CONTENTS

BETTERENGLISHGRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

THESENTENCEANDTHEPARAGRAPHThesentenceMinorsentencesMajorsentencesSubjectandpredicateSubjectPredicate

ObjectDirectobjectIndirectobject

ComplementPunctuationofsentencesTypesofsentenceStatementsNegativesentencesQuestionsYes-noquestionsTagquestionsWh-questionsAlternativequestionsExclamatoryquestionsRhetoricalquestionsQuestionbytoneofvoice

Directives

ExclamationsKindsofsentenceSimplesentencesMultiplesentencesCompoundsentencesComplexsentences

Theparagraph

EXERCISES1

ANSWERS1

CLAUSES,PHRASESANDPHRASALVERBSClausesMainclausePunctuationandmainclauses

SubordinateclauseAdverbialclauseTypesofadverbialclauseadverbialclauseoftimeadverbialclauseofplaceadverbialclauseofpurposeadverbialclauseofreasonadverbialclauseofresultadverbialclauseofconditionadverbialclauseofmanneradverbialclauseofconcession

ComparativeclauseRelativeclauseTypesofrelativeclauseDefiningrelativeclauseNon-definingrelativeclause

PunctuationinrelativeclausesPrepositionsinrelativeclauses

NounclauseornominalclauseCommentclause

PhrasesNounphraseAdjectivephraseAdverbphrasePrepositionphraseParticipialphrase

PhrasalverbsPositionofobjectinphrasalverbs

EXERCISES2

ANSWERS2

PARTSofSpeechIMainpartsofspeechNounsCommonandpropernounsConcreteandabstractnounsCountableanduncountablenounsVerbalnounCollectivenounsSingularandpluralformsofnounsRegularsingularformsofnounsRegularpluralformsofnounsIrregularpluralformsofnounsForeignpluralformsofnounsUnchangingpluralformNounsusedonlyinthepluralform

GenderofnounsDualgenderFeminineformsPersonincompoundnouns

CompoundnounsPluralformsofcompoundnouns

NounsandnounphrasesinappositionPronounsPersonalpronouns

Iandwe:thefirstpersonpersonalpronounYou:thesecondpersonpersonalpronounHe,she,itandthey:thethirdpersonpersonalpronoun

PossessivepronounsReflexivepronounsReciprocalpronounsDemonstrativepronounsIndefinitepronounsDistributivepronounsInterrogativepronounsRelativepronouns

EXERCISES3

ANSWERS3

PARTSOFSPEECHIIAdjectivesGradableandnon-gradableadjectivesPositionofadjectivesAttributiveadjectivesPredicativeadjectivesPost-modifiersQualitativeadjectivesClassifyingadjectivesColouradjectivesNumberadjectivesEmphaticadjectivesInterrogativeadjectivesDemonstrativeadjectivesPossessiveadjectivesCompoundadjectivesOrderofadjectivesAdjectivesusedasnounsAdjectiveoradverb?ComparativeformsofadjectivesComparativeandnumberofsyllablesIrregularcomparativesNocomparativeform

SuperlativeformsIrregularsuperlativesNosuperlativeform

DeterminersTypesofdeterminerDefiniteandindefinitearticlesDefinitearticleIndefinitearticle

DemonstrativedeterminersPossessivedeterminersIndefinitedeterminersNumberdeterminers

EXERCISES4

ANSWERS4

PARTSOFSPEECHIIIVerbsRegularverbsIrregularverbsCategoriesofirregularverbs

TensePresenttenseSimplepresenttenseContinuouspresenttense

PasttenseSimplepasttenseContinuouspasttense

PerfecttenseContinuouspresentperfecttensePastperfecttense

FuturetenseTraditionalgrammarModernusageOtherwaysofreferringtothefuture

MoodIndicativemoodImperativemoodSubjunctivemood

VoiceActivevoicePassivevoice

TransitiveverbandintransitiveverbLinkingverbAuxiliaryverbModalauxiliaryverbConcordPartsofaverbInfinitiveParticiplesPresentparticiplePastparticiple

EXERCISES5

ANSWERS5

PARTSOFSPEECHIVAdverbsTypesofadverbAdverbsoftimeAdverbsoffrequencyAdverbsofdurationAdverbsofplaceAdverbsofmannerAdverbsofdegreeAdverbsofemphasis

