What is personality? The first question….. “The Steadfast Philosopher," by Gerard von Honthurst (1623)

What is personality?

The first question…..

“The Steadfast Philosopher," by Gerard von Honthurst (1623)

Personality

• The meaning has changed through history : from “external illusion” to “surface reality” and finally to opaque or veiled inner traits.

• From the greek word personé (masque worn by dramatic actors)

Personality

• It is seen today as a complex pattern of psychological characteristics, largely unconscious and not easily altered, expressing themselves automatically in almost every facet of functioning.

Defining Personality

• Affective and willingness totality of the individual (instinct, temperament, character) (Bini-Bazzi)

Allport (1937) • Biosocial definition:

•the character of the individual as a “social stimulus” personality is a consequence of interpersonal relationships.

• Biophisic definition: personality is the totality of subjective qualities and characteristics it has an organic aspect and a measurable quality.

Different meaning from:

From the greek word temperà (melting pot)it reflects the constitutional disposition to activity and emotionality

TemperamentMillon-Davis

Aspect of personality concerning affectivity and elemental psychomotility•emotivity (ability, intensity and expressivity of own feelings)•fundamental affective tone

TemperamentBini-Bazzi

Different meaning from:

From the greek word charaktēr (incision) it meanly indicates the moral and social value dimensions of personality

Character Millon-Davis

Totality of the elements characterizing the values and purpose of the individual•self evaluation (ipervaluation, subvaluation, ambivalence)•purpose (submission, dominance)

Character Bini-Bazzi

Theophraste (c. 370 - c. 265)

Aristotle’s pupil, friend and collaborator before becoming his successor at the Lyceum,

The little book of “Characters” was destinated to moral education, rhetorical, dramatic formation or to simple amusement?

Theophraste: The 30 characters

1. The Clever 2. The Flatterer 3. The Great talker 4. The Lout 5. The Flagornor 6. The Rabble 7. The Speechifier 8. The Gazette 9. The Shameless 10. The Skinflint 11. The Boor 12. The Bore 13. The busybody 14. The thoughtless 15. The Rude 16. The Superstitious 17. The Grouser 18. The Being wary 19. The Disgusting 20. The Bore 21. The maker 22. The skinflints 23. The hablor 24. Arrogant 25. The couard 26. Reactionary 27. Old youth

28. The Scandalmonger

29. The Rabble

30. The covetous one

No definition of personality could be considered

universally accepted…..

It depends on the different “personality theory” of reference

Theories about personality development

• Constitutionalistic• Olistic• Objectivistic• Social learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-

existentialist

• Cognitivistic• Functionalinstic (Allport)• Field theory (Lewin)• Personology (Murray)• Biosocial (Murphy)• Personal constructs

(Kelly)• Self (Rogers)• Marxism• Factorial

Theories about personality• Constitutionalistic• Olistic• Objectivistic• Social learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-

existentialist



Hall C S, Lindzey G, Teorie della personalità, 1986, [email protected]


• Constitutionalistic• Olistic• Objectivistic• Social learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-existentialist

Constitutionalistic theory

• From the ancient greek-roman medicine: Hippocrates - Galen

• Humoral doctrines: all diseases stemmed from an excess of or imbalance among four bodily humours


yellow bile = hearth choleric temperament


black bile = water melancholic temperament


blood = fire sanguine temperament


phlegm = air phlegmatic temperament

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types

• pyknic: large thorax and abdomen, soft and poorly muscled limbs, tendency towards obesity


• athletic: extensive muscular development, broad skeletal endowment


• asthenic: fragile, possessing thin muscularity, frail bone structure


• dysplastic: a mixture of the other three variants

Ernst Kretchmer

• Psychotic disorders are accentuations of normal personality types

William Sheldon: Three basic dimension

• Endomorphy: predominance of roundness and softness viscerotomia (gregariousnes, easy expression of feeling and emotion, love of confort, avoidance of pain, dependance on social approval)


• Mesomorphy: muscular and connective tissue dominance somatotomia (assertiveness, physical energy, low anxiety, courage, social callousness, indifference to pain, need for action and power when troubled)


• Ectomorphy: linearity and fragility of structure cerebrotonia (restraint, self-consciousness, introversion, social awardness, desire for solitude when troubled)

Ectomorph thin frail physique cerebrotonia shy, restrained, introspective anxious, neurotic

Somatotypes

Endomorph soft, rounded physique relaxed, social easy going depressed, over-indulgent

Somatotypes

Mesomorph muscular, strong physique bold, assertive, energetic aggressive, hyperactive, Type A

Somatotypes


Constitutionalistic• Holistic • Objectivistic• Social learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-existentialist

Holistic theory

• K. Goldstein

Is more useful studying an individual completely than an isolated psychical function in many individuals

