Playseemstohavebeenespeciallyadaptedfortheperiodofchildhood,andiswhatchildrenare“intended”todo.Rememberingthismaycauseustothinktwicebeforemodifyingchildren’senvironmentstoachieveonegoal(e.g.,morefocusedlearningopportunitiesatschools)attheexpenseofplay.

—BjorklundandPellegrini(2001,331)

Childrenofallagesareinlovewithmovement,action,andtheselfempowermentthatcomefromlearningabout,using,andgainingcontrolovertheirbodies.Theinherentdrawtobigbodyplayonlycontinuesthroughoutthechildhoodyears.Itoftenisoutoffearforchildren’ssafetythatteachersandotheradultstrytostopchildrenfromthemostphysicalformsofthisplay.Certainly,it’snotfromablanketdisregardforthebenefitsthatphysicalactivityprovides.Onestudyfoundthat90percentofteachersand86percentofparentssaythatphysicallyactivechildrenarebetterbehavedandbetterabletolearnintheclassroom,andtheyareneithermoreactivenordistractedinclassbecauseofhavingbeenphysicallyactive(Burdette&Whitaker2005).Inotherwords,weadultsknowthatphysicalactivityingeneralisgoodforchildren.Butmaybewejusthaven’ttakenstockofhowgoodbigbodyplayinparticularis.Wemayknowthebenefitsofthegentle,quiet,cooperativeformsofphysicalactivity,suchasrollingaballbackandforthortakinganaturewalkorclimbingtheladdertotheslide.Butwhatabouttheloud,rough,androwdyforms?Andarebigbodyplay’sbenefitsprimarilyphysical,orisdevelopmentandlearningofothertypestakingplace,too?Asthischapterexplains,playresultsinwonderfulbenefitsacrossphysical,social-emotional,andcognitivedomains.Itenhancesproblemsolvingskills,creativity,andtheabilitytotakeanother’sperspective;reducesmisbehavior;enhanceslanguageskills;andimprovescognitiveperformanceandsocial-emotionalcapacities(e.g.,Barrosetal.2009;Singeretal.2006).Thischapterdescribessomeofthebenefits—boththoseuniquetobigbodyplay(especiallyitsrough-and-tumbleforms)andthoseoverlappingwiththemoregenerallyacceptableformsofplaysuchassociodramatic.

Whatkindandhowmuchphysicalactivity?

Therearetwoavenuestophysicalactivityforyoungchildren:(1)thestructured,directedkindthatchildrengetinaschoolphysicaleducationprogramand(2)theunstructuredfreeplayofbigbodyplay—theroughand-tumbleactivitiesandtheexuberantandspontaneousgrossmotormovementsthatcomenaturallyandinstinctivelytochildren.Whereasbigbodyplayisrecreationalandchild-led,physicaleducationprogramsareadult-ledandincludemeaningfulcontent,instructiontime,andassessmentcomponents(NASPEn.d.).Bothtypesareimportantandvaluableforchildren’shealth,kinestheticintelligence,andoveralldevelopment.Bothphysicaleducationprogramsandbigbodyplaycanleadtovigorousexertion.Yetphysicaleducationprograms,atleastgoodones,differfromplayinatleasttwoimportantways:programshavegoalsandprogramsareplanned,notspontaneous.TheNationalAssociationforSportandPhysicalEducation(NASPE)providesguidanceforprovidingbothstructuredandunstructuredphysicalactivity,calibratedindevelopmentallyappropriateamounts.(Seechart.)Althoughbothstructuredandunstructuredphysicalactivityarevaluableforyoungchildren,bigbodyplaytypicallyproducesgreatersustainedphysicalexertion,andsoprovidesgreaterbenefits.Children’sbigbodyplayalsotendstooffermoreintensitythandoesamovementperiodfortoddlersoraphysicaleducationclassinschool.Forexample,onestudyofschool-agechildrenfoundthattheygotonly19minutesofmerelymoderateactivityina55-minutephysicaleducationclass(Coeetal.2006).(NASPE[2009b]recommendsthatforgradesKto2,aphysicaleducationclasslastjust30minutes;forgrade3,themaximumis45minutes.)Just19minutesisunderstandableconsideringthatphysicaleducationprogramsrequireinstructiontimetoexplainrules,perhapsgroupmanagementtime,timewaitingforotherstoplayorperform,andmaybeassessmenttime.Bigbodyplay,bycontrast,typicallyproceedsuninterrupted.Infact,childrenmayevenprotectthepaceandflowoftheirplaybyrefusingtoallowtimewastingbytheirplaymates(e.g.,toomuchtalking)tointerruptthephysicalgame(Jarvis2007a).

NASPEGuidelinesforPhysicalActivity

GuidelinesforInfants

1. Infantsshouldinteractwithcaregiversindailyphysicalactivitiesthatarededicatedtoexplorinmovementandtheenvironment.

2. Caregiversshouldplaceinfantsinsettingsthatencourageandstimulatemovementexperiencesandactiveplayforshortperiodsoftimeseveraltimesaday.

3. Infants’physicalactivityshouldpromoteskilldevelopmentinmovement.

4. Infantsshouldbeplacedinanenvironmentthatmeetsorexceedsrecommendedsafetystandardsforperforminglarge-muscleactivities.

5. Thoseinchargeofinfants’well-beingareresponsibleforunderstandingtheimportanceofphysicalactivityandshouldpromotemovementskillsbyprovidingopportunitiesforstructuredandunstructuredphysicalactivity.

GuidelinesforToddlers

1. Toddlersshouldengageinatotalofatleast30minutesofstructuredphysicalactivityeachday.

2. Toddlersshouldengageinatleast60minutes—anduptoseveralhours—perdayofunstructuredphysicalactivityandshouldnotbesedentaryformorethan60minutesatatime,exceptwhensleeping.

3. Toddlersshouldbegivenampleopportunitiestodevelopmovementskillsthatwillserveasthebuildingblocksforfuturemotorskillfulnessandphysicalactivity.

4. Toddlersshouldhaveaccesstoindoorandoutdoorareasthatmeetorexceedrecommendedsafetystandardsforperforminglarge-muscleactivities.

5. Thoseinchargeoftoddlers’well-beingareresponsibleforunderstandingtheimportanceofphysicalactivityandpromotingmovementskillsbyprovidingopportunitiesforstructuredandunstructuredphysicalactivityandmovementexperiences.