InterrogativeadverbsPrepositionsSimpleprepositionsComplexprepositions

ConjunctionsCoordinatingconjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctionsintroducingadverbialclauses

EXERCISES6

ANSWERS6

PUNCTUATION

THEIMPORTANCEOFPUNCTUATIONFullstopThefullstopandabbreviationsThefullstopinemailandwebsiteaddresses

QuestionmarkExclamationmarkCapitalletter

EXERCISES7

ANSWERS7

CommaThecommaasseparatingdeviceinlistsThecommaasaseparatingdeviceinalistofadjectivesCommasandrelativeclauses

CommasandsubordinateclausesThecommaasaseparatingdeviceinclausesjoinedbycoordinatingconjunctionsThecommaasseparatingdevicewithinitialphrasesThecommawithtermsofaddressThecommawithquestiontagsThecommawithinterjectionsThecommausedinpairsasameansofseparationorparenthesisThecommawithnounsorphrasesinappositionThecommaandnumbers

EXERCISES8

ANSWERS8

BracketsDashSemicolonThesemicolonasalinkThesemicolonasaseparationdeviceinlistsThesemicolonasseparationdeviceinlistsofwordgroupsalreadycontainingcommasThesemicolonasaseparationdevicebeforecertainadverbs

ColonThecolonasaseparatingdeviceinatwo-partsentenceThecolonasalinkingdeviceorintroduction

EXERCISES9

ANSWERS9

HyphenThehypheninword-breaks

EXERCISES10

ANSWERS10

QuotationmarksQuotationmarksanddirectspeechQuotationmarksandparagraphsQuotationmarksanddialogueOtherusesofquotationmarks

QuotationmarksandtitlesQuotationmarksandadirectquotation

EXERCISES11

ANSWERS11

OtherpunctuationmarksApostropheAsteriskThree-dotellipsisOblique

EXERCISES12

ANSWERS12

DEVELOPINGYOUROWNSTYLE

STYLESentencestyleSentencelengthThemiddlewaySentencestructureCompoundsentencesComplexsentences

VocabularyActiveandpassivevocabularyIncreasingyourwordpowerDictionariesandthesauruses

RegisterKeepitsimpleAddingvariety

EXERCISES13

ANSWERS13

EXERCISES14

ANSWERS14

WORDSTHATMAYCONFUSE

IDIOMS,CLICHÉSANDEVERYDAYPHRASESCommonidiomsClichésEverydayphrasesHomophonesHomonymsHomographsandheteronyms

BETTERENGLISHGRAMMAR

Neverhastherebeenagreaterneedtomakesurethatyouwriteandspeak‘good’English.ThisistrueofpeopleincountriessuchastheUKwhereEnglishisthenativelanguageandofpeopleincountrieswhereEnglishisasecondorforeignlanguage.IncountrieswhereEnglishisthelanguageofbusiness,amarkedemphasisisnowbeingplacedontheneedforcompetentcommunicativeskillsintheworkplace.Althoughlife in the modern world is generally less formal than it was and people in personal, academic andbusiness contexts write considerably fewer letters than formerly, they are often still required todemonstrate their powersofwritten communication in the classroomand theworkplace.For example,theymighthavetowriteareportforpresentationtotheirworkcolleagues.

Whenitcomestocorrespondence,emailsmayhavetakenoverfromformalletterstoalargeextentbutit reflectsbadlyonaperson if theiremailsare sloppilywrittenand fulloferrors.Thecomputer spellcheckercanonlyhelpyououttosomeextent.Manyemployerscomplainthatasignificantnumberofthepeoplewhomtheyrecruitforjobsaresadlylackingintheseskills.Thisistrueevenofyoungpeoplewhohavejustgraduatedfromsomeofthetopuniversities.

Youmightthinkthatgrammarandspellingaretrivialmatters,thatthey’rejustnotthatimportantinyourlineofwork.Youmightthinkthataslongasthefactsarecorrect,whatdoesitmatterifthegrammarisbad?However,poorgrammarreflectsbadlyonyou—youmightmissoutonajobopportunity,youmightnot be taken seriouslywhenmaking a complaint, you could even put off a potential Internet date—allbecauseofterriblegrammarandsloppyspelling.Anypublicdisplayofpoorlanguageskillscangiveaverybadimpressionofeventhemostintelligentperson.

