178

Notes

1 White Migrations: A Theoretical Outline

1. See for example Schuerkens’s (2005) discussion on transnational migrations. 2. This focus is probably challenged by the current economic crisis in Europe and

the US, and as new groups of migrants feel forced to move to former colonies. 3. See Knowles and Harper (2009) and Leonard (2010) for similar results and

discussions. 4. See Anthias and Yuval- Davis (1992); George (2005); Hondagneu- Sotelo

(2007); Ngai (2004); Parreñas (2001). 5. Expatriate is a widely contested term but is used to draw attention to the

experiences of high- skilled professionals involved in temporary migration through work contracts.

6. These numbers can also be interpreted as low in terms of per cent. Only three per cent of the world’s population are migrants; pointing to the con-tinuous class- and race- related restrictions of migration (Castles, 2010; Yuval- Davis, 2011).

7. Anderson, 2010; Bonacich, Alimahomed and Wilson 2008; Widding Isaksen, Sambasivan and Hochschild, 2008.

8. I am not arguing against the right to mobility, but want to pinpoint the fact that everybody does not have the same right to mobility.

9. Benson, 2012; Erel, 2010; Gustafsson, 2008; O’Reilly, 2002; Oliver and O’Reilly, 2010.

10. In her discussion on white mothers of mixed- race children, Twine (2010) uses the concept ‘ethnic capital’ to refer to a set of cultural knowledge that the women draw from in their communities. I use white capital to discuss the resources that the women carry with them in terms of cultural, social and economic capital.

11. See Bonilla- Silva, 2003b; Fine et al., 1997; Frankenberg, 1993, Hughey, 2012; Lipsitz, 2006; Omi and Winant, 1994; Wray, 2006.

12. See Dyer, 1997; Ware and Back, 2002.13. There are of course a number of whiteness studies outside the UK and

US, such as in South Africa (Steyn, 2001), Scandinavia (Hübinette and Lundström, 2011; Mattsson and Pettersson, 2007; Sawyer, 2002); Brazil (Twine, 1998), Australia ( Moreton- Robinson, 2004). See also Painter (2010) for an historical account of white people.

14. Twine and Gardener (2013) identify five crucial aspects of privilege: first, it gives a group or individual the right to exert power, second, it is often invisible to those who benefit from it, third, it is multifaceted, fourth, it is relational and should be studied as such, fifth, it is a flexible resource that can change over time and space.

15. Chinese term often used to denote Northern Europeans.16. I am inspired by a range of feminist scholars in their discussions about the

concept of intersectionality, its possibilities and difficulties, although I do

Notes 179

not give a complete overview of the concept in this book. See Brah and Phoenix, 2004; Crenshaw, 1991; Davis, 2008; de los Reyes and Mulinari, 2005; Lewis, 2009; Lorde, 1997; McCall, 2005; Yuval- Davis, 2006.

17. Chandra Mohanty (2003, p. 529) argues that the ‘internationalization of the women’s movement’ has now shifted into the ‘human rights’ arena. This shift has changed the language from ‘feminism’ to ‘women’s rights’ which can be seen as an example of the mainstreaming of the feminist movement.

18. See also West and Fenstermaker (1995) and Skeggs (2004).19. See Anthias, 2012; Lundström and Twine, 2011; cf. Yuval- Davis, 2011, for

similar results.20. In 2007, Sweden topped the gender equality ranking in the latest Global

Gender Gap Report from the World Economic Forum, while the US fell to 31st place. Sweden also topped the Social Watch Gender Equity Index 2008, while the US was found at place 21. See: http://www.socialwatch.org/en/avancesyRetrocesos/IEG_2008/tablas/valoresdelIEG2008.htm (received 2008- 05- 23).

21. The concept of volk (people, nation or race) has been an underlying idea in German history since the early nineteenth century and has a parallel in the Swedish concept of folk. Inherent in the name was a feeling of a unified and homogenous people and superior culture.

22. The Swedish Social Democrat regime lasted from 1932 to 2006, with two interruptions between 1976 and 1982, and 1991 and 1994.

