{rl. Sbould racial mauers be publicly addressed rbrough rtrc conrinuarionor cvclr cxpansion of reform legisl,rrion m.l open public dcbarc? Or rhouldthey be ignorcd as atr!'isms, rcli.s ol rl( brd old days" thar r{ill disappcar oftheir ow) wcight ovo timc Ilori with lhc lrrssi,rg,)l ,)l(krt morc m(irlly (tam-aged." gcncrrrnnrsz Arorrrl lhc lv,'rkl, rrn ilsr ir) rl( t rirc(lSrrrcs, sll( h (lnca

lr nx)sr ('l rhc Arrrcri.as, Ior cxarrPlc. lhc tAlt?.ria rrcial donocracy. and

, ()lor continnnm thnl iD the pas vcre invokcd to clistinguish Brazil' Mexico,

,, (irbr liom thcit Inus(ul northcrn neighbor's policies ofsegrcgation and

, ,norlinc, are now bcing(etcbrated ancw. Y€t for all their cchoes ofclrlier ide-

,'loliies of racial exccptionalisrn-the theory of luso'tropi'alisno (Fteyre 1986

I l1):l3l ) in Brazil, thc alrerDative image ol MPs,/,A,?m.a O{arti 1977) in Cuba,

.,,,.1 rhe idca of lli ,azd.rrnna (Vasconcelos 1966 [1924]) in Mexico would be

lnnc goo.t cxamplesT-new gcnerations of racial activists have arisen to

rl,rrcunce these melioristvisions as embodying racial hierarchies oftlleir own'

In southern Alrica the successors to the apattheid system and Portuguese

r olonial rule arc laborirtg to futfill the African National Congress's (ANC'S)

l1)l-)5 pledge of non-racialism Yet South Africa is stitl haunted bv demons left

rrrf from those "ignoble and unhaPpy regimes " Nor has the rcsr ot Africa

,rt.rped continueti racialization, notably in the genocidal conflicls hAngota/hlanda/Burundi,/Ugan{talcongo and so on'3 in the civil wars ar'l continu-

irg slar€ry of the Sudan and Maurerrnia (Cottorl 1998; Bales 1999)' and else-

i!hcre. Throughout Aliica, but especially in South Africa under the lcadershiP

,n rhe ANC. these dcbates continue to rage.!

In a Europe pturalized by years of immigraft)n, contemporary exPeriences

,'l racialized heterogcneiry call previous concePLs ofnational identity and dre

!'lc ofthe state into question, as well as meshingwith otherfonns ofeconomic

ir(l social crisis. Efforls to guarantee human and Political rights to Post1lar

irrtrrigrantsand theirchitdrelr inEuroPean countricshavc Produced some fa-s

, itrating potitical and theoretical debates. Many in Europe are u able fully to

.rlrpt their relatively ncw condition of ra.ial heterogeneiry; yet ar dre same

rirne mcmories ofworldWar II remain stroDg, and Presencday echoes-in the

l,n1n of "eth'ric .lcansing, a ti-immigrant demagogy' and necfascism-arc

l(trl(l indeed. Simultaneously Europe is also exPerieDcing the discipline ofthciuremational market and th€ inexorable pro.css of European iDtegration,

tnclsrlres thar rendcr raciat exclusionism incrcasingly unworkablc (Soysal

l1r1)1: Bourdieu 1998; Hollifietd rS94).

Iven in A!ia, in rcgions long thought to be largely liee ofraciirl (onllict (in

lnnh Sout6 Asia and East Asia, for examPle), dre sit ation kDks quitc di$er(.rr today as divisions on the Indian subcontinent undergo ra'ial articulation(tli'bcr 1999) a rt as Yamato aDd Han suprcnncy in.laPan :ud (lhioa come

r1r(lcr review from morc racially tuned-in anrtyst! (Dikotter 11)97)'

l'art ll. "The ComParative Sociology of Ra.c"' examin's this Slobalsituation',tr irl lcat some ol its highlighls. This secdon ofthe book beginswith a discus-

