What you always wanted to know What you always wanted to know about household waterabout household water

treatment and safe storage but treatment and safe storage but were afraid to ask. were afraid to ask.

Suresh KumarSuresh KumarMalaysiaMalaysia

In the first place water scarcity .In the first place water scarcity ..is this the biggest problem ? .is this the biggest problem ?

““It is alarming as well as unacceptable that in It is alarming as well as unacceptable that in the 21st century there are still large numbers the 21st century there are still large numbers of of women and children in the developing world women and children in the developing world who are forced to collect untreated or impure who are forced to collect untreated or impure drinking water from various sources, often drinking water from various sources, often having to travel great distances to reach having to travel great distances to reach them” (them” (Falkenmark and Rockström, 2004:26). :26). This obvious failure of ‘development’ –This obvious failure of ‘development’ –

i.e. the inability to provide basic water and i.e. the inability to provide basic water and sanitation – is not necessarily a direct sanitation – is not necessarily a direct consequence of the physical scarcity of water consequence of the physical scarcity of water butbut of poor management (of poor management ([Falkenmark and Rockström, 2004], , [Abrams, 2001] and and [Gleick et al., 2002][Gleick et al., 2002]).).

Key interviewees attributed water supply problems to one or Key interviewees attributed water supply problems to one or more of the following: more of the following: – – Growing demand from increasing population. Growing demand from increasing population. – – Lack of enough boreholes to pump water.Lack of enough boreholes to pump water.– – Settlement patterns in the district.Settlement patterns in the district.– – Lack of sufficient funds by DC to supply more villages.Lack of sufficient funds by DC to supply more villages.– – Shortage of labour at both DWA and DC to carry out activities Shortage of labour at both DWA and DC to carry out activities such as building water supply schemes (due to the such as building water supply schemes (due to the government’s zero growth policy that has been in place for the government’s zero growth policy that has been in place for the past 5 years), maintenance and operation.past 5 years), maintenance and operation.– – Shortage of staff with relevant skills (management, Shortage of staff with relevant skills (management, technicians, supervisors etc.).technicians, supervisors etc.).– – Centralisation of staffing decisions.Centralisation of staffing decisions.– – The expensive nature of water development in the district The expensive nature of water development in the district (groundwater abstraction).(groundwater abstraction).– – Delayed responses to attend to pump breakdowns due to Delayed responses to attend to pump breakdowns due to transport problems, resulting Itransport problems, resulting In pump breaks not being attended to for long periods of time.n pump breaks not being attended to for long periods of time.– – Destruction of water storage tanks in remote areas by large Destruction of water storage tanks in remote areas by large mammals, particularly elephants, mammals, particularly elephants, especially in the dry season, and the difficulty of attending to especially in the dry season, and the difficulty of attending to these problems.these problems.

Factors influencing the need for HWT

Many small systems will findit difficult to comply with newenvironmental regulations becausethey cannot afford the necessaryequipment or staff for treatment. Asadditional contaminants areidentified in drinking water andstandards are developed, thecomplexity of managing watersystems, especially for smallsystems, will increase

Key stakeholders, drawing on data collected by their various offices (see, also ODMP, 2005), confirmed that water quality problems resulted from one or a combination of the following: –Lack or insufficient laws governing groundwater abstraction and use. –Lack of monitoring of abstraction levels from boreholes.–Over abstraction resulting in salt water intrusion into freshwater aquifers.–Land use activities such as agriculture, pit latrine toilets in areas with high water table.–High solar radiation resulting in high evaporation, leaving salts in the water.–Climate change resulting in declines in water tables.–Lack of recharge of aquifers.

The most significant The most significant requirementsrequirementsfor small systems are lowfor small systems are lowconstruction and operating construction and operating costs,simple operation, costs,simple operation, adaptability toadaptability topart-time operations, and part-time operations, and lowlowmaintenance. maintenance.

If a community fails toIf a community fails torecognize the need for training recognize the need for training andandcertification for operators incertification for operators inspecific treatment processes,specific treatment processes,professional guidance and professional guidance and technicaltechnicalassistance in system selection, assistance in system selection, andandadequate funding for operation adequate funding for operation andandmaintenance, system operation maintenance, system operation andandwater quality will suffewater quality will suffer.r.

Small systems Small systems have the mosthave the mosttrouble meeting trouble meeting EPA’s EPA’s standards standards forforsafe drinking safe drinking waterwater.

Home treatment units can be an Home treatment units can be an alternative to centralized treatment alternative to centralized treatment

technology for individualtechnology for individualand small systems. Such systems have and small systems. Such systems have been widely adapted to treating water been widely adapted to treating water

from afrom asingle faucet at the point of use or for single faucet at the point of use or for the entire house at the point of entry.the entire house at the point of entry.

Questions Questions that you are that you are not so not so afraid to afraid to ask..ask..

How serious is the problem?

World Health Organisation (WHO) data on the World Health Organisation (WHO) data on the burden of disease suggest that approximately burden of disease suggest that approximately

3.2% of deaths (1.8 million) and 4.2% of 3.2% of deaths (1.8 million) and 4.2% of disability-adjusted-life years (61.9 million) disability-adjusted-life years (61.9 million)

worldwide are attributable to unsafe water, worldwide are attributable to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene. Of all deaths sanitation and hygiene. Of all deaths

attributable to water, sanitation and hygiene, attributable to water, sanitation and hygiene, over 99.8% occur in developing countries, andover 99.8% occur in developing countries, and

90% are of children90% are of children

One of the key One of the key options for dealing options for dealing with this problem with this problem is promotion of is promotion of point-of-use water point-of-use water treatment and safe treatment and safe storage instorage inthe homethe home

What What probably is probably is the simplest the simplest solution solution to this to this complex complex problem?problem?