Holistic theory

• A. H. Maslow

Personality is an integration of basic needs– physiological needs (hunger, thirst)– security needs (belonging to a group, love)– cognitive and aesthetic needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

safetyphysiological

BasicBasic NeedsNeeds

esteembelonging, lovePsychological NeedsPsychological Needs

“peak experience.” self fulfillmentActualizing NeedsActualizing Needs

Key Assumptions

inherent striving for self-realization

satisfaction of needs leads to growth

frustration of needs leads to pathology

self-actualization

Self-Actualized People

ideal self = perceived (actual) take responsibility for self-change acknowledge imperfections and

ordinary feelings like others accept themselves as worthwhile

Self-Actualized People

have a deep feeling of kinship with others

enjoy solitude as well as companionship

are able to focus on problems outside themselves

are strongly ethical, creative

Holistic theory

• P. Lecky

Personality is the maintaining of a unified and auto - consistent aspect in an unstable environment, from which the individual accepts the self - coherent values and rejects the others.

Abhidharma….oriental psychology• The mind is the start

point, the focus point and also, the arrival point

• Psychopathology is due to a lack of control on the mind-body

Abhidharma….oriental psychology• There is no agent

separated from the action, no percept separated from perception, no coscient subject separated from conscience

• Meditation conducts to a sane personality– Concentration– Attention


ConstitutionalisticHolistic • Objectivistic• Social learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-existentialist

Objectivistic theory

• Russian reflexologic school– I. P. Pavlov

• force (scarce sensibility to peripheric stumuli)• equilibrium (related to EEG indexes)• mobility (adaptive capacity)

• American behaviourism– J. B. Watson

• habits (cue + response) as fundaments • drives (instinct and learning) as dynamic factors


ConstitutionalisticHolistic Objectivistic• Social learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-existentialist

Social learning theory• J.B Rotter

– personality is the characteristic way to react to an identifiable situation

– potential behaviour (interaction between the individual and the environment)

– expectation of the individual, based on his/her past experiences

– reinforcement strictly connected to motivation

– motivation


ConstitutionalisticOlisticObjectivisticSocial learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-existentialist

Theories of

Personality...a distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual.Sigmund Freud

Alfred Adler

Carl Jung

Jung and Adler were “Freud pupils”, who used some Freudian ideas but developed many ideas of their own...

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Thoughts and behavior are guided mainly by the unconscious part of the mind.

• Sexual motivation plays a central role in everyday life.

• Concept of “infantile sexuality”: erotic experiences in infancy and early childhood shape personality in adulthood.

Three Main Components

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Conscious: everything we are aware of at the moment; just the “tip of the iceberg”.

• Preconscious: memories that we can bring to consciousness.

• Unconscious: memories, wishes, and instincts (desires) that are too threatening or painful to bring to consciousness.

Three Levels of the Mind

According to Freud, much of what people do, think and feel is really a way of avoiding anxiety.Anxiety is the way the body signals us that we face a threatening situation.

For Freud, the threat comes from the unconscious: an unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulse.Protecting ourselves from this anxiety is normal and natural. Carried to an extreme, it becomes a psychological disorder:

Neurosis: a disorder in which one’s efforts to avoid anxiety interfere with or limit normal human functioning; it involves self-punishing, self-defeating behavior, and emotional or physical symptoms.

Freud assumed that neurotic patients were like normal individuals; they just went too far in their efforts to avoid anxiety.

The theory is harder to apply to a more severe type of disorder:

Psychosis: an extreme mental disturbance involving distorted perceptions of reality and irrational behavior; basically, a complete break with reality.

Freud said that personality is divided into 3 parts, ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO. They are always in conflict but most of the time the conflict is unconscious.

Psychodynamic Theories

Unconscious Conscious

Personality = Interplay

Motives

Conflicts

Key Assumptions

psychic determinism - all feelings, thoughts, actions have a purpose, are motivated

personality is determined by events or actions from early life

personality is the interplay of conscious and unconscious conflicts, motives

Key Concepts

developmental stages

psychodynamic (object) relations

defense mechanisms

Structure of the Mind

Unconscious:material unavailable to current awareness - motivated forgetting

Preconscious: material available to awareness, momentarily out of consciousness - lack of attention

Perceptual Conscious: material in current awareness

Windows to the Unconscious

dreams

humor

slips of the tongue

ID: source of libidinal (sexual) and aggressive drives

Pleasure Principle: immediate gratification of drives and impulses

Personality Structure


EGO: Source of rational choice

Reality Principle: search for realistic, balanced gratification of drives

SUPEREGO: Source of “socially correct” choice - “conscience”