\(rr in (lhaprcr Six ('Notes on (he Postwar Brcak") that seeks to lmme the

tr n{ trrirliric\ rtnd pitlills of a comPautive case stt(ly apProach to uce in the

thsr-W('l(l wlrr ll txrtio(l I'r tl)is (hiPrd I iir\r \ir'r'ft: thc b'cak iD its histori-

,,rl.,,rl.xl. I!rir[.rl( (xs( l hirl n ]!(t klwi(l( rrtl)rrrr c ]!il h l}c long{strhlidrd

lfir W(,!r

lr(liti{'rs, (rrr\, oln),rs. iUxl $! ;rl slr ( r ri s i,l \rl'iri. sIl,rcIIr( y (li(l irrlc.(l,!(ur rlr.rrh(rvirr lll l'rcirl (iUr llllr\ lx sc.r','sl\!0rLlw!k i)nt! iy' nrlt//

(ihrpt.rSixllsoprcsorrsrhc(nscsru(lyat)1)r{)i'chusc(lillI'arIIt.Ihispiuro, thc boot licoscs oD lbur Dati(n)allregi(rral {.ls( s: rhc LIDircd Srarcs (Chap-lcr Seven ) , South Aliicr (Cbrplrr Eilah 0 , Br.rzil (Chrptc' Ni nO , a nd the Erni>pczrn tJnion (Chrplo ]i:n). In (ihaptcr Six I cxplain wlrr rhcsc priierlar cases$€re selecled:erch ol thcse four counrns/regions hrs pxrtn:ular characreris-tics that qualiry it Ib. inrensivc rcflc.rion here. Thc posrwar racial brcakoccufled h r unique and excmplary way in each sctting. Each of rhcsc fournational/rcgioDal cases arirccl at the point of posrwar ncial.risis-rhe ra.ial"breaking-point," one could say-by rquite dinerenr roui(. Some wcrc or hadbeen dominani world polvers; othelr had been pciphenl. Some had nnpor-tant ra.ial counter-lraditions and social movcmcnts sceking.jusricc and libera,tior- OtheN had morc ctlec(ively incoporatcd and defiMd racially basedopposition- Ea(h lvas hrkcd in a different way ro the chatlcngc to l!,hiresuprcmacy (hal was dcvclopnrq as a globat phcnl)menon in rhc pos$aryears.Four corttal dime sn)ns ofthftchallengcwcre, ho&ever! prescnt in all rhe casestudy settirgs: .Ariogr.{, u .ht lt ge, nolrenpnt nobilizdtion, refon 'f 'tate

tndnl lotitics, ^i(I i|k uti,1 ltilh globxl ,a. etuuk\. fhese rhemes prolnd€ a broad(oDrprl.lti\c lia'rcwork tur rhe chaptc$ rhar follo![ Ycr fbr a number of rea-vDs I sc( out ir) (lhaptcr Sjx. rhe compararive anallsis proposed here caDnot(illiclivcly bc (arrn'd out lvirhii rtrc pammerers of coDventional sociologicalnrc(h(xls. An imF)rranr rask ol this chaprer is tltrrs ro.larify and.justii, theuniqr( mcrl(xlol'g) I ulilirc h rhis parr olrhe book.

'I /t! (rtik//,\t t6

In Chaptcr Scnrr ( United Starcs: the llnd ofthc Inrocence") I norc that rheUniled Statcs cnt(1r{ t}c postwar era as thc lc2ding supepowcr and cultru,alll hcgcmon ic socicry. Bul ir also carl'ied itsracial baggage and conrradicrionslit was a seftler society, a so(iety creared by African slavery and yd the pioneer-iDli aDri coloniai and ddDrx]aric, indccd rcvolutionary socicty as well. ThetJril.d Stares was thc oDly tlevelopcd"/cor€/nerropolitan corntry lvhoseDarirD.l identity had been irlelx?Zl dcfined bI rhese elc enral racial erperi-cDC.s. So rhc United Stares could nol unproblemati.ally don rhe mantlc of11r(lcr oi what ir .al1e.l rhe "firc worl.l" while systernaticrlly deDying politicaland hrnnan r'ishLr t() a subsrandal proportion ofirs citizcns. k coutd nol revcrrto irs eirrlicr Policies of seg.egation and disenfianchiscmenr of i1s raci lydefilrcd mnrfiri's. I hose grcups aDd (heir alli mobilizcd aDdpolilically orsngcd, $ould nor permjr thisr bur ncirhcr would rhe rcst of tbeinrernadonal commruity, which w.{ched with unflaggiDg inreresr as (be