GuidelinesforPreschoolers

1. Preschoolersshouldaccumulateatleast60minutesofstructuredphysicalactivityeachday.

2. Preschoolersshouldengageinatleast60minutes—anduptoseveralhours—ofunstructuredphysicalactivityeachday,andshouldnotbesedentaryformorethan60minutesatatime,exceptwhensleeping.

3. Preschoolersshouldbeencouragedtodevelopcompetenceinfundamentalmotorskillsthatwillserveasthebuildingblocksforfuturemotorskillfulnessandphysicalactivity.

4. Preschoolersshouldhaveaccesstoindoorandoutdoorareasthatmeetorexceedrecommendedsafetystandardsforperforminglarge-muscleactivities.

5. Caregiversandparentsinchargeofpreschoolers’healthandwell-beingareresponsibleforunderstandingtheimportanceofphysicalactivityandforpromotingmovementskillsbyprovidingopportunitiesforstructuredandunstructuredphysicalactivity.

GuidelinesforChildrenAges5–8(andolder)

1. Childrenshouldaccumulateatleast60minutes,anduptoseveralhours,ofage-appropriatephysicalactivityonall,ormostdaysoftheweek.Thisdailyaccumulationshouldincludemoderateandvigorousphysicalactivitywiththemajorityofthetimebeingspentinactivitythatisintermittentinnature.

2. Childrenshouldparticipateinseveralboutsofphysicalactivitylasting15minutesormoreeachday.

3. Childrenshouldparticipateeachdayinavarietyofage-appropriatephysicalactivitiesdesignedtoachieveoptimalhealth,wellnessfitness,andperformancebenefits.

4. Extendedperiods(periodsof2hoursormore)ofinactivityarediscouragedforchildren,especiallyduringthedaytimehours.

ReprintedfromActiveStart:AStatementofPhysicalActivityGuidelinesforChildrenFromBirthtoAge5,2ndedition,andPhysicalActivityforChildren(5–12),withpermissionfromtheNational

AssociationforSportandPhysicalEducation(NASPE),1900AssociationDrive,Reston,VA20191,www.NASPEinfo.org.

Thereisaknownconnectionbetweenthedevelopmentofmovementandthedevelopmentofcognition.

Perhapschildrenknowinstinctivelythattheyneeduninterruptedtimeforintenseactivitytoaccruethebenefitsassociatedwithphysicalexertion.AsNASPE(n.d.)notes,“Similarhealthbenefitstothosereceivedduringaphysicaleducationclassarepossibleduringphysicalactivityboutswhentheparticipantisactiveatanintensitythatincreasesheartrateandproducesheavierthannormalbreathing.”Whatmattersistheintensityanddurationofthephysicalexertion;theresultincludesgreaterphysicalfitnessandimprovedcognitiveperformance,amongotherbenefits(Stevensetal.2008).

EvolutionandbraindevelopmentFromtheUnitedStatestoKenyatothePhilippinestoMexico,fromancienttimestotheDarkAgestothepresent,inrats,orangutans,andhumans,thereisbothanecdotalandempiricalevidenceofrough,rowdyphysicalplay(e.g.,Fry1987,2005;Groos1901;Pellisetal.1999).

Manytheorizeaboutwhychildrenuniversallyengageinthistypeof

play.Somefeelthetumblingandrollingaroundissimplytoletoffsteam.Fromanevolutionarydevelopmentalperspective,thereisanotionthatplay-fightingallowsforthepracticeofadultroles;inpart,ingenderspecificways.Thatis,bigbodyplaymayhelppreparechildrenforthecomplexsocialaspectsofwhathasbeen,evolutionarilyspeaking,adultlife(Bjorklund&Pellegrini2001).Othersspeculatethatitispracticeforfutureself-defense,thatitsupportsthedevelopmentofcriticalpathwaysinthebrainvitalforadaptiveresponsestoaggressionanddominance(Pellis&Pellis2007).Speculationaside,thereisaknownconnectionbetweenthedevelopmentofmovementandthedevelopmentofcognition(Diamond2000),andresearchersbelievethereisaconnectionbetweentheveryphysical,rowdyplaystyleandcriticalperiodsofbraindevelopment(Byers1998).Theroughplaybetweenpeersappearstobecriticalforindividualstolearnhowtocalibratetheirmovementsandorientthemselvesphysicallyinappropriateandadaptiveways(Pellisetal.1999).Therealsoisevidencethatrough-and-tumbleplayleadstothereleaseofchemicalsaffectingthemid-brain,lowerforebrain,andthecortex,includingareasresponsiblefordecisionmakingandsocialdiscrimination;growthchemicalspositivelyaffectdevelopmentofthesebrainareas.Furthermore,thereisevidencethatseveredeprivationofsuchplay(ordamagetorelatedareasofthebrain)isassociatedwithafailuretoadjustbehaviortoidiosyncrasiesofapartner’ssocialstatusandmovements(Pellis&Pellis2007).Inotherwords,rough-and-tumbleplay,thisuniversalactivityofallchildrenthroughouthistoryandinallpartsoftheworld,isadaptive,evolutionarilyuseful,andlinkedtonormalbraindevelopment.

GrowingandmovingThroughbigbodyplay,childrenlearnskillssuchashowtheirbodiesmoveinspace,wherepartsoftheirbodiesbeginandend,andhowtocontroltheirphysicalmovements.Itisalsoaneffectivewayforyoungchildrentohavetheirphysicaltouchneedsmet,whentheplayisbothindividuallyappropriate(i.e.,comfortableforagivenchild)andage-appropriate(Carlson2006;Reed2005).

Participationinregularphysicalactivityalsohelpspreventchronichealthproblems,suchasdiabetes,highbloodpressure,andhighcholesterol,eveninveryyoungchildren.