Atthesametime,theimportanceofEnglishasaworldlanguagecontinuestogrow.Infact,therearemanyversionsofStandardEnglish spoken around theworld:British,American,Canadian,Australian,Indian,SouthAfrican,NewZealandandmore.Allhaverichvariationsinvocabulary,syntax,semanticsandgrammar.MoreandmorepeopleinothercountriesareanxioustolearnEnglishandthereisanever-increasingdemandbothforteachersofEnglishasasecondorforeignlanguageandforeffectiveteachingmaterialsintheseareas.

Butwhatis‘good’EnglishorevencorrectEnglish?Don’tthoseofuswholearnitasanativetongueatour mother’s knee automatically speak and write it correctly? Alas, the answer to that is no. NativespeakersobviouslyhavemuchlessofastrugglelearningtospeakgoodEnglishthanlearnersofEnglishasaforeignorsecondlanguagedo,buttheprocessisnoteffort-free.

Good or correct English is often regarded as grammatical English. Grammar has been variouslydescribedastheframeworkonwhichideasarehung,andthecementthatbindswordstogether.Basically,grammarreferstotherulesthatgovernthewayalanguageworks.Societycannotoperatewithoutrulesandneithercanlanguage.

The prospect of learning grammar ismore likely to depress thosewhose native tongue is English.LearnersofEnglishasasecondorforeignlanguageareusedtohavingtocometogripswiththegrammaroftheirownlanguagesandwillnotprotestsomuch.

Often,thefirsttimethatpeoplecomeintocontactwithwrittenrulesofgrammariswhentheycometo

learnaforeignlanguage.Thelanguageisbrokenupintovocabulary,partsofspeech,regularandirregularverbs,tenses,agreementsandstructures,etc.Therulesofthisforeignlanguageseemmoreexplicit,more‘grammatical’thanthatofourown,but,ofcourse,ourownlanguagehassuchrules,it’sjustthatwedon’tnoticethem.

Itmightbesurprisingtohearthat,ifyourfirstlanguageisEnglish,youdoalreadyknowsomeEnglishgrammar. You can speak the language, you understand others, you can respond and make yourselfunderstood.Forexample,weautomaticallyknow thedifference in structurebetweenaquestion (Can Ihavethat?)andacommand(Givemethat!).

YoustartedtolearnEnglishgrammarasaninfantwithoutconsciouslyknowingyouweredoingso.Youlearnedwhatwerethecorrectstructuresandcombinationsofwordsthroughhearingothersspeakand—onceyou learnedhow to read—through thewrittenword.Perhapswhat youdon’t knowabout are theprescriptiverulesthathavebeendevisedtodescribeEnglishgrammar.TheyusedtobetaughtbyroteinschoolsbutemphasisonthissideofteachingEnglishhaslongsincediedout.

SpokenandwrittenEnglishareenormouslydifferent instructureandformality.Spokendiscourse isoftendisjointed,with sentence fragments used in preference to complete sentences thatwouldperhapssounduncomfortablyformal,yetitiseasilyunderstood.Eventheworld’smostarticulateandwittypeopledonotalwaysspeakusingperfect,prescriptivelyordered,‘grammaticallycorrect’English.Speechalsoemploysstress,rhythmandintonationasanimportantpartofconveyingmeaning.

However, our written words need structure and formality to convey meaning as accurately andunambiguouslyaspossible;andourspokenwordscanstillsound‘wrong’andgiveabadimpressioniftheformalrulesarenotfollowed.

Grammarhas,overtheyears,gotratherabadpress.Atonepoint,intheUK,itwassetasidebytheeducational powers-that-be as being largely unnecessary. Although it is now often seen as somethingvaluable that should be brought back into prominence, it is also often seen as something essentiallydifficultandboring.Thisisnotthecase.Itislogicalandcanbeofgreatinterest.Furthermore,youreallyhavetogettogripswithitifyouwanttoimproveyourEnglish.