I rril(l srrri s !trrNl,l 1,, (,r.r( (nr! , ('r irl l( lsl tr) rrgc rn,n c ( ll(( livcly, ils hiFr, tr r lll 'rli,rr.c

rt!nr n ,ir.isl rrnl rtrli-(k'lrr,x rltic syslirn ol r ulc.

Ir rhis ( lutrrcr I rrr(c lhc .o rsr ('l poslwar ra.inl Politics in rbe Unitcdsrrrc\, bcgirnrirg wirh rhc brckgrotuxl conditions and "rehearsals," so to

'tn xk, thar bad r! dr rcd in tbc perbd bclbre lhe break. I .onsider the emer

,f !r(c ol thc civil righrsvision, the partial victories won by it-s movcmentadh€r-. ,rr$, and the b.icl glimpses they wcre permittcd of radical alternatives to lhe,,x1c grining of "rights. The enduring significance of race in the ambiguous

.rrr<l rrnrcsolvcd racial stalcmatc ofthe post-civil rights era, I suggest, Points to

rlr. lolg-tenn inefTectir€ness of state racial policy relbrms achieved in thel!rli0s. Thesc mcasures lurned out to be rather morc symbolic than serious

, ll,'ls to nrcvc U.S. sociery h the direction of racial j(stice Yet state-bdcd,,|,,r'n policics tlut seek lo incorporate opposifi)n-the essen€e of uhatr;,[nsci called "hcgcmony"-can a.co rplish nothing if tlte state does not,,lli r real concessi(Ds to lhose insurgcnts whom it seeks to control and ci}oPtI h ortcome of thc movement/statc dialecdc of the Postwar years was thus

irllf contradictory or dualistic in the United Stales White racial opposition\xs ccrtainly muted by concessions and reforms, the und€rtying tcnsions ofa,l,a ply racialized social stru.ture were not nddrcssed.

(:l,rpter Eight, 'South Africa: Whcn the System IIas Fallen," considers rvhat

rrril rccently was the world's most unabashedly ra.ial state The country,r.cpred the nrelntability of thc brcak very late, and only after exhausting

,,( rdy rb€ entirc toolkir ofreactionary racial intraDsigence. White intractabiLr I ir) the face of the dctennination of a substanlial Alrican majority to achieve

llrll dcmocracy and iDclusion led South Africa to the britrk of imPasse, or per-

[irl)s to the doon(ep ofrevolution, belbrc the irrationality ofwhite srpremacy\,'s rccognized at last- The rery lateness of the coming of the brcak, of thel[J]inning ol the passage touard a democratic and inclusive locnrry, nkes

\,,uth Aliica a crucial case study. But be)'ond this question ol timilrg, thc, \rrcmity of thc racjal incquatity fostered by apartheid, and rlxr lc8^cy oI the.,1,lsDral ncial difierentiation and stmdllcarioD left fbaling in ils wakc, also

1,,,pcl intellectual interest aDd practical concern.

Opposition to raciat hierarchl in South Alrica was to ^

signili(ant extent an

,, rrcrnational movemcnt, a virtually global artti-racisl coDsensls And fie deme, , rric goi'ernment tlnt succeeded the white supremacist rcgimc ilr 1994 had forrr,trrydecadei

'rurturcd afision of 'non-racialism" deep iD i(s adhcrents' hearts

ll(tr!would thatgovernmcnl, and dre movemcnt/Political Party that led i1 (lhe

\l .m N^tional Congress) come ro lerms &1th thc contimrnlg satience ofracerr rlrc post-apartheid era? With all this taken into consideration. the country

rrir w,,kr

{ill be rs rcrdblc mcial bur.lc'$, attholgh il has (,rlrc,.dt.r p! (nnisi g lnrt dit:Iiculr t'.ltttsiriolr liom aparrheid r() Drrllli,r(ialism.

