What is argument?

Beyond hair pulling, dish throwing, yelling, and other

in-your-face actions

Definitions of “argument”

• A process of reasoning using evidence and proof

• Discourse about controversial issues• Defending a value judgment—testing

ideas about good and bad, right and wrong, esp when facts don’t help decide

• Proposing solutions for a problem• Challenging other people’s solutions

Parts of an argument

• What do you notice (observe, experience)?• What are you trying to prove?• Where are you coming from?

1. Claim: what are you trying to prove?

•May sound like a thesis statement

•5 main types

Claims of fact

• Facts are never neutral

• Facts don’t speak for themselves

• Facts require interpretation

• Claims of fact attempt to prove something is true

Claims of definition

• Cicero: “Every rational discussion of anything whatsoever should begin with a definition in order to make clear what is the subject of dispute.”

• Establishes what writer and reader can agree on

Claims of cause

• Explains the “why” something happened

• Demonstrates basis, motive, background

• Justifies outcomes, results, effects

• Focuses on the past

Claims of value

• Make a judgement (e.g. dis/approval, right/wrong, good/bad, un/desirable)

• Individual or represents a group

• Focuses on the present

Claims of policy

• Emphasizes “shoulds and oughts”• Looks for solutions to problems• Focuses on the future

2. Evidence: what do you have to go on?

• Toulmin: “something that tends to prove: grounds for belief”

• Can be observations, eyewitness accounts

• Documentation (letters, diaries, memos)

• Opinions, expert testimony, interpretations

Evaluating evidence

• Is it up to date?• Is it sufficient to

persuade?• Does it come from a

trustworthy source?• Is it consistent,

coherent, relevant, clear?

Evaluating evidence

• Is there enough evidence?

• Are you as a reader persuaded?

• Is the source qualified to give an opinion?

• Is the source biased?

Evaluating evidence

• Is it relevant?• Is the example truly representative or

does it fit something else better?

3. Warrants: where are you coming from?

• Values• Underlying assumptions• Beliefs• “what makes people think and/or

act as they do”

How the Recommendation Report

Argues• You make claims about what the

client should do (steps to take)• Present evidence supporting your

claim(s)• Shape your report according to

what you know about the client’s warrants--and your own

Organizing Reports that Persuade/Work

• Overview--address the audience, summarize claims, establish your credibility, introduce claims

• Analyses--present evidence (data, research, survey results)

• Recommendations--steps to be followed, persuades claims

• Cost Analyses• List of Resources--MLA (websites,

interviews, texts and materials, sources)• Appendices--samples, data bases,

additional data

Questions?