SkeletalandmusculardevelopmentininfancyInfantsgainobviousgrossmotorbenefitsfromtheroughplaytheyenjoyusingtheirownbodiesandthebodiesoftheirpeersandcaregivers.Ahumaninfantisbornpossessingallthemusclefibersheorshewilleverhave.Thesefibersaresmall,however,withahighratioofwaterandfattomuscle.Asthechildgrowsanddevelops,theratiochangesandmusclestrengthincreases(Boyd&Bee2006).Also,anewborn’slegbonesare

toosofttosupporthisorherbodyweight.Thislackofmusclestrengthcombinedwithtoo-softlegbonesmeansthatinfantsarefloor-boundforthemajorityoftheirfirstyear.Becauseinfantscanengageinbigbodyplayevenwhiletheylackmuscleandbonestrength,suchunstructured,veryactiveplayisidealinsupportingtheiremergingphysicalcapabilities.Longstretchesofspontaneousreaching,grabbing,kicking,waving,rolling,andscootingalldevelopaninfant’sboneandmusclestrength.Thereisevidence,moreover,thatwhereaslow-birthweightprematureinfantsusuallylosebonestrengthafterbirth,evenbriefrange-of-motionactivitycanpreventtheproblem,allowingformorenormalbonedevelopment—eveninthefirstfewweeksoflife(Litmanovitzetal.2003).

PhysicalhealthYoungchildrenrarelyremainvigorouslyactiveforanhourstraight,asanexercisingadultorolderchildengagedinanorganizedsportmightdo.Youngchildren’sspontaneousphysicalplaytendstocomeinveryactiveburstslastingfrom5to15minutes.Nonetheless,thoseburstsaddupandaccumulateintohealthbenefitsthataresimilartothoseforolderchildrenandadults.Whenyoungchildrenhavetheopportunitytoplayinrough,active,highlyphysicalways,theygettheirheartratesup;theystretchtheirlimbs;theystrengthentheirbones,muscles,andligaments;theyburncaloriesandmaintainahealthyweight;andtheylearnnewphysicalskills,allofwhichcontributehugelytotheirfundamentalhealthandoptimalgrowth.AsPellegriniandSmith(1998a)noted,“Playmaybetheonlyway[youngchildren]arelikelytogetsufficientexercisetraining,atleastbeforeorganizedgamesandsports,inhumansocieties”(610).Studiesareclearaboutthebenefitsofphysicalactivityinpromotingphysicalhealthandgeneralwell-being(e.g.,Solaetal.2010).Childrenwhoareactive—running,jumping,throwing,climbing—dobetterontestsofphysicalfitness,inareasincludingendurance,speed,agility,balance,andstrength.Theyalsoshowareducedbodymassindex,whichmeasuresoverallbodyfat,andbetteroxygenintake.Theyarelesslikelytobeoverweightorobese,whichisacommonandpressingAmericanproblematpresent,inpartasaresultofchildren’ssedentary

lifestyles.Participationinregularphysicalactivityalsohelpspreventchronichealthproblems,suchasdiabetes,highbloodpressure,andhighcholesterol,eveninveryyoungchildren(Ward2010).

Preschoolandbeyond:Discoveringsize,strength,andcontrolThroughbigbodyplay,childreninthepreschoolyearsandbeyondbecomemoreawareoftheirownphysicalabilities:howstrongtheyare,howfasttheyare,howheavytheyare.Partofchildren’ssuccessatrough-and-tumbleplayresultsfromtheirabilitytocontroltheirbodymovementssothatneithertheynortheirplaypartnersarehurt(Paquetteetal.2003).Forexample,themotionsofrough-andtumbleplayaremostlytaggingandwrestlingmovesthateithercompletelyavoidbodycontact(“Youmissedme!”)orthatmakecontactinawaythatdoesnotcauseinjuryorharm.Andeventhoughitisgenerallyfriendswhoplaytogetherthisway,theyareoftenofunequalbodyweight,size,andstrength.

Leapingexpressesfaithinyourselfandinyourenvironment.Theopportunitytojumpfromdifferentheightsandlandsafelyisincomparable,atestofselfandgravity(Greenman2007,292).

So,howdochildrendeveloptheskillsofknowingtheirownstrengthandthen,ifnecessary,restrainingthemselvesforthesakeoftheplayandtheirrelationships?Theylearnbyparticipatinginthegive-and-takeofrough-and-tumbleplay,whichprovidesimmediatefeedback.Takethisscenario:

Twopreschoolboysarethrowingaballbackandforthontheplayground.Onecallstotheother,“Wanttowrestle?”Theotherboysays,“Sure!”So,theboysfalltotheground,puttheirarmsaroundeachother,andbegintowrestle.Thelargerboyrollsontopandpinsthesmallerboytotheground.Thesmallerboypushesagainstthelargerboy’schest,andthelargerboyjumpsup,saying,“I’llletyougofirstnexttime,causeI’mbigger.”

Thelargerboywasimmediatelyawareofhisphysicaladvantage.Healsorealizedthatifhewantedtheenjoyablewrestlingplaytocontinue,heneededtomakesomeprovisionforhislargersizeandgreaterstrength.Sohedecidedtoholdbacksome(calledself-handicapping)andallowthesmallerboytostrikefirst,sothematchcouldproceedmorefairlyandsolastlonger.Theexperienceprovidedbothchildrenfeedbackontheirrelativesizeandstrength.

FeelingandinteractingBigbodyplayalsoenhancessocialdevelopmentaschildrenlearnturntaking,self-handicapping,andcollaborativeplayingameswithrules.Theylearnsocialskillsthroughacceptingdominantandsubordinateroles,negotiating,anddevelopingandmaintainingfriendships.Bigbodyplaypromotescooperationandcompromise(Boulton&Smith1992).

Social-emotionaldevelopmentininfancyandtoddlerhoodThroughtheactive,unstructured,veryphysicalinteractionsbabiesandtoddlershavewiththeirownbodies,otherbabies,andadults,theylearnanincredibleamountaboutthemselves,theirbodies,andtheworld(McCune1998).Basedonthisknowledgeofselfandtheworld,theinteractionsbuildafoundationforcriticalemotionalabilities.Inbigbodyplay,animportantemphasisisonwhattheinfantislearningabouthisorherownbody(Sheets-Johnstone2008).