23. This figure has varied over the decades, and is disproportional between women born in Sweden and women born in non- European countries, but is used to give an idea of the normalcy of working mothers involving Swedish women’s own expectations to continue working with small children.

24. Due to transnational economic structures, such as the global neo- liberal impact in the 1980s and onwards, Swedish politics has become increasingly market oriented. This is visible in the mixture of public funding and pri-vate management of schools, health and elderly care. Thus, the women in this study moved within a continuum of neo- liberal practices, rather than between opposite systems, while carrying a distinct Swedish nation- specific gender equality discourse.

25. See Sawyer, 2002; Hübinette and Tigervall, 2009; Lundström, 2010; Osanami Törngren, 2011. The intersection of whiteness, gender and nation has also been studied in the phenomenon of Miss Sweden (Mattsson and Pettersson, 2007).

26. These racial formations included the use of race as a category in the Swedish population register, and the creation of specific lists of Swedish Jews, Roma and Travellers during the war. They came from above, namely the govern-ment, the establishment and the elite.

27. In 1735, the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus published Systema Naturae, which sub- divided the human race according to skin colour (white, red, black, brown, and later, yellow) and geography, describing the ‘white’ race [Homo Europeaus] as ‘inventive, perceptive, meticulous, and law abiding,’ while Africans [Homo Afer] were imag(in)ed [sic] as burdened by ‘negative qualities’ which rendered them a drag on the superior race: they were seen as lazy, dishonest and incapable of ruling themselves (Pred, 2000).

28. In Sweden, race politics was also maintained by a broad sterilization pro-gramme, which was in effect from 1934– 75. It turned out to be one of

180 Notes

the most effective in the world as it resulted in the sterilization of 60,000 Swedes. It was racialized, gendered, classed and heteronormative, because national minorities like the Travellers and the Roma were proportionally more targeted than majority Swedes. Over 90 per cent were women, mostly belonging to the lower- and working- classes, many of whom were deemed to be sexual transgressors of the patriarchal order of the day (Broberg and Tydén, 1991).

29. Prime Minister Olof Palme was later murdered on 28 February 28 1986.30. Habel, 2002; Schough, 2008.31. Of course, men’s lives are impacted by migration as well, but in other ways.32. Lucia is celebrated on 13 December and celebrates light in the Swedish dark

winter. Midsummer takes place around the summer solstice.33. See Lindqvist (2009) for a discussion on IKEA and the construction of

national identity.

2 A Multi-sited Ethnography of Whiteness

1. Swedes in the World (www.sviv.se) regularly count the numbers of Swedes abroad, from the Embassies. (n.d)

2. The project has been approved by the Central Ethical Review Board in Uppsala. It is based on the basic principles for social research. All the partici-pants are anonymous. The contact information is stored separate from the interviews. The women agreed to the audio recording and publishing of the transcribed interviews. They could choose whether or not to answer questions or to end the interview at any point. I did not share the interview material with anyone and the information is only used for research purposes. Some of the women asked to read parts of the transcripts before publishing, and have been able to do that.

3. All interviews except one were conducted in Swedish and translated to English.

4. SWEA was founded by Agneta Nilsson in Los Angeles in 1979 and has over 7,500 members in 33 local chapters in more than 30 countries. The purpose was to create social networks between Swedish- speaking women across the world. The women’s participation in a Swedish network reflects the aspiration to display and organize around a (gendered) national identity.

5. The interviews – the primary material for analysis – were either conducted in the women’s homes while their husbands were at work or in my home, at the women’s workplaces, or in public spaces such as cafés or restaurants. The women were contacted with the aid of the network’s email lists. I encour-aged voluntary participants to contact me, thus assuring independence from ‘gate keepers’ within the network. This meant that I could also reach women who were not active in the network. Contact details with the participants were also obtained during the participant observations. The data material has been manipulated in order to ensure the participants’ anonymity. Any information that might reveal their identities to readers or other members of the network has been changed. Different names have also been given to the same individual when appearing in individual interviews, focus groups and/or participant observations.