Chaptcr Nine, 'Bmzil:Backto rhe !'unrrc.,. cxanines recenr racial dynamicsinBrd/il. In mdr\ sa\\ rl,e, oun|l] hJ\ hecn rtrI opto.ir,., d\c tr.,nr S, rh .Ur i.r.Sourh Aftica only ackDowlcdged thc nrevitability ofthe brcak ar thc tatest pos,sible Dromcnt. while Bra zit anrir:ipatptt ttlc brcak. From rhc 1930s on, Br.:rzil harat least professed atlegiance ro a modcl of ra.ial democracy, on(e againmrrkedl) distinguishing irselt from rhe South Alii.an r)xdel. By proclid;insh, lfa 'd

iJl denr,. rd, \. rlrh^rrrh ha'dt\ i'r{il' inA rhr Ir.!ur -,.rdt r, toIn.that $,ould have been rcquired ro realize this iD prrcticc, Brazit was able todetuse mrch ofihe mcial mobilizarion rhar orher so.ieties cncouDrcre.l dor-jng the postwar vears. Indeed in rhe carll postwar yeus the UDire.l NarionsEdrtcatn)nal, Scienrific, and Culrural Organizarion (UNftSCO) sponsoreci aniuportanrserics ofsocial scicDiinc srudies ou Bt?zilian raci.rl rhemes, inl.orrncdby (he perception (which rtrcse srudn:s largcly disproved ) rhai ltrazil ofi.rcd arnodel ofraci h:r rxrly othcr.ounrries nright ernutarc.

'I hc ltllrh ol 'l(ial dcnro.tacy still eDdures, alrlxmgh ir has bccn a(nckecl

as lil(]c nrda lh.tn I figleal .over.ing '\,idcspr

ead racial inequah, injusdcc, andprtj(dicc. Ir is nu.( propcrty chancrerizeci as a racial irteolonv that still car_rics oul impo(aD1 c\pllDrtory tasks. Evcn lhough irs ;Dregr,ti\c capaciry isslo$ll dirninishilg, rhc RI;VitiaD racial system, wirh ils .otor conrinuurn (asopln)scd k,lhe nxrc larniliar cok)rli c ofNorth Ameri.^), still rends ro dilrii.drnxx raric &rnrtrds M.rny othcr ticrors also conrribnte 10 B!arit.s seemingftial cxc( pri(rrlllisnr: rh t tadi,r:\oi t f nrdiatitade (cordiatiry), rhc widespcaeacc.:/tn(.'\rl ti\tig?nun , 1lx. absen.e ofa rrarmatic rraositjon trom strv.Nr,,ern.,r,ip.,ri.,r'.rl,, r., qtrtv,\c', .i,.moqrJttrr, t.,tan,.h,.n,r Ltn,ti,ndnon,black popul: n)ns ktcp.ndnrg upon how orrc defincs .black.,), and theexisr€nce ot a lo|!a (1004-81, milirary di.rarorship tiral rnade allsocial rnove_nrentac.ivity very pcrilu6 and difncdr b susraii.