Self-concept,meaningaperson’sknowledgeabouthimselforherself,generallystartsdevelopingatabout1to2yearsold(Houck&Spegman1999).Inthesensorimotorphase,childrenatthisagemoveindependentlyandactontheirown.Theywillstarttorecognizethemselvesinamirrororpicture,andsooncanverballyarticulateawarenessofthemselvesasentitiesindependentfromtheirmotherandothersaroundthem.Thentheybegindemonstratingself-consciousemotions,suchasembarrassmentandpride(Houck1999).Butthisself-conceptallbeginswithanawarenessoftheirphysicalbody.Differentiatedcriesandcertainphysicalreactions,suchaskickinginprotest,indicatethatababyisdevelopingaself-concept.Theabilitytorepresentandreflectonone’sownbodyexplicitlyandobjectivelymaybeauniquedimensionofearlydevelopment,adistinctcomponentofobjectiveself-awarenessthatemergesintoddlerhood(Brownelletal.2007).Onceveryyoungchildrenareawareofhowmovementaffectstheirownbodies,theyarethenabletodevelopasenseofhowtheirmovementscanaffectothers.Empathyisthecombinedabilityofbeingabletointerpretwhatanotherpersonisfeelingandthentoexperiencerelatedemotionsyourself(Lightetal.2009).Itbeginswithanunderstandingofoneselfandone’sownreactionsandresponses.As

infantsgainawarenessoftheirownfeelings,theyareabletointerpretothers’feelingsandmatchthem.Inempathy,accordingtoSheets-Johnstone(2008),“Webasicallymakesenseofeachotherinwaysoutsidelanguage.Inthissensemaking,movementisourmatch-point”(194).Inthisphysicalway,then,empathyisborn.Considerthefollowingscenario:

Six-month-oldsZoeandNateareonablanketonthefloor,ZoeonherbackandNateonhisstomach.ZoeflipsoverandlandsonNate’sarm.AfterseveralsecondsofhavingZoe’sweightonhisarm,Natebeginstocry,vigorouslykickinghisfeetandlegsashedoes.AlarmedbyNate’scriesandkicks,Zoestaresathimforseveralseconds,thenrollsover.NowNateiscompletelyunderneathher.Zoewiggles,scoots,andsmiles.Natecontinuestocryandkick.Sherollsoffhim.Natequietsandrollsoverontoanotherareaoftheblanket.

Inthisscenario,bothbabiesexperiencemanyphysicalsensations,includingthefeelandweightofeachother’sbodiesagainsttheirown.NateisunhappywiththesensationofZoe’sbodyweightfirstonhisarmandthenonhischest.Judgingbyhiscriesandkicks,hefindsitsheavinessextremelyuncomfortable.WhenZoerollsoff,Natefeelsthepressurerelieved.Forherpart,ZoeexperiencesthefeelingofNate’sarmandbodyunderneathher,thesoundsofhiscries,andthepressureofhisfeetandlegskickingagainsther.Whensherollsaway,Zoefeelsflat,firmgroundunderneathher.BothexperiencethecessationofNate’scries.Throughthesemultiplesensationsandtheactofinitiatingvariousbehaviors(e.g.,crying,kicking,rollingaway),thebabiesaddedtotheirawarenessofselfandanother;theexperiencewasinformativeanduseful,eventhoughnotentirelypleasant.Theylearnedabouttheirownsensationsandaddedtotheiremergingself-concepts,experiencingthebeginningsofempathy.

Althoughroughand-tumbleplaylookstobeanactivityofphysicaldominance,it

actuallypromptschildrentolearnhowtorestrainthemselvesforthesakeoftheplayandtheirrelationships.

Preschoolandbeyond:Self-restraintandreciprocityAschildrenenterthekindergartenandprimaryyears,theywanttopracticeemergingsocialskillssuchasfairnessandreciprocity(turntaking);bigbodyplayprovidesrichopportunitiesforpracticingthose.Childrenbecomeawareoftheconsequencesoffailingtoharnessorhandicaptheirownstrengthsiftheopponentissmallerorweaker.Soalthoughroughand-tumbleplaylookstobeanactivityofphysicaldominance,itactuallypromptschildrentolearnhowtoholdbackphysically,howtorestrainthemselvesforthesakeoftheplayandtheirrelationships.Successfulrough-and-tumbleplaydependsonreciprocity.Childrenwhoplaythiswaywitheachotherusuallyarealreadyfriends,andtherough-and-tumbleplaycanenhancetheirrelationshipbysupportingtheskillsneededinstrongfriendships.Justasnoonewantsafriendwhotakesallthetimeorattention,orwhodominatesthewholeconversation,nochildwantsarough-and-tumbleplaypartnerwhodominatesthewholeactivity.Mostsuccessfulplayexperiences,likesuccessfulrelationships,aresuccessfulbecausebothpartnersknowhowtowait,howtogiveandtake,andhowtolistenaswellastalk.Inbigbodyplay,childrenhaveopportunitiestopracticeandbegintomastertheseskills.Forexample,consideragroupofchildrenplayingKingoftheHill.Inorderfortheplaytocontinue,thechildrenhavetotaketurnsbeingthe“King”aswellasbeingtheonesrolleddownthehill.IftheKingneverexchangedroleswiththeotherchildren,mostofthemwouldtirequicklyofalwaysbeingtheonesrolledandwouldquitthegame.Or,considerawrestlingbout.Ifonechildwerealwaystoenduponthebottom,thatchildwouldsoonnolongerwanttowrestle.Bothchildrenquicklylearnthattokeepthingsfunandinterestingandtoensuretheyhavesomeonetowrestlewith,theymusttaketurnsbeingonthebottom.Theyalsolearnthatinofferingtobeonthebottom,someoneelsegetstobeonthetop.Andinofferingtogolast,someoneelsegetstogofirst.

Waitingtobeontoporgofirstisrewardedbythefriendshipandthecontinuedplay.

Preschoolandbeyond:AssertivenessChildrenalsolearnanotherimportantsocialskillthroughrough-and-tumbleplay:howtostandupforthemselveswhennecessary(Paquetteetal.2003).Althoughchildrenwillrealizethatbackingdownandcompromisingarethemostsociallysuccessfulroutesinmostcases,therearetimeswhenassertivenesswillbetherightchoice.Becauserough-and-tumbleplaygiveschildrenopportunitiestofeelandknowtheirownstrength,theywillfeelmoreconfidentwhenasituationdemandssomedominanceorlimitsettingfromthem.Forexample,achildmightneedtoassertwhentheplayhasgoneontoolongorwhenhehashadenough:

AndyandEvanarerollingaroundontheplayground.Forseveralminutes,theywraptheirarmsaroundeachotherandrollside-to-sidethelengthoftheplayground.Andybeginstotireoftheplayandstartstogetup.Evanwantstocontinue,sohereachestopullhimback.Andy,whowantstostop,firmlysays,“No!”Evanreleaseshim,andhestandsandwalksaway.

Inthisscenario,theinteractionprovidedthetiredboyachancetopracticesuccessfulboundarysetting,engenderingconfidenceinhisowndecisionmakingandself-efficacy.