Notes 181

6. I used a semi- structured interview guide based on various themes, such as reasons for moving from Sweden, current life situation, reasons for remain-ing (or not) abroad, friends and networks, the importance of Swedish national identity abroad, the sense of being a migrant, sacrifices made for living abroad, motives for membership in SWEA, views on Swedishness and Sweden over time, comparisons between political systems (and their effects on private life, parenthood or marriage), perspectives on gender equality, income (and redistribution of income within the family), and finally, their perspectives on what their lives may have been like if they had not left Sweden. As the women constituted a relatively homogeneous group, the interviews gave a sense of ‘saturation’ in the material, both in each site as well as between sites.

7. This material reaches beyond the network SWEA and is used to reflect on the broader Swedish community.

8. Officially, about 55,000 Swedish- born people live in the US. See www.sviv.se and www.utlandssvenskar.com for a regular update of numbers. According to US Census 2010, 4.3 million identify as Swedish- Americans.

9. Sweden has a colonial relation to the US as well. Between 1638 and 1654, Sweden had the colony New Sweden in the States of Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland, which was later ‘lost’ to the Netherlands.

10. Stasiulis and Yuval- Davis (1995) are critical towards the literature that has exclusively focused on European settler migration and excluded other forms of settlers and societies.

11. The Swedish maid was so common at the time that she became a fictional figure in a series of comedy films about ‘Sweedie’ between 1914 and 1916, played by the male actor Wallace Beery (see Matovic, 1997; Wallengren, 2013).

12. See Fur (2006) for discussions on Swedish settlers and indigenous people and Wallengren (2013) for an analysis of Swedishness and whiteness on film.

13. About half of the women in the US sample had an upper- class background, in a Swedish national social class context indicated by belonging to a noble or ennobled family with surnames prefixed by ‘af’ or ‘von’.

14. I use Max Weber’s concept of ideal type to connote a group with a set of common characteristics.

15. Numbers according to the Swedish Embassy in Singapore. Personal communication.

16. Swedes employed the term expatriate to describe themselves.17. Numbers of migrants in Andalucia according to personal communication

with local migrants.18. The average age on the Costa del Sol is 66.4 ( Casado- Díaz, 2006).19. Dance- band music is a Swedish term for bands playing music that is often

danced to in pairs. The music is inspired by swing, country, jazz, schlager and rock.

20. As a ‘theoretically informed practice’, Comaroff and Comaroff, 1992, p. 27 (cited in Agar, 1996, p. 2). I understand ethnography as being abductive: ‘a research logic that features the development of new theoretical propositions to account for material that the old propositions didn’t map onto’ (Agar, 1996, p. 35). My theoretical departure in whiteness studies has developed the analysis of the empirical data, and the interpretation of the empirical

182 Notes

data has in turn contributed to the development and refinement of the theoretical reasoning. My analysis thus oscillates between theory- loaded empirical material and empirically loaded theory.

3 Doing Similarity in a White-Women’s Network

1. Parts of this analysis have been published in Lundström (2010).2. In contrast to this argument, Gabriele Griffin (2012, p. 333) points to how

research on the same has been common in feminist research in an ‘ identity- based discipline’ (cf. Agar, 1996, p. 17). I want to highlight two discussions, one concerning the ‘making of similarity’ and another about similarity and privilege in terms of shared whiteness which I argue are under- researched areas.

3. General Francisco Franco, ‘El Caudillo’ instituted a dictatorship in Spain between 1939 and 1975, after the Civil War of 1936– 1939.

4. Bonilla- Silva (2003a) identifies colour- blindness an important aspect of the new racism in the US. Yet, coming from to Sweden, where statistics of self- identified race and ethnicity is non- existent and the word race has been abandoned from official documents, the women did not experience such a colour- blind discourse in the US.

5. Officially, the Swedish nobility’s last privileges were abolished in 2003. Despite this, nobility still functions as a strong social marker.