Morality Principle: demands for “perfect” behavior “always”, regardless of circumstances


egoidid

demands demands ofof

real worldreal world

superego superego

Well-Balanced Personality Structure

egoiddemands demands

of of real worldreal world

superego superego

Antisocial Personality

egoidid

demands demands of of

real worldreal world

super ego

Compulsive Personality

egoidid

demands of real world

Depressed, Anxious

superegosuperego

id

demands of real world

Psychotic PersonalityPsychotic Personality

superego ego

Jung’s Psychological Types Theory

• Attitudes (extroversion and introversion)• Functions (judgement criteria: thought - feeling,

perception criteria: intuition - sensation)• 8 psychological types based on the combination of

the two attitudes with the four functions– introverted thought extroverted thought– introverted feeling extroverted feeling– introverted intuition extroverted intuition– introverted sensation extroverted sensation

Jung’s Psychological Types Theory

• Attitudes (extroversion and introversion)

• the attitude towards which the subject orients him/herself :– on the objective reality (extroverted)– on the subjective reality (introverted)

• judgement functions (thought and feeling)– rational function: they proceed through

value attributions

• perception functions (intuition and sensation)– perceptive functions: they proceed

through sense

Adler’s Theory

• Personality is the result of the conflict between power will (which attempts to compensate the inferiority complex) and social feeling (which is caused by the need of co-operation of the individual whit his/her limits)

• differences in personality are due to different cultural values and adaptability to the environmental circumstances.

Reich’s Theory• Personality is a chronic alteration of ego, to

protect it from internal and external harms• it is an armour, and so a limitation of the

psychic mobility.• This limitation is attenuated by some

atypical relationships, the only free communications in a blinded system (bioenergetics)

• two principles– endogenous = libido– exogenous = “orgone” (education, ethics, “social

needs” satisfaction)

• these two principles are in conflict: personality is the result

Reich’s Theory

• Hysteric: nervous, agile, inconstant, apprehensive

• Coactus: inhibited, depressive

• Phallic - narcissistic: self confident, arrogant, vigorous, impressive

• Masochist: who feels pleasant all the things that other people feel unpleasant

Reich’s Theory - developments: A. Lowen

• Oral: characterised by the desire and pleasure to talk as a mean to obtain attention, interest and love

• Masochist: characterised by a self directed aggressiveness

• Hysteric: characterised by an excess of energy which overcome the ego

• Phallic-narcissistic: characterised by exaggerated sexuality and aggressiveness to compensate a constitutional weakness

M. Klein’s Theory

• The development of personality is essentially relationship related

• first relationship are fundamental for future personality development: mother-infant relationship

• schizo - paranoid position: first 4 months of life– aggressiveness co- exist with libido: the object is partial

and divided, the processes actuated are introjection and projection; fear has a persecution character and the not - integrated ego defends itself with scission and denial

• depressive position: after the fifth month of life– scission between the good object and the bad object is

attenuated and the child perceives the mother as a whole person; the fear becomes depressive for the imagined harm of destroying the mother

Object Relations focus on mental representations of self

and others

integration of the positive and negative aspects into realistic whole

formation of attachments – intimate relations

attachment theory

K. Horney’s Theory

• Personality develops as the result of the conflicts between the individual and the environment, between the need of a passive dependence and the defence against an hostile society

• “basic anxiety” = is produced by all the situations disturbing the confidence of children in the relationship with their parents

• the children react against this basic anxiety with different attitudes: hostility, submission, evasion, which can become stable drives or needs in personality dynamics

O. Rank’s Theory

• Personality depends on the fixation in one of the three phases of development

– the phase in which the individual wants the things the others want Dependent Character

– The phase of the conflict between the individual exigencies and the exigencies of the others Neurotic Character

– The phase in which the individual integrates his exigencies with the exigencies of the others Integrated Character

E. Fromm’s Theory• Personality is the result of the conflict between

certainty research and freedom desire• These are two contrasting exigencies because

certainty limits freedom and freedom is authentic when it leaves out of consideration certainty

• Five types– Receptive: depends on the others, sense of

inadequacy, masochistic– Parasite: sadist traits, hostility, manipulation – Possessive: personality structured on the

material possession– Merchant: importance given to the social role– Productive: tension to progress and

trascendence

E. S. Sullivan’s Theory

• Relationships are essential in the development of personality

• Dynamisms are the essential schemes of behaviour in relationships

• Personifications are images (originated in infancy) that the individuals attribute to themselves and to others; when they are shared they become stereotypes

• Cognitive processes are subdivided in:– Protothaxic– Parathaxic– Synthaxic


ConstitutionalisticOlisticObjectivisticSocial learningPsychodinamic• Relational• Phenomenological-existentialist

Relational theory (Watzlawick)

• Personality is a system

• Personality is distinct by comunication which has not any opposite, because both activity and inactivity (words and silence) are a message, and influence the others, who have to answer to communication by communicating themselves


ConstitutionalisticOlisticObjectivisticSocial learningPsychodinamicRelational• Phenomenological-existentialist

K. Jaspers

• Attitude :– Objective– Autoreflectant– Enthusiactic

• Images of the world– Spatio-sensorial– Psychic-cultural– Metafisic

K. Jaspers

• Throug the same attitudes men communicate to each other and comprehend each other. When attitudes are different, they live, thought, act, near each other without being in touch