SociallyRejectedorAwkwardChildrenAsbeneficialasrough-and-tumbleplayisforchildrenwithtypicallydevelopingsocialskills,itisofasmuchandperhapsevenmorevalueforchildrenwhosesocialskillslag.Bigbodyplayprovidesopportunitiesfor“sociallyrejected”children—thosewholackthesocialskillsneededtoformsuccessfulrelationships—toexperienceandpracticetheveryskillstheylack:turntaking,understandingnonverbalsignalsandbodylanguage,usingwordstocommunicateemotionsanddesires,boundarysetting,andastrongsenseofself.

Unfortunatelyforthesechildren,though,withoutthesesameskillsasprecursors,rough-andtumbleplayisdifficult,sometimesimpossible,forthem.Sociallyrejectedchildrenoftenmisunderstandtheplayfulintentoftheirplaymates’tagsandjabsandrespondtothemina

hostilemanner.Indeed,rough-and-tumbleplayis25timesmorelikelytobecomerealfightingwhensociallyrejectedchildrenareamongtheparticipants(Schafer&Smith1996;Smithetal.2004).

Becauseofthismorefrequentescalationoffriendlyplayintoaggressionandsometimesviolentplay,teachersarehesitanttoallowsociallyrejectedchildrentoengageinrough-and-tumbleplay,fearing—andperhapsrightlyso—thatsomeonewillgethurt.

Whatresearchshows,however,isthat“itmaynotbethecasethatthemoresociallycompetentchildrenengageinmoreplay-fighting,butratherthattheplay-fightingmaypromotethedevelopmentofsocialcompetency”(Pellis&Pellis2007,97).Inotherwords,it’spossiblethatsociallysavvychildrendon’tcometotheplayalreadythatway;theygetthatwayfromtheplay.

CommunicatingBigbodyplayenhanceslanguagedevelopmentaschildrenuseandlearntounderstandnonverbalcommunication.Italsohelpsthemtounderstandthereciprocalnatureoflanguageinconversation,practicedsobeautifullyinthereciprocalnatureofrough-and-tumbleplay.Childrenlearnlanguageskillsthroughsignalsandnonverbalcommunication,includingtheabilitytoperceive,infer,anddecode.

Oneofthemaincontributionsofbigbodyplaytochildren’sdevelopmentisthewayitsupportsnonverbalcommunicationthroughitsuseofsignals.

DifferentiatedcriesandgesturesininfancyThemotionsandgesturesthatinfantsoftenusetocommunicatewithadultsandwithotherinfantsdemonstratetheemergenceofpre-linguisticskills.Suchsignalingisthewaychildrenbegintoexpresstheirneeds,beginningininfancy(Paquetteetal.2003).Forexample,thesoundofacrythatababymakeswheninthephysicaldiscomfortofbeingrolledonbyanotherbabyisdifferentfromthecryexpressingfatigueorhunger.Babiesexperiencingthedispleasureofaphysicalsensationmightalsokicktheirlegs,asNatedidintheearliervignette,orpushorwavetheirarms.Andbabiesexperiencing

joyintheinteractionmightcooorsmileorclosetheireyes.Bysmilingandwiggling,forexample,ZoesignaledthatsheenjoyedthesensationofbeingoffthegroundandonNate’sbody.Thedifferentiatedcries,coos,facialexpressions,andactionssuchaskickingprovidetheinfanttheopportunitytopracticecommunicating.Thisuseofbothverbalandnonverbalcommunicationprovidesthefoundationforlaterlanguagelearning.

Preschoolandbeyond:SignalsandnonverbalcommunicationOneofthemaincontributionsofbigbodyplaytochildren’sdevelopmentisthewayitsupportsnonverbalcommunicationthroughitsuseofsignals(Bjorklund&Brown1998;Paquetteetal.2003).Whenonechildwantstoinviteanotherchildtojointheplay,forexample,shemaysignalbywavingorgesturing“comehere.”Duringthecourseoftheplay,childrenmightsignalfortheplaypartnertostop(holdingoutbothhandsinfront,palmsandfingersup),orforthepartnertogetuporgetoff(bothhandsplacedfirmlyagainsttheotherchild),orfortheothertomoveorgotheotherdirection(handswavingbackandforth,orfingersswirlinginacircularmotion).Themostoftenusedsignalinrough-and-tumbleplay,andtheonethatseemstouniversallysignifytheplayfulnatureoftheseveryphysicalinteractions,isthe“playface.”Childrensmilewhentheyareplayinginafriendlyandappropriateway.Theirsmilessignaltheiracceptanceandenjoymentoftheplay.Itiswhatclearlydenotesrough-and-tumbleplayasplayratherthanasaggression,sendinganunmistakablesignalthatthechildfindstheexperiencewelcomingandjoyful.Childrenalsousetheireyestosignaldesireandintent.Forexample,achildwhoisenjoyingtheplaymightclosehereyeswhilelaughing.Incontrast,achildexperiencingpainordispleasurewouldwidenhereyesorbegintostare.Whenchildrenlearntodecodesuchsignals,theirabilitytosucceedsociallyisenhanced(Pellegrini&Smith1998b).Asfriendshipsbegintoformduringthepreschoolyears,successfulcommunicationisfoundationaltothesebuddingfriendships.Whenchildrenknowhowtocorrectly“read”andunderstandwhatothersarecommunicatingthroughtheireyesorgesturesorfacialexpressions,eachchildisbetterabletoformstrongfriendships.

Thepracticeofdevelopingnarrativestogoalongwiththeplayisanimportantbridgetolaterinvolvementinsportsandothersociallycompetitiveactivitiesthatarelanguagebased.

Preschoolandbeyond:Negotiation,narration,andotherlanguageskillsInadditiontostrengtheningdecodingandnonverbalskills,rough-andtumbleplayprovidesauniqueopportunityforstrengtheningverbalskills,particularlynegotiatingandnarrating.Becauseyoungchildrenarenotnaturalturntakers,theyoftenhavetodiscuss“therules”ortheplansfortheplaybeforetheybegin,andtheydiscusshowtoadjustthingsastheygo.Tosucceedatthis,theymustuseandmasterearlynegotiationskillsastheyplaywiththeirpeers.Inthefollowingvignette,forexample,oneboyverbalizesaplanforplaythatallowsthegametoproceedwithoutfightingordistress:

Afteragroupofchildrendecidetohangupsidedownfromaclimbingstructure,theyhavetodecidewhowillgofirst,next,andsoon.Severalchildren,ofcourse,wanttogofirst.Danteoffersthat,“Oncewestartgoing,theneverybodywillgettobefirst,”meaningthatthe

nextchildinlinewillalwaysthenbe“first”afterthechildatthefrontofthelinegoes.Someofthechildrenareunderstandablyskeptical.Oncethelinebeginstomove,though,theyseethatheiscorrect—eachchildnowhasaturnbeing“first”inline.