In conclusion, in order to speak and write effectively and confidently in English, you must knowsomethingaboutthestructureofthelanguage.ThisbookgivesaclearexplanationofthenutsandboltsofEnglishgrammaraswellashintsonhowtocreateabetterpersonalwritingstyle incorporating‘good’English.

WEBSTER'SWORDPOWERBettyKirkpatrick, a graduate ofEdinburghUniversity, has a long career in referencepublishing.ShehaseditedChambersTwentiethCenturyDictionary,Roget’sThesaurus,theconciseeditionofBrewer’sPhraseandFable, andwas language consultant to theEncartaWorld English Dictionary. She has compiled various other reference books,includingtheOxfordPaperbackThesaurusandtheBloomsburyDictionaryofClichés.She acts as a consultant to theBloomsbury Good Word Guide. Betty is author of anextensivelistofpublicationsonvariousaspectsof theEnglishlanguagefor learnersofEnglish.

GRAMMAR

THESENTENCEANDTHEPARAGRAPH

Thesentence

Themostimportantunitofstructureisthesentence.Mostoftheothergrammaticalunitsarepartsthatgotogethertoformasentence.However,thatleavesuswiththequestion‘Whatisasentence?’andtherehasbeensomedisputeaboutthedefinition.Thetraditionalviewofthesentenceseemsasgoodajumping-offpointasany—aunitoflanguagethatcanstandaloneandmakesense.

Thefollowingareallcompleteinthemselves,makesenseandare,therefore,allsentences:

Weran.Theboykickedtheball.Theyplayedhardandtheywon.Lookoverthere!

Minorsentences

Thefollowingexamplesarealsoallcompleteinthemselvesandmakesenseandare,therefore,sentences.Theyareknownasminorsentencesorirregularsentences.

Theyare calledminorsentences because they lack someof the other usual grammatical features of asentence.Forexample,aminorsentenceoftenlacksasubjectandapredicate.

Minorsentences aremost common in spokenEnglishand inconversation in literary fiction.TheyarealsocommonincertainkindsofwrittenEnglishsuchasnotices, labelsandadverts.Thefollowingareexamplesofminorsentences:

No!Nonsense!Howterrible!Whataview!Goodtry!Noway!Taxi!Poison!Noentry.Welldone!Oncebitten,twiceshy.

Majorsentences

Other sentencesareknownasmajorsentencesorregularsentences.Amajor sentenceusually has asubject(see1)andpredicate(see1).Thefollowingareexamplesofmajorsentences:

Weran.Theboykickedtheball.Motherbakedacake.Sheleavestomorrow.Theyarecomingtotown.Shestudiedhard,butshefailedtheexam.IcalledhimwhenIarrived.

Subjectandpredicate

Basically, a sentence is a combination of two grammatical units—the subject (see 1, 2, 3) and thepredicate(see1,2,3).

SubjectThe subject (see 4) of a sentence refers towhat the sentence is about, often the person or thing thatcarriesouttheactionoftheverb.Thesubjectusuallygivesaclearideaofwhatthesentenceisabout.

Thesubjectcanbeanoun—eitheracommonnounorapropernounoraverbalnoun;anounphrase;apronoun;asubordinateclause;aninfinitive.

In the following sentences the underlinedwords form the subject of the sentence and the subjects arenouns:

Dogsneedalotofexercise.Childrenplayinthepark.Moneyisextremelyimportanttohim.Marriageisnotforhim,hesays.Accommodationisexpensiveinthatarea.Peoplearebeginningtoleave.Janeisgivingaparty.Jimhasresigned.ParisisthecapitalofFrance.Mountaineeringcanbedangerous.Dancingisherfavouritepastime.Paintingcanbeaformofrelaxation.

In the following sentences the underlinedwords form the subject of the sentence and the subjects arenounphrases:

Aheatwavehasbeenforecast.Severalunhappyemployeeshavecomplainedtothemanagement.Thelargeblackdogboundeduptothechild.Thoseterriblefloodsaffectedmanypeople.Representativesfromthefirmhaveissuedastatementtostaff.James,mybrother-in-lawanddearfriend,hasjustdied.

In the following sentences the underlinedwords form the subject of the sentence and the subjects arepronouns:

Theywerefoundguilty.Wewonthebattle.Youhavepassedtheexam.Hedeniedthecharge.Shelostherweddingring.Ithasbrokendownagain.