4 Hierarchies of Whiteness in the United States

1. Blue eyes further corresponds to an idea of honesty in a Swedish racial dis-course (Lindqvist, 2009). This discourse was also repeated among the women who saw Swedes (assumingly blue- eyed) as particularly trustworthy.

2. Parts of this analysis have been published in Lundström and Twine (2011).3. In Sweden, single women tend to lose out economically by getting married

(Regnér and Isacsson, 2008).4. This was also (to some extent) reflected in the participants’ drawings, in

which Louise drew herself in a ‘bubble’ with her family, in contrast to Antonia who was the manager of an international company and drew herself as an entity that was separate from her husband and children. Antonia was one of the few American citizens in the study.

5. As Skeggs (1997) argues, cultural capital is institutionalized and can offer sub-stantial rewards on the labour market. However, for these women, this reward was complicated by their dependency on their husbands, who – in contrast to non- white men – were rewarded on the labour market.

6. There has been a shift in the politics of gender and national ideologies over the last few years in Sweden, and the housewife has in some respects been re- introduced into the Swedish gender script. However, this happened after the interviews were conducted.

7. In the field of critical race and whiteness studies, this form of distant close-ness poses a problem to the idea of the contact hypothesis.

8. According to Californian Divorce Guide, this idea is complicated by several circumstances: http://www.cadivorce.com/

Notes 183

9. Even though the women did not sympathize with the Social Democrats, they were proud of the ‘international voice’ they thought that Sweden represented.

10. Sweden has never been a homogenous country, although the last decades of immigration from non- European countries has increased its heterogeneity.

11. The question of ethnic identities among Swedish- Americans in the US and particularly in Augustana has been covered by Blanck (2006).

5 Racial Divisions in Expatriate Lives in Singapore

1. These announcements were distributed by SWEA Singapore. The data has been manipulated to preserve anonymity.

2. http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=8873. The Employment of Foreign Manpower Act regulates the employment of

foreign workers, and took effect in July 2008.4. See for example Anderson, 2010; Hondagneu- Sotelo, 2007; Lutz, 2011;

Parreñas, 2001; Romero, 2002; Zimmerman et al., 2006.5. Lan, 2006; Gavanas, 2010; Johnson, 2010; Yeoh and Huang, 2010; Lutz, 2011.6. In Sweden, domestic work has only recently been substituted by (formal and

informal) paid labour, where public services are increasingly becoming ‘indi-vidual choices’; something that was sparked off by a tax deduction on domes-tic services (broadly defined) implemented on 1 July 2007 (see Gavanas, 2013).

7. For a discussion on accounts of justification in relation to Swedish national ideologies, see Lundström (2012).

8. In a comparison between Swedish and British employers, by Gavanas (2010), British employers used discourses around being a good mother, rather than being a good employer.

6 Disintegrating Whiteness in Southern Spain

1. These numbers are taken from the national statistics at http://www.cultures pain.com/tag/ spanish- demographics/ (received at 2012- 12- 02).

2. I was allowed to publish this letter, although the author remains anonymous. It could be said that the Church of Sweden in Fuengirola had a few organized groups: children’s groups, a choir, family therapy and Alcoholics Anonymous.

3. Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located at the southern tip of Spain.4. In fact, the Spanish language is pointed to as the major disadvantage of living

on the Costa del Sol, according to Rodriguez, Fernandez- Mayorales and Rojo’s (1998) survey of European retired migrants in Spain.

5. According to an (unrepresentative) investigation by the organization Swedes in the world (www.sviv.se).

6. ‘En algunos casos, como en Marbella, la diferencia es notable: el censo tiene registradas a 140.000 personas de 137 nacionalidades, mientras que la población real, calculada sobre la producción de basuras, es de 235.000 hab-itantes durante todo el año, según el concejal de Turismo y Extranjero, José Luis Hernández, del PP’ (El País, 19 January 19 2010).

7. This concept was in face coined by a person in the Swedish community.8. The Scandinavian radio broadcasts were all in Swedish.

184 Notes

9. There are certainly Swedish- Spanish mixed couples, but they tend to live in Sweden due to Sweden’s relative wealth in comparison with Spain.