Thisexampledemonstratesverybasicnegotiation,whereinallthechildrenwitnessedoneboy’sabilitytofindandofferasolutionandtocommunicateiteffectivelytotheothers.ThesituationprovidedachanceforDantetopracticehiscommunicationskills.Anditsetanexampleforthelesssociallyskilledchildrentolearnfromandfollow.Asgamesbecomemorecomplexamongstolderyoungchildren,therulestheynegotiate,andhowtheydoso,becomemorecomplex,aswell.Jarvis(2007a)evenreferstoa“rule-negotiationculture”inemphasizinghowabsorbedyoungchildrenbecomeincreatingandadheringtotherulesoftheirself-madegames(256).Thetenderingofrulesisoftenembeddedinanarrative,whichcanbeafantasy,anexplanationoftheactivity,orawaytoaugmenttheeventstakingplace—allwaystoconnectthoughtsandactionsthroughlanguage.Developmentally,thepracticeofdevelopingnarrativestogoalongwiththeplayisanimportantbridgetolaterinvolvementinsportsandothersociallycompetitiveactivitiesthatarelanguagebased.Afterthepreschoolages,thereisametamorphosisfromthemoreimpulsive,chaoticrowdyplayintomoreformalizedgameswithsimple(andevenlater,elaborate)child-developedrules(Jarvis2007a;Pellegrini1989).Interestingly,theretypicallyarequitespecificgenderdifferencesinthenarrations,indicatingthatbigbodyplayeithercontributestoorreveals,orboth,thedivergingdevelopmentofboysandgirls.Jarvis(2007a),inastudyof4and5-year-olds,foundthatboysandgirlscreateddifferenttypesofstorieswithhighlyspecificgenderroles.Girls’narrativesaroundtheirplaytendedtoshowcompetitionforbeingthenicest,whereasboys’narrativesemphasizedtheirtoughness.Thenarrativesmightinvolveroleplayingofanimals,fairytalecharacters,popularmediacharacters,andsoforth,providingplentyofpracticeforimprovingonchildren’sgrowinglanguageskills.

Thinking

Frominfancyonward,bigbodyplayenhancescognitivedevelopment,improvingyoungchildren’sproblem-solvingandspatialskills,attention,andachievement.

LocomotionandexplorationininfancyMovementandthetactileexplorationthatcomewithbigbodyplaybothfosterlearningininfants.Basiclocomotionactivities—cruising,crawling,sitting,pullingtostand,andotherbigbodymovements—teachaninfantaboutherownbodyinrelationtoherenvironment.Withopportunitiesforphysicalexperiences,shecanknowwheresheisinrelationtoobjectsandotherthingssimplybylookingaroundandmakingaconnectionbetweenhervisualandphysicalexperiences(Uchiyamaetal.2008).Wheninfantsbangobjectswiththeirhands,throwormouthobjects,squeezeaball,orreachforandgrabfabrics,toys,andeachother,theyareexhibitingcuriosity,ahallmarkofhealthycognitivedevelopment.Whenwesupporttheirbodymovements,wesupporttheircuriosityandlearning(Honig2009).

Preschoolandbeyond:Problem-solvingskillsAttimes,bigbodyplayrequirescomplexdecision-makingandproblemsolvingskills.Problemsolvingisrequiredbecausechildrenmustfirstpayattention,thenplan,organize,sequence,andmakedecisionsaboutwhattheywillplayandhow.Onestudyofkindergarten-ageboysshowedthattheamountoftimespentinactivesocialplaywithotherboysdirectlypredictedtheirproblem-solvingskillsayearlater(Pellegrini&Blatchford2000).Howmightthisconnectionbetweenactivesocialplayandskilldevelopmentwork?Sayagroupofpreschoolerswanttohangupsidedownfromthetoprungofaladderonapieceofclimbingequipmentontheirplayground.Severalproblem-solvingstepsareinvolvedtoachievetheplay:

Theyfirstseetherung(payattention),thentheybegintodiscusshowtohangfromit(plan).Thehangingfromitpartisdifficultbecauseitwillrequireachildtobeabletopullalegupandovertherung,andthenpulltheotherlegupandovertherung,allwhilestillhangingontherung.Onechildbeginstodothis.Heissuccessful,andswingsupsidedownforseveralsecondsbefore

grabbingtherungwithhishands,swinginghislegsaround,anddroppingtotheground.Thenextthreechildrenallhavedifficulty.Theydiscusstheirdifficulty,anddecidetoaskforhelp(organizing)fromtheteacher—whohasbeencloselysupervisingthisactivity.Eachchildtellstheteacherwhatkindofsupportheorsheneeds,sayingthingssuchas,“Helpmeholdon”or“Nowhelpmepullmyfootout”(sequencing).Onechild,afterseveralattempts,decidesthetaskistoohard,andhedecidestoclimbdown(decisionmaking).

Throughoutrough-and-tumbleplay,childrenhavetomakeassessmentsabouttheirowncapacities;abouttheirplaypartners’capacitiesandrelativesize,speed,orstrength;abouttheirpartners’abilitytodecodesignalsandcapitulate;abouthowtogetoutofanuncomfortablesituation;abouthowtoachievewhatpeersorolderchildrenachieve;aboutwhattosay,andhowtosayit,toenhancetheplay;abouthelpingaweakerorlesscompetentpeer;aboutwhentoengageanadult;andsoforth.Rough-and-tumbleplayprovidesuniqueopportunitiestopracticeallkindsofproblem-solvingskills.Exercisingtheseskillsmightseemtobesimplyaboutcompetitionanddominance.Infact,theskillshavebeenshowntoallowchildrentoexplorethecomplexdynamicsofjusticemediationandpeacekeeping(Holland2003).Thesocialcomponentsofroughand-tumbleplayhavepositiveimplicationsforthedevelopmentoftheindividual,theharmonyofthegroup,andsolidarityamongstpeersandwithinchildren’scommunityatlarge.