Amongst public health scientists and Amongst public health scientists and practitioners, there is now widespread consensus practitioners, there is now widespread consensus that one of the past mistakes inthat one of the past mistakes intackling infectious disease has been to give tackling infectious disease has been to give greater priority to provision of community water greater priority to provision of community water supplies over provision ofsupplies over provision ofsanitation, and to sanitation over hygiene.sanitation, and to sanitation over hygiene.

In reality it is hygiene practices such as In reality it is hygiene practices such as handwashing and household waterhandwashing and household watertreatment and safe storage, safe treatment and safe storage, safe handling and cooking of food etc handling and cooking of food etc that reduces the burden of that reduces the burden of infectious disease.infectious disease.

Why the focus Why the focus on storage as on storage as

well ?well ?

STORAGEStorage itself is a water treatment alternative. When it secures water from human or animal contact, storage can provide a purifying function over time. Research

repeatedly shows that storage devices canmaintain or even increase waterquality when they prevent hand

dipping and intrusion byinsects, small animals or

reptiles.

The most significant difference The most significant difference between storage devices may be between storage devices may be that the container is open or that the container is open or closed. In this respect, the closed. In this respect, the presence and length of a vessel presence and length of a vessel neck is noteworthy, particularly if neck is noteworthy, particularly if the neck is so narrow that an the neck is so narrow that an adult or child hand cannot enter adult or child hand cannot enter it.it.

Can I assume that problems are compounded In developing

countries?countries?

In China , 13% of urban water users receive water at inadequate pressure. Furthermore, 60% of China's 661 cities face seasonal water shortage, and over 100 cities have severe water constraints (World Bank report )

Contamination of drinking water from feces is a critical health problem in China, as in other developing countries, that causes serious illnesses such as diarrhea and viral hepatitis

According to unpublished data reported to WHO in According to unpublished data reported to WHO in 1999 [35], only half of SEAR countries (India, 1999 [35], only half of SEAR countries (India, Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Thailand) reported Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Thailand) reported that disinfection was practiced in all urban water that disinfection was practiced in all urban water distribution systems.distribution systems.Only two countries (Maldives and Thailand) Only two countries (Maldives and Thailand) satisfied the dual criteria in urban systems of satisfied the dual criteria in urban systems of universal disinfection and continuous positive universal disinfection and continuous positive pressure in distribution. pressure in distribution.

In a survey in some 50 water utilities in 31 In a survey in some 50 water utilities in 31 Asian countries, 33% of domestic consumers Asian countries, 33% of domestic consumers reported thatreported thatthey drank tap water without boiling, yet 80 they drank tap water without boiling, yet 80 percent considered that the water was of percent considered that the water was of acceptable quality [34].acceptable quality [34].

A significant proportion of samples were A significant proportion of samples were contaminated with faecal coliforms contaminated with faecal coliforms (including (including E. coliE. coli), and that some samples ), and that some samples were also contaminated with were also contaminated with Entamoeba Entamoeba histolytica histolytica and and Giardia Lamblia (Giardia Lamblia ( 2004 the 2004 the National Environmental Engineering National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)) - municipalResearch Institute (NEERI)) - municipaldrinking water supplies in a number of major drinking water supplies in a number of major cities in India [36]. cities in India [36].

In 1991, Esrey at al. made an assessment of 144 published studies to determine the impact of improving the quality ofthe community water supply and sanitation [52]. Their overall assessment, based on this data, was that improved accessto water, together with improved hygiene and sanitation, are key to reducing diarrhoeal and other water-borne and waterwasheddiseases.

Based on data from studies, as reviewed by Sobsey [3] and Wright et al, [4] which show evidence of decreased microbialquality and increased disease risks associated with inadequately stored water, it would be expected that interventionsthat interventionswhich combine water treatment with safe storage would which combine water treatment with safe storage would produce a greater reduction in risk of diarrhoeal disease thanproduce a greater reduction in risk of diarrhoeal disease thanwater treatment alonewater treatment alone.

What should be the basic What should be the basic Criteria be for HSWT?Criteria be for HSWT?

RecommendedRecommendedtechnologies need to be:technologies need to be:• • simplesimple• • appropriateappropriate• • affordableaffordable• • effectiveeffective

Case study 1

:

How best to introduce HWTS How best to introduce HWTS to households (e.g. through to households (e.g. through social marketing, social marketing, communications materials communications materials etc.) andetc.) andmaximise uptake within the maximise uptake within the communitycommunity

• How to ensure correct How to ensure correct use of use of technology/hardware technology/hardware (correct dosing of (correct dosing of disinfectants, proper disinfectants, proper maintenance and maintenance and cleaningcleaningof household filters etc.) of household filters etc.) within the community?within the community?

How to ensure How to ensure safe handling and safe handling and storage of water?storage of water?••

How to ensure that water How to ensure that water treatment technology is treatment technology is acceptable to the acceptable to the community in terms of community in terms of water quality (taste,water quality (taste,appearance) and costappearance) and cost

• How to ensure How to ensure sustainability of sustainability of behavior change?behavior change?

Home

Places of work

NGOS

Schools Houses of

worship

Cooperatives

The most influential

Village/districts