10. See Lundström (2013) for a similar analysis.11. The former Swedish Social Democrat leader Göran Persson and the British

Tory leader David Cameron have both expressed views on ‘social tourism’.12. ‘Som hemma, fast utomlands’.13. In a later interaction, Dagmar described the interview as one of the few times

in which her own experiences were in focus.14. The SINK- tax did not apply to Swedes living in Portugal or France or many

other European countries.15. This was one of the reasons why the SINK- tax was imposed on Swedish

citizens in Spain. The then Prime minister Olof Palme challenged the many Swedes moving to Spain by saying that they would not be welcome back when they needed elderly care.

16. This is not to suggest that the idea of ‘the West’ has been static over time. There have, as Bonnett (2004) shows, been different views about what is/could be included in the idea of ‘the West’. In my data, the idea of the West was also shifting, but often included parts of Europe, US and Australia.

8 Migration Studies Revisited

1. Fine, Weis, Powell and Wong, 1997; Frankenberg, 1993; Lipsitz, 2006; Omi and Winant, 1994.

2. I am aware of some simplifications made here in relation to the enormously large and complex field of Migration Studies.

3. A large amount of research shows that black and Latino minorities in the US are continuously excluded from white dominated areas by different tech-niques such as higher rents, or disadvantageous mortgages (like subprime loans) and other forms of exclusion when searching for housing in these areas (Lipsitz, 2006).

4. Ahmed, 2000; Anderson, 1983; Anthias and Yuval- Davis, 1992; Yuval- Davis, 1997.

185

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197

Index

accountability, 39, 48America, see United StatesAsociación Hispano Nórdica (AHN), 127asylum seekers, 2authochtony, 172

beauty, 54being

migrants, odd feeling of, 149–50‘in place,’ 151, 158‘out of place,’ 1, 2, 151

Belongingness, 11, 21, 80, 83, 84, 89, 144, 150, 172, 176

Bergman, Ingmar, 54boundary work, 112–15Bourdieu, Pierre, 13

capitalcultural, 5, 13–14, 16, 37, 46, 47,

52, 55, 64, 66, 80, 124, 160, 166, 173, 175, 182n5

economic, 13, 52, 66, 67–8, 88, 130, 133, 159, 166

social, 13, 45, 52, 66, 73, 74, 160symbolic, 13, 46, 153symbolic economy of, 66–7transnational, citizenship as, 23,

79–80, 89, 176value of, 166–8white, 13–16, 65–71whiteness as methodological, 35–7

caretaking, international transfer of, 103

Casa Nórdica, 127Central Ethical Review Board, 18n2Chile, Augusto Pinochet’s dictatorship

in, 19Christina, Princess, 46Church of Sweden, 92, 127, 137,

150, 183n2circular migration, 97citizenship, as transnational capital,

23, 79–80, 89, 176

Civil Rights Movement, in United States, 19

class mobilitydownward, 30, 76, 77, 89, 130, 133,

159–60, 166upward, 3, 5, 8, 27, 52, 66, 77, 163

Club Nórdico, 127colour-blindness, 20, 40, 41, 182n4contact zone, 8, 11, 100–1, 111,

112, 123contemporary migration, Swedish

women in, 8–9contract

expatriate, 8–9, 166gender equality, 18, 58, 60, 63, 67, 68heterosexual family, 19, 57–65housewife, 18, 19, 58–9, 60, 63, 67

creative understanding, 45critical whiteness studies, 9, 169cultural capital, 5, 16, 13–14, 37, 46,