Usetheelementsofmovement—space,shape,force,flow,time,andrhythm—toencouragechildrentodiscovervariouswaystoperformskills.Ifchildrenarejumpingaroundtheplaygroundorclassroom,askthemplayfullytotryjumpingbackward,sideways,oraroundincircles;whilebeingverybigorverysmall;

withpausesinbetween;andslowlyorquickly(Pica2006,78).

Preschoolandbeyond:SpatialskillsResearchershavespeculatedthatgenderdifferencesinthetypesofphysicalplaythatchildrenchoosemayshedlightonthelinksbetweenroughand-tumbleplayandcognitivedevelopment,specificallyspatialskills(Bjorklund&Brown1998).SilvermanandEals(1992)suggestedthatagenderdivisioninlaborinancienttimes—malesbeingmoreinvolvedinhuntingandnavigationandfemalesmoreinvolvedinforaging—mayhaveledtoanevolutionofgenderdifferencesthatshowsupinspatialabilitiesandphysicalplay.Forexample,boystendtochooseactivitiesthatrequirehand-eyecoordination,suchasfootballorclimbingontreesorequipment;andboystendtoperformbetterthangirlsoncognitivetasksthatrequirementalrotationandinvolvespatialrelations.Girlstendtoperformbetterontasksrequiringfinemotorskillsandonobject-locationmemorytasks(Silverman&Eals1992).Likewise,inastudyofpreschoolers,researchersagainfoundgenderdifferencesinspatialabilities,andasignificant,positivecorrelationbetweentheamountoftimespentonspatialactivitieswhileplayingandperformanceontestsofspatialabilities(Connor&Serbin1977).Sometypesofbigbodyplayrequireagreatdealofspatialability,suchasestimatinghowfasttoruntowhichspottokickasoccerball,orthinkingthroughandenactingthecomplexplaysoneseesonabasketballcourt,orinthesimilarmade-upgamesyoungchildrendevise.Thesegamesinvolvingbigbodyplaycontributetoimprovedspatialskills,andthemorechildren(ofbothsexes)usethoseskills,thebettertheyget(Bjorklund&Brown1998).

Rough-and-TumblePlayforBoysInaggressivesports,theopposingplayercongratulateshard,cleanhits.Thisknowledgebeginsatanearlyagewherefathersarerollingaroundonthefloorwiththeirinfantsons.

—ReedandBrown2000,335

Rough-and-tumbleplayisgoodforallchildren,butitseemstohaveastrongandspecialdrawforboysinparticular.Theyengageinitmoreoftenthangirls,theydevelopboys-onlygamesandculturesaroundit,andtheremaybeuniquebenefitsofrough-and-tumbleplayforthem.Thatboysengagemorethangirlsdoincontact-orientedrough-and-tumbleplayiswell-established(Carsonetal.1993;DiPietro1981;Humphreys&Smith1984).Thereiscertainlyplentyofmixed-genderroughplay,butboystendtoinitiaterough-and-tumbleplaymoreoftenandgirlstendtowithdrawfromitsooner(Fabes1994;Meanyetal.1985;Pellisetal.1996).Also,startingbyage4orso,boystendtoself-groupinboys-onlygames,whereasgirlstendtosegregatethemselvesfromtheboys’games(Fabes1994;Jarvis2007a).Also,whenboysaredeprivedofopportunitiesforactivephysicalplay,theyareespeciallyactivewhentheydogettoplaycomparedwithgirls,whoarelessso(Pellegrini&Smith1998a).Whyshouldsuchadifferenceexist?Itmaybebiological,atleastinpart,sincelevelsoftestosteronehaveaclearinfluenceonhowmuchchildrenofbothsexesengageinveryphysicalplay,andofcourse,boyshavehigherlevelsoftestosteronethangirls(Hinesetal.2002).Itmayalsoinpartbecultural,asboyspracticedefendingtheirturfandprotectingtheirterritory;somewouldevenarguethesegamesareaprecursortoasenseofnationalismandpatriotisminadulthood(O’Donnell&Sharpe2004).Jarvis(2007a)studiedagroupofkindergarten-ageboysplayingsoccerandwrote:

AlthoughIneverobservedanydiscussionbetweenthechildrenonthispoint,thedivisionofterritorybetweentheagecohortswithintheschool(withthefieldsplitintoroughquarters)wasneverdisregardedduringthetimesofmyobservations;thechildrenappearedtohaveafirm,implicitlyagreedsenseofwhere“their”territorybeganandended.(251)

Asnotedinthesectiononcognitivethinking,thereisalsoalinkbetweenboys’choicesofphysicalplayactivitiesandtheirperformanceonspatial-skillstests,perhapslendingsupporttoanevolutionaryperspectiveonrough-andtumbleplay.Yetperhapsthemostmovingandcompellingaspectsofrough-and-tumbleplayforboysarefoundinthesocialdynamicsofthe

interactionsthatexistonlywithinboys-onlyroughplay.Boyslearnfromeachotherhowtoshowcareandconcern,howtoprotectothers,howtoassertanddefendthemselvesinsociallysuccessfulways,howtoplayoutstoriesandfantasiesinwhatJordan(1995,76)callsa“warriordiscourse,”howtonegotiaterules,andhowtotoucheachotherinmale-acceptableways.ConsiderthisdescriptionofboysinkindergartentoearlyprimarygradesintheUnitedKingdomplaying“football”(soccerintheUnitedStates):

Theboysclearlyshowedcareandconcerntowardseachotherinordernottoexcluderegularmembersofthefootballinggroup.WhenRorywasrecoveringfromabrokenarmandwasnotsupposedtoengageinroughfootballfortheweekafterhiscastwastakenoff,theotherboysplayingfootballencouragedhimtojoinin,madeapointofpassingtohimandrefrainedfromtacklinghimwhenhehadtheball.Asubtlesignallingsystemwasalsoobservedthatallowedthefootballplayerstoshowapprovaltowardsoneanother,alighttapontheback,usuallyadministeredbyaslightlyolderboytoaboywhohadtakenaheavyfalloraminorinjurywithoutmakingafuss.(Jarvis2007a,252)