Theories about personality• Constitutionalistic• Olistic• Objectivistic• Social learning• Psychodinamic• Perception• Relational• Phenomenological-

existentialist



Hall C S, Lindzey G, Teorie della personalità, 1986, [email protected]

Factorial theories• R.B. Cattell

– personality traits– measure instruments

L=biographicinterview

Q=autovalidation inventory

T=objective tests 16PF

• H.J. Heysenk

– dimensions

– types (general factors), traits (group factors), abitual responses, specific responses

Raymond Cattell-History

• Born 1905 in England

• World War I led to interest in social issues

• Initial training in physics and chemistry

• Worked with Spearman--mathematical emphasis

• Exposed to factor analysis in the U.S.

• A key figure in the trait and factor movement during and after World War II

Trait ApproachTrait Approach(formal definition)(formal definition)

Traits are emotional, cognitive, and behavioral tendencies that constitute underlying personality dimensions

Trait & Factor Assumptions

• A myriad of human characteristics exist• Basically, a smaller sub-set of personality traits

can account for human individual differences• Traits may be identified both deductively

(consistent with an existing theory) or inductively.• Different theorists proposed different traits based

on their methodological approach (e.g. Jung vs Cattell)

• Traits vs states (e.g anxiety)• There was a “Trait and Factor” era in psychology

Trait ApproachTrait Approach

How do we measure traits?


One approach would be to generate labels for oneself (e.g., honest, dishonest).


What is the major problem with this approach?

There are over 18,000 words in Webster’s dictionary that can be used to describe an individual.

Many of these words however denote similar characteristics



Cattell (1957) -

reduced the majority of these words to a list of 16 traits (e.g., warm, emotionally stable, intelligent…)


• factor analysis (a statistical technique used to identify underlying dimensions)

• given a list of items determine which item(s) is related to which item(s)

Assumptions of Factor Analysis

• An inductive method– Exploratory vs confirmatory factor analysis

• Founded on quantitative observations• A data reduction approach

– Simplify original data– Identify relationships (factors)

• Limited by the extent of original data and the number of individual cases included– A common bias in FA studies

Methods of Factor Analysis

• Quantification of a broad range of data– Convergent and divergent– Multiple methods

• Based on correlation and matrix algebra• Factor loading (principle components analysis)• Factor rotation (orthogonal - varimax - and

oblique)• Factor interpretation (qualitative)• Pre-computer computations were Herculean

Cattell’s Approach

• Source vs surface traits• Extensive quantitative data (L, Q, & T data)

– Avoid method error variance

• Oblique factor rotation (factor inter-correlation)

• 16 PF Scale• Cattell believed that he had found all of the

important personality traits

Cattell’s Trait Categories

• 23 Normal Primary Source Traits

• 12 Abnormal Primary Source Traits

• 8 Second order Source Traits– Factor analysis of factor analysis

Cattell’s Dynamic Trait Theory

• Attitudes: a desire to act in response to a situation.

• Ergs: 10 innate drives or motives

• Sems: social acquired attitudes (learned)

• Dynamic – Inter-relation of attitudes, ergs, and seems– Used to explain and predict behavior..

• Cattell’s 16 PFCattell’s 16 PF

• 16 basic behavior clusters

• position on continua, creates profile

• relaxed – tense; trusting – suspicious; practical – imaginative; submissive – dominant; timid – venturesome

Trait TheoryTrait Theory

Hans Eysenk-History

• Born 1916 in Germany

• Went to England to escape the Nazi’s

• Accidentally entered psychology

• Influenced by psychometrically oriented teachers (Spearman)

• Study of the effectiveness of psychotherapy

Eysenk’s Approach

• Hypothetic-deductive: pre-analysis theorizing

• Genetic-biological emphasis• Traits are “important semi-permanent

personality dispositions.”• Use of orthogonal rotation• Focus on Types or derived factors--aiming

for maximum simplicity

Eysenk’s Factors

• Factor characteristics– Bi-polar factors– Normally distributed

• Extraversion-Introversion

• Neuroticism-Stability

• Psychoticism-Superego function

Evaluation of Trait & Factor Theories

• Generated much research

• Precise and testable

• Moderately falsifiable

• Applied value (16 PF and MPI)

• Research validity

• Parsimony

Trait ApproachTrait Approach(Five Factor Model)(Five Factor Model)

A good acronym to use in remembering these five factors is:

O - openness C - conscientiousness E - extroversion A - agreeableness N - neuroticism

• Big FiveBig Five

• 5 higher order factors

• OCEAN – openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

• Really Big 2

• extraversion – introversion

• stability – instability

Trait TheoryTrait Theory


Can anyone see a potential problem with this research?

Hint: On what has this work been based?