47, 52, 55, 64, 66, 80, 124, 160, 166, 173, 175, 182n5

cultural similarity, 141, 145, 157

desexualization, 164diaspora, 83–6difference

in feminist research, 38–9horizontal constructions of, 112managing, 109–15vertical constructions of, 112

discrimination, 1, 6, 22, 54, 117, 130, 158, 173, 175

disembodiment, 14, 16, 164disintegration, see southern Spain,

disintegrating whiteness indivision of labour, 7, 60, 62, 69, 86,

94, 100, 103, 104, 107, 109, 111, 115, 165, 172, 176

divorce, 77–9downward class mobility, 30, 76, 77,

89, 130, 133, 166in southern Spain, 159–60

198 Index

dual-earner model, 18–19, 62, 68, 94, 96, 105

dual-income-model, 67Du Bois, W.E.B., 9

economic capital, 13, 52, 66, 67–8, 88, 130, 133, 159, 166

egalitarianismgender, negotiating, 161–8

Ekberg, Anita, 54El País, 136emigrants, 3Employment Act, 108Employment of Foreign Manpower

Act, 98, 99En Sueco, 127entitlement, 154–7equality

gender, as site of struggle, 103–5gender equality contract, 18, 58–60,

63, 67, 68see also inequality(ies)

Ericsson, 21ethnic capital, 178n10ethnicity, 17, 19, 45, 71, 100, 174

symbolic, 2, 87see also race(ism/ization)

European Union (EU)privileged migrants in, 146–54

European whitenessin Singapore, 115–23in southern Spain, 157–60

Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), 128exoticism, 16, 54–7, 164expatriate life, in Asia light, 93–7expatriate migration, 3–5, 27–9, 97exploitation, 6, 99, 173

families and spatial segregation, inequalities between, 75

feeling at home, 150–2femininity, 37, 67

cultural constructions of, 16Eurasian, 121gender equal version of, 67heterosexual, 16, 35, 42–3respectable, 16, 23, 43, 44, 67, 88,

115, 163–6transnational representations of, 9–10

feminist objectivity, 48feminist research, differences in, 38–9feminized migration, era of, 6–8Florida, Hotel, 127folkhemmet (the People’s Home), 18, 19foreign domestic workers, in

Singapore, 97–103foreignness, 39Franco, Francisco, 128

gendercontracts, 18, 57–65, 67, 68equality, 55, 153

contract, 18, 58–60, 63, 67, 68as site of struggle, 103–5

egalitarianism, 58, 59negotiating, 161–8

in motion, 161–8reformations of, 152–4regimes, 62vulnerabilities, white capital and,

65–71and whiteness, 15

globalization, 7, 10, 23, 120, 123, 173

global sisterhood, 16Green Card, 57, 85, 86

habitus, 14, 31, 35, 42, 73, 74, 167Hammarskjöld, Dag, 21Hansson, Per Albin, 18happy housewives, 61–5hegemonic masculinity, 43heterosex(ism/uality), 7, 43–4heterosexual femininity, 42–3heterosexual homosociality, 43heterosexual household, in United

States, 57–65homosociality

creating, 42–4heterosexual, 43

Hong Kong, Asian tiger economies of, 97

household work, outsourcing, 68–71housewife/housewives

contract, 18, 19, 58–9, 60, 63, 67happy, 61–5middle-class, 51–4upper-class, 51–4

Index 199

I am curious (yellow), 128identity(ies)

nationalreformations of, 152–4re-negotiating, 20–1

politics, 74white diasporic, 83–6

IKEA, 21Illegal immigrants, 2, 39, 41, 85immigrants, 3in-between-ness, 83, 84inequality(ies), 79

managing, by Swedish expatriate wives, 109–15

between migrant minorities, structural, 172

social inequality, transnationalization of, 5, 79

see also equality‘in place,’ 151, 158institutionalized whiteness, 144–6international communities in Spain,

creating, 141–6International Labour Organization

(ILO), 108intersectionality, 16intersectional translocations, 16–18intimacy, 93, 95, 100, 101, 106, 109,