Thereareclearmentoringrelationshipsamongtheboys,whereintheolderormoresociallyadeptboyssubtlyteachtheyoungerorlessmatureboyshowtodisplaytoughnesswhilesimultaneouslyshowingawarenessandcareaboutothers’well-being.Throughrough-and-tumbleplay,boyslearnthatitisokaytojumpupanddownandhugwhenagoalisscored—butnotwhenyougethurt.Theyalsolearnhownottotouchtheirfriends(e.g.,noholdinghands)andhowandwhentotouchtheirfriends(e.g.,alighttaponthebackafterascoreoraftershowingtoughness).Throughrough-and-tumbleplay,boyslearnandpracticewaysofexpressingamasculinetypeofintimacythatisreservedformale-to-malefriendships.Beingtoughisacriticalingredientforsocialsuccessforboys.Itrelatestopeerstatus,topopularity,andtoleadershiproleswithinpeergroups(Hartup1983;Pellegrini,1995;Strayer1980;Vaugn&Waters1981).Boysuserough-andtumbleplayasauniquemeansbothofdiscoveringtheirtoughnessforthemselvesandofestablishingtheirtough

reputationamongsttheirpeers.Andallofthismustbedoneinawaythatpreservesfriendships.Boyshavetolearnhowtoshowtheyarestrongerandfasterthanotherboys,whilealsoshowingtheyknowhowtoholdbackontheirstrengthorspeedsoasnottohurtafriend.Itisacomplicatedandsophisticatedprocess,everdynamicasrelativephysicalstrengthschangeandassocialandemotionalskillsemergeandchange.

—HeatherBiggarTomlinson

Preschoolandbeyond:AttentionandachievementBjorklundandBrown(1998)putitplainlywhentheywrote,“Despitethesocialconsequencesof[rough-and-tumble]activity,themechanismsinvolvedareeverybitas‘cognitive’asarethoseassociatedwithmathseat-work”(604).Vigorousphysicalactivity,thekindthatisassociatedwithunstructuredbigbodyplay,indeedhasarelationshiptocognitiveandacademicperformance(Tomporowskietal.2008).

Whilesittingincreasesfatigueandreducesconcentration,movementfeedsoxygen,water,andglucosetothebrain,optimizingitsperformance(Pica2006,112).

Bigbodyplaygetschildren’sbloodgoingandmindsmoving,orrather,getsthemindsettled;ithasbeenlinkedtobetterattentionandconcentrationskillsinschool(Hillmanetal.2005;Shephard1996;Taras2005).Byprovidingregularopportunitiesforphysicalactivityandatleastanhouradayforsustained,moderatetovigorous,unstructuredphysicalplay,adultsnotonlysupporthealthybigbodyplaybutalsosupportchildren’speriodsofquietattention:Childrentendtoremaincalmforlongerperiodsoftimefollowingtheveryactiveplay(Scott&Panksepp2003).Anewkindergartenteachersharedhisexperience:

Iwasteachingmyheartout,butIdidnotfeelthatmystudentswerelearning.Theywereconstantlytouchingeachother,pullinghair,rollingonthefloor,standingup,andplayingwiththeirjacketsandclothes.Thenoneday,

ItoldmyselfthatIhadtriedthingstheconventionalway,andnowIwasgoingtotrythingsmyway.Fromthenon,Ihadmystudentsupandmoving.Wesangsongsandmarchedaroundtheroomtolearnthedaysoftheweekandthemonthsoftheyear.Wediddailyphysicalexercises.Wedidmathbycreatingpatternswithourbodies,suchassnap,clap,stompandjump,run,wiggle.Wedidskip-countingusinghiphopmusicthatthekidswerefamiliarwith.Afterafewdaysofthis,mystudentswereabletositandlistenduringthetimesthatrequiredthemtodoso.Theywerenottouchingeachother,pullinghair,rollingonthefloor,standingup,orplayingwiththeirjacketsandclothes.Mykidswerelearning,andtheywerehappy.Trueteachingwastakingplace.

Recentstudiesexaminingthousandsofchildrenshowthatactivephysicalactivityandplayarerelatedtobetterperformanceinbothreadingandmathematics(Grissom2005;Stevensetal.2008).Aspreviouslynoted,itseemstobethatitisvigorous,activeplay—ratherthanatraditionalphysicaleducationcurriculumperse,whichmaynotprovideanintenseboutofactivity—thatisassociatedwithhigheracademicperformance(Coeetal.2006).Children’sself-determinedroughand-tumbleplayisgoodforthemindaswellasthebody.

***Boisterous,rowdy,loud,vigorous,rough,exuberant,andalwaysphysicalinnature,bigbodyplayisthenaturallyoccurringplaystylethatgiveschildrentheopportunitiestheyneedforoveralloptimumdevelopment.

Frombirth,childrengatherenormousinformationfromtheirbodies.Theylearnaboutthemselves,andabouthowtheyaffecttheenvironmentandothersinit.Thisself-knowledgeandworldknowledgeformsthefoundationforfutureexplorationandlearning.Thisfoundation,builtonampleopportunitiestolearnabouttheirownbodies,boundaries,strength,needs,abilities,power,andcontrol,canprovideyoungchildrenthephysical,social-emotional,andthinkingskillstohavehealthy,rewardingexperiencesandsuccessfulrelationshipsinearlychildhoodandthroughouttheirlives.HangingfromthemonkeybarsandplayingTagandsoccerisakindofseriousbusiness.Butit’snottheprocessthatisserious—playingisresolutelynotserious—it’stheresultsthatareserious,inagoodway.Asmuchaschildrenneedrough,rowdyplayforstayingphysicallyfit,theyneeditevenmoretolearnaboutthecomplexsocialdynamicsamongstfriendsandpeers,togainproblem-solvingexperience,topracticeempathyandnegotiationskills,andtobereadytositandfocusinsidetheclassroomwhenthatisrequired.Asdiscussedinthenextchapter,ifweadultscanprovidethetime,space,andencouragementforsafebigbodyplay,wewillberewarded.Wewillseechildrenwhoshowdelightandexuberance;whoarespontaneousandcreativeintheirplay;whocan“runwild”andthensitcalmly,readytofocus;andwhoareconfidentinthemselvesandselflesstowardtheirpeers.

ExcerptfromBigBodyPlay:WhyBoisterous,Vigorous,andVeryPhysicalPlayIsEssentialtoChildren’sDevelopmentandLearningByFrancesM.Carlson.Copyright©2018bytheNationalAssociationfortheEducationofYoungChildren.SeePermissionsandReprintsonlineatwww.NAEYC.org/resources/permissions