The potential problem pertains to whether these traits are cross-culturally universal?



McCrae and colleagues (1997, 1998)

these five factors do appear to be similar across cultures


• when words are translated the five traits appear

• when words from the native language are used the five traits do not always hold up

e.g., Chinese - only three of the five factors appeared

Trait ApproachTrait Approach(advantages)(advantages)

• Traits are measurable

• Develop more objective personality tests

– MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

• Two methods to approach the study of personality:

–NOMOTHETIC or CONSTRUCT CENTERED (Alport,1937)

–IDIOGRAPHIC

Nomothetic approach

• Is concerned with personality in an abstract sense not with any one individual.

• The emphasis is on discovering how certain constructs relate or coher with others, and why.

Personality is an integrated phenomenon:

• Needs

• motives

• mechanisms

• traits

• schemas

• defenses

Personality is described in terms of deviation of individual scores from the group mean…...

• The combination of various levels of individual difference variables constitutes individuality.

• Numerous scales representing a selection of personality traits are factor analized for “latent” pattern of covariation.

• The larger factors are taken as fundamental dimensions of personality.

Advantages

• Looking at personality in the abstract, not being grounded to any one person.

• “genuinely scientific enterprise”.

• single, measurable and comparable phenomena.

Idiographic approach

• Enphasizes individuality, complexity and uniqueness of each person

• individuality is the result of a unique history of trans-action between biological, (temperament and genetic constitution) and contextual factors

“The history of personality is personality” (Murray, 1938)

• Not only a cross-sectional description but also an elucidation of the specific develomental constraints– possibilities– experiences– free will– chance

Is personality a persistent feature?

Various definitionsvarious study approaches

various personality theories

The second question...

Personality: relationship to Axis I disorders

Vulnerabily model:Psychosocial stressors penetrance personalitydefenses to different depths. When no coping responses are available an Axis I disorder ensues

Complication model:Prolonged Axis I disorder produces personality changes

Onset

TIME

Pathoplasty model:Althought personality is not involved in the development of an Axis I disorder once one exist, personality influences its course

All these models..

• ..are possible and likely to be true for different individuals

• In fact it is not impossible that all are applicabile within a single individual to some degree

Approaches to classification of PD

• Categorical models Traits

• Dimensional models EPQ, Cattell

• Prototypal model DSM III, IV etc…

Empirical issues• Are clinical syndromes discrete

entities?

• Can they be clearly separated?

• Is personality consistent?

• Behaviours over time and situations rarely achieve correlations beyond the 0.30 level, the so called “personality coefficient” (Mischel, 1979)

Genetics

What is the matter with personality?

The third question...

Demonstrating Genetic Influence in the Past

• Pedigree Analysis

• Twin Studies– MZ vs. DZ concordance

• Adoption Studies

Demonstrating Genetic Influence in the Future

• Direct DNA analysis of affected individuals

• Gene rescue

Overview

• What is a Gene?

• How Genes Influence Behavior?

• Research

Theory of Evolution

• Charles Darwin’s On the Origins of the Species, 1859

• Species undergo gradual orderly change– fossil record– structural similarities among existing species– programs of selective breeding

– observations of evolution in progress

Darwin proposed mechanism of natural selection

Mendelian Genetics

• Gregor Mendel was simultaneously studying dichotomous traits in true breeding lines– genes– alleles

– dominant/recessive– genotype/phenotype– homozygous/heterozygous

Genes

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

• Double-Helical Structure discovered 1953

• Transcription to proteins

• 23 chromosome pairs • 18,000 - 20,000 genes• 3 Billion Bases• only 1-2% of DNA codes for genes

How Genes Work

• DNA is made of nucleotides (A,T,C,G)• Pattern of nucleotides determines amino acid ID • String of amino acids form protein• Proteins constrain structure and function of

organism (interacting with the environment)• Only about 1-1.5% is coded DNA, other 99% is

poorly understood but regulates coding

How genes influence phenotype

• Genes rarely cause phenotype– quantitative effects are more common

• Genes determine the range of possible responses to the environment

• Genes always interact with environment to determine outcome– e.g., environment can turn on/off gene

transcription

Hunt for genetic influence

Phenotype Gene (one gene at a time)

Gene Phenotype (now possible)

* non-coding (regulatory) DNA may also influence phenotype. I.e., nicotine addiction and neuroticism with regulation of serotonin (HTTLPR)

Single Gene vs. Oligogenic traits

• Qualitative vs. Quantitative traits• Mendelian traits/diseases are relatively rare

– Sickle cell anemia is caused by a single point mutation (A to T) in one of the genes that specifies hemoglobin protein of red blood cells.