'tlt liuo2nr (Iniat

(il)rpro Ten. "Eumpc: Thc Phanton Me'race.,,consi.tcrs rhc m(ial pllrraliza-ri(D ol rlxr liuopean Union (EU). Wesrern trurope is no long.r a congcies oIconrpctirivc rln)ther-coun0.ics, impcriat mcrropolcs drivcn by globat ..ol] orniccornpetili(D 2nd fio(ely rniti(adrcd ivrlry As rhc rcgnnr crrcr(rl rtrc posr-iorperirl crn over rhc Gr\r .l( (a(tcs rlicr Wort.l \ hr tr. r\ ir r.buitr rD(l t)cgrntocontcDrplatc Ic(lcmtioD. it ll() wckrrrrtt (,r rr t('lst rc(ci\1ri !,rsr I m_lxrs of cx{r)lollir1 s l)ic{ r\, .rs rLctt :rs 'i.t g,\.\, ti1trr, ir xr (, ll(l rt!. \(,rkl. As

,r rcs|h rrosr ol hrurlxr, cspcciallv litmr irDPcrial powers like thc Unitedl(illgdom, rhc Ndhcrla ds, !'raD(c, a'rd Sp t, br.rt also Germany, Itaty, thes[udinlian cornhics. and to some extent even tlre East, are now far morer( ially hclereogeneous phccs than they l,rere beforc the war' Ihe influx of\('bsrantinl nu bel\ ofnoD-rvhitcs during the post colonial pe.iod has deeply

.,lr.rcd a dynamic in which thc racial order and the impcrial order had b€en

,'rc, and in which the racializcd "other" was largely-if not totally-kePt ouc\nk the walls ot the motheHountries. ,As a stroll aroud London, Fnnkfurt.l'x.is, or Madrid quickly reveals, those days are now gone forever

Yer the rcsponse to the new situation olten takcs rePressive and anti-,lrmocratic forms, fbct$ing attention on the "immigrant Probtcm (or the'lslamic p'oblem"), seeking not only to shut the gales to Maghrebincs or subsihatan Africans. Tnrks or Slavs (including Balkan refugees), but often io,l( lhc those o$ els" who arc rlready present as threats to the nalional culture,rs i imical to the "ordinary German" (or English, or French. elc.) way oflife-I his is thc so-.alled new racism (Taguieff 2001 [19s8]i wieviorka 1995: Ralibar

l1)91: Barkcr t98l) that may be Europe's most pro)ninent contribution to thelio{leiiaclc .a.ial stalemate.

Why have I presented the Europcan Union, as distinctfro l, say, Franc€ or(;( rmanl as a crse study? Although European national identities and differ-,irccs are notabout to be transcended, th.'y are eroding under thc Pressure ofirrcgration. Many ofthe most crucial dimensions ofmcial politics and Policl,rrc in(reasnrgly handlcd at ihe regio'ral levcl: nnmigration policy is bcingcoor-,li,r.rted, and citizcnship policies regularized (under the principle of,6 sofi),

r,r pick the two most p()minent examPles. For thcsc and many other reasons

xswctl, to fbcusattention on thc EU is to address very ccntrally the question ofrlrc global;zation of race. But beyond that it is to considcr the afrermath of(inpirc, the posccolonial question, notin the p€ripheryor dre Sourh (which I,lt, clsewhcrc), but in the core, the mctropolitan heartland of the old imPerial

r,r( ial slstem, the headq uarte 'x

of trurocentrism. If ra€e Persislshere, if il takes

,rr nerv meanings and appears newly problcmatic here and now. aftct thc last

\{ sliges of empirc have been liquidated, that will be particularly rcvcrhrg, Is(Ugcst, of the ncw dynamics of th€ twenty-first-century world ra(ial syslem

1:haptcr Eteven, 'Millennium Affives?" is a concluding essny thar iDterPrcts

!(l applies thc aDalysis dcvcloped in the hislorical and corrrPal)rivc sections

,'l rhc book. I argue that thc brcak that began rvith movcnent activity during.,rxl aficr ubrld war ll, and was contdned fiom the late ls60s on by politicali l,nrDs, has nor l)ccn co)npleted. It is properly characteriTed as a stalemare,

.,r'rrrrsr.,hl' '.lrrililrirrrrr I',{a...,rli'r.riq,."l rr'.lcrnraridlhi*r"nlailedro,(s,lvc