114, 123intimate labour, 70, 101, 114

Jackson, Michael, 118Japan, expatriate life in, 94

Kanebo, 116KOSÉ, 116Kustradion 105, 127

labourdivision of, 7, 60, 62, 69, 86, 94,

100, 103, 104, 107, 109, 111, 115, 165, 172, 176

intimate, 70, 101, 114reproductive, 99–101, 103, 115

Lehman Brothers, bankruptcy of, 26lifestyle migrants, 3, 6, 9

class mobility, 129–33lifestyle migration, 29–31living whiteness, in America, 71–6

locatedness, 75London Pub, 127

maids, 91, 94–5foreign, Swedish women’s view

on, 102Málaga, 127, 130marginalization, 137–41

parallel set, 138–9marriage, defined, 67masculinity, 43

gender equal, 60hegemonic, 43and whiteness, 16

methodological capital, whiteness as, 35–7

micropolitics, 38middle-class

housewives, 51–4vulnerability of, 76–9

migrant(s)being, odd feeling of, 149–50lifestyle migrants’ class mobility,

129–33privileged, 6transmigrants, 11, 157

migrant-ness, unmarking, 87–8migration

circular, 97contemporary migration, Swedish

women in, 8–9expatriate, 3–5, 27–9, 97feminized migration, era of, 6–8lifestyle, 3, 6, 9, 29–31power relations through, shifting,

44–7as problem, 173processes, racializing, 4–6settler, 25–7studies, 169white, 1–23

minority–majority paradigm, 171–3mobile professionals, 6mobility, 8

downward class, 30, 76, 77, 89, 130, 133, 159–60, 166

lifestyle migrants’ class, 129–33negotiation of, 114rights, 14

200 Index

mobility – continuedupward class, 3, 5, 8, 27, 52, 66,

77, 163modernity, 54moral authority, 67multiculturalism, 7multi-sited ethnography

defined, 24of whiteness, 24–33

case studies, 24–5expatriate migration (Singapore),

27–9lifestyle migration (Spain), 29–31relocating whiteness, 31–3settler migration (United States),

25–7

national identity, reformations of, 152–4

nationality, global reconfigurations of, 81–8

new whiteness, encountering, 116–19Nordic exceptionalism, 20Nordic Video, 127normativity, 36

white, embodying, 54–7Norwegian Church, 92

O’Haras Irish Pub, 127opportunities, 5, 14, 17, 69, 92, 163,

169, 175oppression, 5, 17, 128orientations, 3, 14, 18, 30, 65, 66,

137, 141, 144, 145, 153, 158, 159, 163

others, 6, 31, 86, 172other whites, 119–23‘out of place,’ 1, 2, 151outsourcing household work, 68–71

Palme, Olof, 19, 21, 128parallel set marginalization, 138–41,

150partiality, 48passing strategies

doing similarity through, 39–42silence as, 41–2

Pinochet, Augustodictatorship in Chile, 19

positioning, 48poverty, 6, 148, 158, 173power relations through migration,

shifting, 44–7privilege, 36, 48–9, 118

crucial aspects of, 178n14white, 14–15

privileged migrants, 6prosperity, 54

race(ism/ization)based on skin colour, 179n27hierarchies of, 40–1migration processes, 4–6and minority migrants, 171–3politics, in Sweden, 179–80n28scientific, 19social geography of, adapting to,

73–6reproductive labour, 99–101see also ethnicity

racial literacy, 40redundant mothering, 112–15reinscription, 37–8

of normativity, 36–7reproduction, 7reproductive labour

paid, racial division of, 115racialization of, 99–101three-tier transfer of, 103

respectability, 16, 23, 43, 44, 67, 88, 115

renegotiating, 163–6

Scandinavian Airlines (SAS), 29

scientific racism, 19segregation

racial, 76residential, 174self-segregation, 137–41, 172spatial, 75, 129

self-segregation, 137–41, 172settler migration, 25–7sexuality, 7, 164

heterosexual family contract, 19, 57–65

heterosexual femininity, 16, 35, 42–3

Index 201

heterosexual household, in United States, 57–65

heterosexual homosociality, 43sexual liberation, 16

Shiseido, 116silence, as passing, 41–2Singapore

Church of Sweden, 92, 127, 137, 150, 183n2

Norwegian Church, 92European whiteness, 115–23expatriate migration, 27–9foreign domestic workers in,