• Most diseases, like heart disease, obesity or schizophrenia are thought to be polygenic– still important to identify particular influences

Technological Advances• Human Genome project

– consensus sequence June, 2000

• Identification of polymorphic DNA – Single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps)– variations from consensus sequence in at least 1% – information about disease susceptibility– information about early human migrations– approximately 2,500,000 such variations contribute to

differences in phenotype

Genes, Environment & Genes, Environment & PersonalityPersonality

Behavioral Genetics (BG)• Interested in Determining Source of

Individual Differences– Genetic Influences (G)– Environmental Influences (E)– Interactions Between G and E

Is Behavioral Genetics “Deterministic”?

• “Influence” versus “Determine”

• Rarely is behavior "completely" genetic

• Genetic influence does not preclude environmental intervention.

• Role of Environment is extremely profound / important

Genotype: • Genetic makeup of the individual.

• Identical Twins Share Same Genotype

• Siblings share ½ their genotype

• Parents and biological children share ½ their genotype.

Phenotype: • Any Measurable, Observable

Characteristic• (Examples:)

– Specific Behaviors– IQ (Note Difference between IQ and

“Intelligence”)– Disorders (or symptoms)– Height, Weight, Hair Color– Personality Traits

Environment: • Anything not genetically inherited• Includes pre-natal influences

– Shared Environment: Environmental Effects shared by family members

• Physical Structure of Home• Parental Discipline Style???

– Non-shared Environment: Environmental. Effects unique to the individual -- NOT shared by family members.

• Illnesses• Peers• Differing Perceptions???

Single Gene Explanations of Complex Behaviors are Unlikely

to be Correct

Most Complex Characteristics Influenced by Multiple Genes– Intelligence / IQ– Personality

• Behaviors above usually normally distributed in population

How are Genetic Influences Investigated?

Family Studies

Genes

Environment

Adoption Studies

AdoptiveBiological

EnvironmentGenes

• Monozygotic Twins

• 100% genetic overlap

• Dizygotic Twins

• 50% genetic overlap

• Concordance rate of traits

• similarity of the twin pair – both high, both low

Twin StudiesTwin Studies

married women named Linda & Betty

named sons James Allan chain smoked Salems drove Chevrolets had workshops in the basement,

enjoyed carpentry had a minor heart attack gained and lost 10 pounds

Amazing “Lost Twins” Amazing “Lost Twins” Two JimsTwo Jims

these males were MZ twins (100% genetic overlap); separated at birth; became acquainted (reunited) at age 36

Amazing “Lost Twins”Amazing “Lost Twins”Two JimsTwo Jims

L and DL and D

Amazing “Lost Twins”Amazing “Lost Twins”

• had Ph.D’s and were university professors• drove VWs• had brothers named John• jogged and played racquetball• gourmet cooks and had same cookbooks• used same deodorant, make-up, toothpaste• stored rubber bands on cupboard handles• got married and divorced in same years• read many of the same magazines/ books• lived in Oklahoma and Chicago• ordered same clothes from LL Bean• had 3 identical pairs of Bass shoes

these females were totally unrelated (had no genetic overlap); were reared apart in Illinois and Texas; became acquainted at age 34 what accounts for their amazing similarities?

Amazing “Lost Twins” - NOTAmazing “Lost Twins” - NOTL and DL and D

• Minnesota reunited twin studies• MZ twins - 100% genetic overlap• DZ twins - 50% genetic overlap• compared concordance when reared together or

reared apart

• heritability = 0.39 - 0.58 on a wide range of traits

Global Personality TraitsGlobal Personality Traits

Twin Study Method• Twins Differ with respect to genetic

relatedness– MZ (Identical) Twins Share 100% of Genes– DZ (Fraternal) Twins Share 50% of Genes

• MZ and DZ Twins are equal with respect to shared environment

• If MZs more similar than DZs, infer genetic influence

• If MZs differ, assume environmental influence

Special Case: Identical Twins Reared Apart (MZA)

Big 5 Trait Descriptors (OCEAN)

• Openness to experience: curiosity, flexibility, unconventional attitudes

• Conscientiousness: diligent, disciplined, well-organized, dependable

• Extraversion: outgoing, sociable, upbeat, assertive

• Agreeableness: sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, straightforward

• Neuroticism (anxiousness): anxious, irritable, self-conscious..

Extraversion – 5 Twin Studies

Britain US Swe. Austral. Finl.

Men

MZ .65 .57 .47 .50 .46

DZ .25 .20 .20 .13 .15

Women

MZ .46 .62 .54 .53 .49

DZ .18 .28 .21 .19 .14

Neurobiological bases of personality

The Brain

• Brain reaches its maximum number of synaptic connections and its greatest metabolic activity around age 3 or 4

Brain Hemispheric Hypothesis

• Left side of Brain-Role in Positive Emotions-Creative side of Brain

• Right side of Brain-Role in Negative Emotions-Methodological, systematic side of Brain

Messages from Brain Travel by Nervous System

• The Central Nervous System is the Communications Highway of the body

• Brings help to the body based on the messages it screens from the environment

Neurons where the messages are delivered!