'rury issr(s, so too docs thc prcscDl cPoch. At the t'eginning ot lhe

rworry'li*r (.rlrrry, th. w(,rl(l rrs a whok, i'rd lltc n:rlional,/rcgir)nal (rs(s

lrr w()lrr) tr, ^ c!r rro

rxaDrincd hcrc,arc lartirn olcrc(,njngltrc rcr)r( i(n,s k.gl.n.s {,1 (ol( nr iat [,1c,apa(hent, segregatio , aDd racial nrjls(icc. I,trrl as rrti)rn poli(ics tnvc amcliorated -some ofthe worxl abuses 01-rhe past, and ,Ls main(rerm politn:al lcact-cs and inrellectrnls conrend rhar the l?.c problem has finalty becn re:rolrcd,confusion, anxiety, and conflicl over lace are sri experienc{rd a around rheworld. The legacies ofrhc epochal struggles tbr raciallreedom anrt ctemocracy,and for human rights in geneial, penisr as wcll. I evahrare the aansition to anew rrorld racial order in compa,?rivc and hisroricat pe.specrirc, keeping invierv the conrinuing mcial conflicts that havc shapca oir cntire cpoch.^

Despite the enormous vicissirudcs rhatdemar.are and distuguish narionalconditiorrs, historical dcvetopnenrs, rotes in the internatnrnal cionomy, polit_ical tendcncies, and culrural norms, Ecial differences oI.tcn operate as tirey didin cenruries pdr: as a $,ay of restricting rhe polirical innuence, nor just ofracially subordinared groups, bur ofall those ar rhe botrom cnd of rhe svsre,nol soi ial srrdrihcarion. rlri\ is rrue horl,et,,bi ! ln.l tuiJt\

But in the conrempo.:rry era, racial belieh and practices have becomc farmore conrradictory and .omplcx. .Ihc otd wortd rjcial svstem. rhe ..bad ot.l.la\\. hatc nor ,lisapn.rrc.t. bur rhc wh,re {uprcn,rry rhd, shdtx..t rhem andth,rt r€nr virruatty rmqucsrioncd has been idendficd and ch;Icnged. Thelega.y ofdcDrocraric, racialy o.ienred movemenrs such as the U.S. ;it ngh$move'nent, and-apanhcid slruggles, SOS-R.tdme in Fratce. the MotinpntoNcgto lhtilnada in Rrazit, and anr!cobnialist inidarives throughour rhc worldkSou(b, is rhus r fbrcc k) be rcckonedwith. Mvaim in ihjsworkis ro explore thercsrlts of tbis siluation.

Il is nnpossibk to rdcl ess worldwide dilemmas of race and racisn by ignoring or r,1uls(cndins thcsc themes, for exampte, by adopring so{a ;;obr,blind Pl)licnrs orseckinu (in thc muldcuhuralisr approachsomuch in fashion)ri' .(l' l .rr, ,liv,

':irv nr I,r(-(r\c.ntrur.rl diflerenns .tn

rhc pr\r rhc cen-traliry ofracc.lccply clcrcrmilled the econonic, politicat, anrt cuitural config_uration ofdrc nnrdo-n wortd; althoush recenrdecades havcseen a tremcnrlou'semorescence of movcrncnl-! Ibr raciat equalit, andjusricc, rhe lcgacies ofcen_lurics ofracial opprcssion have nor bccn overcome. Nor is a visio; ol racialjrs-ticc fully worked oul. Qa.lailly rhe idea thai su.h jusrice has largely beenrchn,ved already-a! scen in the color+lind pararrigm nr rhe Unired itaies. ther)i)n racialisr rhetoric of rtre South Af.ican Frcedon Chartcr rhe Brazilianrlxrtori. oJ radal democracy, or rhc emelging raci2l diUarenrialism ofthc FturGpcaD Uuion-rcmains proble'natic.