97–103racial divisions in expatriate

lives, 91Swedes in, meeting, 92–3Swedish expatriate lives in,

97–103SINK–tax, 155, 184nn14,15situated knowledge, 48–9Sjöman, Vilgot, 128social capital, 13, 45, 52, 66, 73,

74, 160social geography of race, adapting to,

73–6social inequality, transnationalization

of, 79social positions on world scale,

156–7South Africa, apartheid politics in, 19southern Spain, disintegrating

whiteness in, 127–60downward class mobility, 159–60entitlement, 154–7European divisions, 157–60gender, reformations of, 152–4international communities,

creating, 141–6lifestyle migrants’ class mobility,

129–33marginalization, 137–41national identity, reformations of,

152–4self-segregation, 137–41white migration and problem of

integration, 133–41South Korea, Asian tiger economies

of, 97

Spainlifestyle migration, 29–31southern, see southern Spain,

disintegrating whiteness inspatial segregation and families,

inequalities between, 75Summer with Monika, 54Sweden

antiracism and human rights, voice for, 19

dual-earner model, 18–19folkhemmet (the People’s Home),

18, 19gender-equality-contract, 18housewife-contract, 18, 19images of, 18–21migrants from non-Western world

and European countries, 20national ideologies and identities,

re-negotiating, 20–1non-alliance, international position

of, 19–20racism in, 40Swedish State Institute for Race

Biology, 19as welfare state, 81whiteness, 19–20, 34–5see also Swedish expatriate wives

Swedish expatriate wivesideologies and practices abroad,

106–7in Singapore

boundary work, 112–15difference and inequality,

managing, 109–15division of labour, justification

of, 111equality in social and political

context, 111–12as good employer, 107–9horizontal constructions of

difference, 112lives of, 97–103meeting, 92–3redundant mothering, 112–15vertical constructions of

difference, 112see also Sweden

Swedish Magazine, 127

202 Index

Swedish School, 127, 150Swedish State Institute for Race

Biology, 19Swedish Women’s Educational

Association (SWEA), 25, 26, 28–30, 34, 40–2, 46, 180n4

Sydkusten (The South Coast), 127symbolic capital, 13, 46, 153

TaiwanAsian tiger economies of, 97expatriate life in, 94

third wave whiteness studies, 13trailing spouses, 4, 8, 23, 92, 102,

103, 122transmigrants, 11, 157transnational capital, citizenship as,

23, 79–80, 89, 176transnationalism, 9, 11, 23, 83,

123, 162transnational whiteness, 9–13,

120, 173

United States (US)citizenship, as transnational

capital, 79–80Civil Rights Movement in, 19expatriate life in, 94heterosexual household, 57–65living whiteness in, 71–6middle class, vulnerability of, 76–9nationality, global reconfigurations

of, 81–8outsourcing household work,

68–71racism in, 40settler migration, 25–7social geography of race, adapting

to, 73–6white capital and gender

vulnerabilities, 65–71whiteness, hierarchies of, 51–90

upper-class housewives, 51–4upward class mobility, 3, 5, 8, 27, 52,

66, 77, 163

volk, 179n21Volvo, 21vulnerability of middle class, 76–9

wages of whiteness, 160, 166west, 184n16white(s/ness), 24–33, 123–4,

173–6critical studies of, 169as cultural capital, 13–14, 16defined, 12diasporic identities, 83–6as embodied capital, 14European

in Singapore, 115–23in southern Spain, 157–60

female homosociality, creating, 42–4

gender and, 15hierarchies of, in United States,

51–90identity politics, 74institutionalized, 144–6living, in America, 71–6as methodological capital, 35–7migration. see migrationin motion, 161–8multi-sited ethnography of,

24–33new whiteness, encountering,

116–19normativity, embodying, 54–7others, 119–23privilege, 14–15, 36, 48–9, 118,

178n14relocating, 31–3in southern Spain, disintegrating,

127–60transnational, 9–13wages of, 160, 166

white capital, 13–16complicating, 15–16and gender vulnerabilities, 65–71

Zapatero, José Luis Rodríguez, 129