• Bio-chemical electrical impulses create a cascade of effects based on the message sent to various organ receptors of the body

Neurotransmitters Impacted Too!

• Not only are there physiological changes but there is altering of neurotransmitters based on messages from brain

• Absence or overabundance can create whole new set of consequences

Neurotransmitters

• Brain = Billions of Brain Cells-Neurons

• Neurons transmit information – electrical conduction within nerve cells & between nerve cells

• Message once carried through body cell (Axon) crosses space –Synapse to receiving cell

Types of Neurotransmitters

• Dopamine-dopaminergic system• Norepinephrine-noradrenergic system• Serotonin-serotonergic system• Control senses, thinking, perception,

mood, attention, and behavior• Unfortunately at this time we can not

measure amount for baseline therapeutic levels

Neurotransmitter

Impulse

SexAppetite

Aggressivity

Impulsivity

AnxietyResponse to stimuli

MoodEmotion

ThikMotivation

EnergyInterest

Noradrenalin Serotonin

DopaminHealy & McMonagle

J Clin Psychiatry 9 / 1999, p. 625

Dopamine Receptors and Personality Traits

Nature, 1991

Nature, 1992

“Novelty Seeking” Gene

D4 Dopamine Receptor Gene

SHORT FORM LONG FORM

More ExtravertedLess Deliberate, ConscientiousHigher Novelty Seeking

Potential susceptibility genes Novelty Seeking

• Ebstein et al (1996) Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Nat Genet 12:78-80.

Association between NS and the 7 repeat allele in the locus for DRD4 (11p15.5) in a group of 124 unrelated Israeli normal subjects. NS was assessed from the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) (Cloninger et al., 1987).


• Benjamin et al (1996) Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of Novelty Seeking. Nat Genet 12:81-84.

Association between NS and long alleles of DRD4 gene in 315 subjects, mostly male siblings from United States. This study utilized the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)(Costa and McCrae, 1992) from which TPQ NS scores can be estimated.


Ebstein, R. P., et al., 1996. Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Nat Genet 12, 78-80.

Ebstein, R. P., et al., 1997. 5-HT2C (HTR2C) serotonin receptor gene polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of reward dependence: interaction with dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) and dopamine D3 receptor (D3DR) polymorphisms. Am J Med Gen 74, 65-72.

Jonsson, E. G., et al., 1997. Lack of evidence for allelic association between personality traits and the dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphisms. Am J Psychiatry 154, 697-9.

Ono, Y., et al., 1997. Association between dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism and novelty seeking in Japanese subjects. Am J Med Gen 74, 501-3.

Sander, T., et al., 1997. Dopamine D4 receptor exon III alleles and variation of novelty seeking in alcoholics. Am J Med Gen 74, 483-7.

Vandenbergh, D. J., et al., 1997. No association between novelty seeking and dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III seven repeat alleles in Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging participants. Mol Psychiatry 2, 417-9.

Jonsson, E. G., et al., 1998. Lack of Association Between Dopamine D4 Receptor Gene and Personality Traits. Psychol Med 28, 985-989.

Noble, E. P., et al., 1998. D2 and D4 dopamine receptor polymorphisms and personality. Am J Med Gen 81, 257-67.Staner, L., et al., 1998. Association between Novelty-seeking and the Dopamine D3 receptor gene in bipolar patients - A

preliminary report. Am J Med Gen 81, 192-194.Auerbach, J., et al., 1999. Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) and serotonin transporter promoter (5-HTTLPR) polymorphisms

in the determination of temperament in 2-month-old infants. Mol Psychiatry 4, 369-373.Bau, C. H., et al., 1999. Dopamine D4 receptor gene and personality dimensions in Brazilian male alcoholics. Psych

Genet 9, 139-43.Kuhn, K. U., et al., 1999. Allelic variants of dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) and serotonin receptor 5HT2c (HTR2c) and

temperament factors: Replication tests. Am J Med Gen 88, 168-172.Paterson, A. D., et al., 1999. Dopamine D4 receptor gene: novelty or nonsense? Neuropsychopharmacology 21, 3-16.Benjamin, J., et al., 2000. Association between tridimensional personality questionnaire (TPQ) traits and three functional

polymorphisms: dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4), serotonin transporter promoter region (5-HTTLPR) and catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT). Mol Psychiatry 5, 96-100.

Kotler, M., et al., 2000. Failure to replicate an excess of the long dopamine D4 exon III repeat polymorphism in ADHD in a family-based study. Am J Med Gen 96, 278-281.