Whrt would a more credible vision entail? The pressing rask todayis nor (oj|r'i\on rl,, r',n,eprot ra,r..bur insrc!droiun,eror..rnr\wirh jr.Fit, molIlt \ilt,.hu'thn variFru. Wtrnr di(\ rhi\ m.ar in n*t.r I ru ra,,\21R,! i$n l,:r\bcen.nrcial to thc global rcpro(tu.rn,r ot (apilrt h. tivc hundr.d v(.[si irr.r'tJi'r\ \,, I,xl.,! V II lr.rs lx1.I !.r ,1t i,,r,, ilr\ri,,,. irxi,art ,tis,,,1ti,i1l .,!(t

l,r ( cd r() '.orti rirc, l)y rhc llssive so(ixl rrrcvcnrents thal hnvc rakeD pke irlr ( \arrt dc(adcs. l hcsc rn()vcmen rs rfere interD al ional in scope and influcncc.I llry

'!crc .lcclny intcr wovcn witlr democratizing and egalitaian trends, such

,,\ hbor poliln:s aDd {cminisrn. Thcy lrere able to mobilize around the jnjus

rl( cl and exclusion cxperienced by racially subordinared groups, and simulta-r,.r$ly to srlstain alliances across racial hles. This is back$ound; such expe-

rirnces canDor simply re.ux Yet thc mnssive mobilizations that created the

liobal break ofworld War II and its aftermath havc ccrtanrly reshaped the con-r( r

'rponry h'orld. were.hese movementsfated to be thc Iast popular upsurges,

rhc last egalitarian challenges to while supremac)', to m.ial hicrarchy? Surelyr!,r. In all dre national/regional case studies presented hcre, and in trans-rrrrional ties among these countries. the inflrence ofthese earticr prcccdcnts

ln,rsists today, sparking new auempts to challenge racism.'l hc W n Is a Gtutto gftstions the racial status quo. The comparalive and

hisk)rical analysis presented here also strongly suggests drat coDtempomry,i(ial politics rcmain unshblc and conflictnl, both globally and locally. Perl,rps presumpxrolrsly, I attempt in "Millennium Arrives?" the book's concludrlrg chapter to identify some ofthe main racial issues that confronr us at drenrrr ol rhe d{€nty-first ccntury As wilt already be clear, these issues are not'rDerely" racial. but also fundamental to the emerging planetary social order.

To think about race at the gtobal level is to adopt a planetary penpective.lr is to reject the division ofthe world b€tween'the Wcst and thc rcsf' (Halll1x)6ai Holt l9g5: Huntington 1993)- That dilision, imposed by Europe on theworld's "others." evolved with the race concept. This\crydivision has beensig-rilicantly eroded, but not yet or€rtumed. after the post-\ brld \ Iar II raciallrcak. As the split between the West and the rest" rms called into qucstion-lrniti.ally, economically, culturally-the race-concept was also problematized.l,or cxample, rhc \ Iest has prided ilselfon its democmtic commitmenls. on irsr.spect for thc rutc of las! and on its extension of social ritizeDship throughrhc Nelfare state. Yet thc implcmentation of these commitments across mcirllin$ has ah{ays be€n limitcd and problematic.r0

't he problem goes fardccpcr tlnn thatrfor theWest allained its pmspet-ily.,rd invented its democracy at the expcnse of those whom it exploitcd .nd, \cluded. lheWest therefore owes a substantial dcbt to the workl's orheN."lhis "e{ernal debt" parallels on a global tevel the dcbt owcd by thc Unitedsrrlcs to thedescendan.s oflfrican slales. The failure to providc emaucipated\hvrs with 'tbrty a(rcs and a mule" after the Civil lvar's erd, thc rcsistance to,lcnrandslbrreparationsforthe.beftoflifeandlaborthatwassl'ery (Robin-qtr, 2000), (an rcadily be seen as operating on a planetary levct.