Molecular Genetic Studies

• Ebstein 1996 DRD4 TCI Novelty Seeking• Benjamin 1996 DRD4 NEO Novelty Seeking• Compton 1996 DRD2 TCI NS In cocaine

abusers• Ebstein 1997 DRD3, HTR2C,DRD4 TPQ RD and P• Sullivan 1998 DRD4 TCI NS negative• Staner 1998 DRD3 TPQ NS in bipolar subjects • Ekelund 1999 DRD4 TCI Novelty seeking • Strobel 1999 DRD4 TPQ novelty seeking• Hill 1999 DRD2 and DRD4 MPQ Affective

Dimension• Kuhn 1999 DRD4 and 5HTT TPQ NS and RD

(DRD4)• Ekelund 1999 DRD4 TCI Novelty Seeking • Persson 2000 DRD4 NEO NS negative• Comings2000 DRD4 TCI self trascendence• Lusher 2001 DRD4 TCI NS in substance ab.• Suhara 2001 DRD2 (PET study) TCI NS and DRD2 binding

Molecular Genetic Studies

• Herbst 2000 DRD4 and 5HTT TCI NS and HA negative• Persson 2000 DRD4 NEO Extroversion negative• Tsai 2001 alpha1a NaR TPQ Reward dependence• Mitsuyasu 2001 DRD4 TCI Reward dependence• Ronai 2001 DRD4 TCI Novelty Seeking• Kusumi 2002 5HT2A TCI negative all dim.• Bookman 2002 DRD4 NEO Extroversion• Jonsson 2002 DRD4 TCI NS negative• Okujama 2002 DRD4 TCI NS in Japanese• Tsai 2002 5HTT TPQ Harm Avoidance • Tsai 2002 NaT TPQ Reward Dependence

5-HTT gene

Serotonin transporter(5-HTT)

Promotor polymorphism s/l

VNTR polymorphism

(intronic)

REGULATORY VARIANT OF 5-HT TRANSPORTERREGULATORY VARIANT OF 5-HT TRANSPORTER

A functional polymorphism in the transcriptional control region upstream of the 5-HTT coding sequence (5-HTTLPR) has been reported (Heils et al., 1996).

Anxiety-related traits

short variant of the

serotonin transporter gene

(5-HTT or SERT)Munafo, 2005Savitz, 2004Schinka, 2004

Author Year Sample size Associated allele Scale used

1. (Lesch, 1996) 1996 505 Short allele TPQ

2. (Ebstein, 1997) 1997 120 None TPQ

3. (Nakamura, 1997) 1997 203 None TCI

4. (Ricketts, 1998) 1998 84(47 Parkinson disease +

37 controls)

Short allele TPQ

5. (Gelernter, 1998) 1998 322 None TPQ

6. (Kumakiri, 1999) 1999 144 None TCI

7. (Katsuragi, 1999) 1999 101 Short allele, SS genotype TPQ

8. (Osher, 2000) 2000 148 SS genotype TPQ

9. (Herbst, 2000) 2000 425 None TCI

10. (Samochowiec, 2001) 2001 127 Long allele TCI

Association studies between Harm Avoidance trait and SERTPR serotonin transporter polymorphism

11. (Van Gestel, 2002) 2002 219 Long allele TCI

12. (Tsai, 2002) 2002 192 None TPQ

13. (Jacob, 2004) 2004 601(cluster C personality

disorder patients)

Short allele TPQ

14. (Samochowiec, 2004) 2004 100 None TCI

15. (Kim, 2005) 2005 211 None TCI

16. (Serretti, 2006) 2006 207 (73 major depressive disorder + 134 bipolar

disorder)

SS genotype associated with low NS scores

TCI

17. (Rybakowski, 2006) 2006 225(132 anorexia nervosa +

93 controls)

None TCI

18. (Monteleone, 2006) 2006 219(125 bulimia + 94

controls)

Short allele TCI

19. (Becker, 2006) 2006 384 None J-TCI

(a) SERTPR and Intron 2 VNTR serotonin transporter polymorphisms

HARMAVOIDANCE

NOVELTYSEEKING

REWARD DEPENDE

NCE

PERSISTENCE

SEROTONIN 5-HT1A +

5-HT2A + + - - - - + + - - - - +

5-HT3A +

5-HT2C + +

HTTLPR+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

+ +

DOPAMINE DRD2 + + - - + + - - - + - +

DRD3 - + + - - - -

DRD4 + + - ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

+ +

MONOAMINE OXIDASE A

MAO-A + - - + - - - + - +

CATECHOL-O-METHYLTRANSFERASE

COMT + + + + + +

CYTOCHROME P450 CYP2D6 +

CYP2C19 +

EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR

EGF + + +

NOREPINEPHRINE TRANSPORTER

NET -

Overview of associations between temperament factors and candidate genes (symbols refer to published studies: + positive study, - negative study)

An integrative perspective

• Both the nomothetic and idiographic perspectives are unsatisfying

• Individuals cannot be made so individual that they become ineffable

• The individual is a singular phenomenon only partially accessible to science and its methods

• We are called on not merely to record behaviour in this or that domain, but to explain it

Documents

What is personality? The first question….. “The Steadfast Philosopher," by Gerard von Honthurst (1623)