What il drc prescrrt tnovement tor "Jubilee" were to succeed? What if the,l(rDard tlut rhc h)tern.ridul Monetary l'und (IMl),lhcWorld Bmk, and tl'e!k v.l()lr!1" rutn s lir givc lhc cxrcr'nnl dchl ol thc poor Dalir)ns ol thc workl

lrr wf irt) lr. (illr rto

(('r l(s\(l(a1,1,'t!1lr,, [lli(.s lr.l)(]sl)_llln wlri(tr li iI rIc r.rrc,{(n), rn.ttxl'l)rl)crs -N(r( to bc rn(1)rr 't tris w(,llkl tx.x vrlrr:rtrte tirsr sttlr irr rt:r, ai'(,ctioi

()l rcstiruriur tar lhc hisrori(al clcbl rhrt (hc Wcsr, it n,.y fr"..gu..f, ,".lly;";to thcsc'pcrplcs-r! tLr<,anrlysis oftcrcd hcrc suggesrs that the gknral issuc of"Lrndcrdevclopmcnl" is in ficr r nciat issue. In a socia y jusr arrrt historicalvcun..ior6 $o' ld rhc t en qoutd Dor ,,nh t.rgive rhc .lebr ot rhi. wor t.t.. .nrh-cr\ :'r \ould \ri l rh|ir to,gi!cnes<:ir\o,rt.iscet ,omltegnodun,lr.irloses,to nake them whote in the teg,at sense. Such an evenr-_difficult even ro inag.ine today, bur a pressing wodd-hisbrical requiremcnt_wouta go a rong w;toward desrroins the rac;al hierarchy buirt inro rn. _Ir,.-p"*i gut d!.rii-

Ar the ruhural tevel as welt, rhc tropologicat chracrcr ofrace needs ro beundonc. Uurcpean rulc and whire supremacy proceedcd in largc paft fromnssumptions of culrural supcrioriry .hat were alreaay evtctent tn thi key texts oIthe Enlighrenmcnt (Eze 1992; Count 1950). .t.hcse

assumprions were embed"ded in virlually alhysrems of social sigDification ana rep.ea"tatio": in Itterafllll.: '.'*:",1* in-mhie. rnd in pain,ins (5a,d ree3r. s.,h...;p;._nen$ve mtratr/dlron nt iJtuti^ in rhc m.dern so,tri \ds al,o huift upon atreinendolls debt.

The "borrowing" from rhe non_European world of culrural forms of alypcs-mr$ical, Iirerary imagisric, and so on_althoush exrensive, was nor rhei errr.rl dinx n\ion i,t rhi, dcbr. Rarher. ir ua" rhe u.e rrracte or rh. -orho.- Lod,1n:.nr.-.t.ttt.Et,np,pohdiltaa.phpndupiltmrj$.rhar,on,llruredrh,,rut_rL'l rrmen\x r.i,l

'nudctnin on rh.tuunddrio ut rd,ial h;crdr.h). B),etFgaring_rnosr oJ thc world's population ro the derogarory s.atus of t;sser a;;indccd'bthcr" bcnrgs, by rlsing rhem to represenr id.ntirics antirherical todrosc of llxr "(iviti^d" Wesr, Enlightenment cuiture and its scquelae per_fbnnc.l sp(lacutar acrs of sy,nbolic violen.e. These practices extended ivcllbeyond. rhc Dcrc arricrdalbn andjusrificarion of-.iuli;..u..t y,r" tt ".t.ig;;cul.urai plare. IDCIc(l thcn. ,bst crucial applications *_"

".grrbry ,;t

found at rhe.le(l of thc quoridia)r. of eveqday lre, orpopurar cutturc,lMaking this sirurrion whole is also almosr unimaginabte. B,r we may take

heart fiom irs continldng conrmdicrions and irr.sotrtto,r, tio* tlr. a.t.._;r.acftorts on the parr ofrtre.t)theE,, ro reconceive rhemselvesand theirworld. Thecukures ofresntance rhat have arisen ovcr the cenruries, rhar srch theordicalapi,]oaclr:s as subalrem studies (amons rnany schools of thousht) haveexplo.cd in depth, havc laid thc groundwork, ifnor for rhe etiminati;n ofhier-archies oI ncinl significarion, ar leasrfortheir discrcdiringand delegirimaiion.

PART ONE

FROM THERACE AND

ABYSS:MODERN HISTORY