In the following sentences the underlinedwords form the subject of the sentence and the subjects aresubordinateclauses:

Whoshewasremainedamystery.Whyhelefthasnotyetbeenrevealed.Whathesaysisnottrue.Whenhewillgohasnotyetbeendecided.

In the following sentences the underlinedwords form the subject of the sentence and the subjects areinfinitives:

Todothatwouldbeunforgivable.Togetthereisgoingtobeverydifficult.Tomarryyoungishermainaim.Togetthroughyourexamsshouldbeyourprincipalconcern.

NB:DummysubjectA dummy subject sometimes has no intrinsic meaning but is inserted to maintain a balancedgrammaticalstructure.Inthesentences

Ithasstartedtorain.andItisnearlymidnight.thewordItisadummysubject.

Inthesentences

Thereisnothingelsetosay.andThereisnoreasonforhisbehaviour.thewordThereisadummysubject.

NB:DirectivesInsentenceswhicharedirectivesthesubjectoftendoesnotappear,butisimplied,asin:

Getthisoutofhere.and

Lendmethatpenforaminute,please.Theimpliedsubjectisyou.

PredicateThepredicate refers to thepart of a sentenceor clause that gives information about the subject. It isbasicallyallthepartsofaclauseorsentencethatarenotcontainedinthesubject.Itcaneitherbeasingleverboranumberofelements.

ThusinthesentenceThelittlegirlfell.thewordfellisthepredicateofthesentence.

Similarly,inthesentenceThetiredoldmansleptsoundly.thewordssleptsoundlyformthepredicateofthesentence.

AndinthesentenceThetiredoldmansleptlikealog.Thewordssleptlikealogformthepredicateofthesentence.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformthepredicateofthesentence:

Janefainted.Peterwasrichandpowerful.Childrenscreamedloudly.Thelightswentoutallofasudden.Workersprotestedlongandloudlyatthefactorygates.Theyareleavingattheendofnextweek.Wetookthestraykittenshome.Thestudentscelebratedtheirexamresultsallnightlong.Thechildthrewtheredballtothedoginthepark.

Object

Veryoftenthepredicatecontainsanobject(see1).Theobjectofasentenceisthepartofasentencethatisacteduponorisaffectedbytheverb.Itusuallyfollowstheverbtowhichitrelates.

Therearetwopossibleformsofobjectinasentenceorclause—adirectobjectoranindirectobject.

DirectobjectAdirectobject(see1)referstothepersonorthingthatisdirectlyaffectedbytheactiondescribedbytheverb.

Thedirectobjectcanbeanoun,andinthesentenceThegirlhittheball.thewordballisanounandthedirectobject.

Adirectobjectcanalsobeapronoun,andinthesentenceShehithim.thewordhimisapronounandthedirectobject.

Adirectobjectcanalsobeanounphrase,andinthesentenceHehasboughtalargeVictorianhouse.thephrasealargeVictorianhouseisanounphraseandthedirectobject.

Adirectobjectcanbeanounclause,andinthesentenceIknowwhathemeans.theclausewhathemeansisanounclauseandthedirectobject.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformadirectobject:

Thedogbitthechild.Hedislikescats.Welovedthem.Peopleadmireher.Hewantedacomfortablecity-centreflat.Shelostherdiamondengagementring.Idon’tknowwhatyoumean.Iaskedwhyyoudidthat.

IndirectobjectAnindirectobjectusuallyreferstothepersonwhobenefitsfromtheactiondescribedbytheverb,oftenbyreceivingsomething.

InthesentenceHerfathersenttheschoolaletter.theschoolistheindirectobjectandaletteristhedirectobject.

NB:DirectandindirectobjectsIfthereisadirectobjectandanindirectobjectinasentenceorclause,theindirectobjectisalmostalwaysplacedbeforethedirectobject,asin:

Igavetheboythesweets.wheretheboyistheindirectobjectandthesweetsthedirectobject.

However,ifboththedirectandindirectobjectsarepronounsthedirectobjectissometimesplacedfirst,especiallyininformalspeech,asin:Thatismybook.Giveittome,please.

NB:VerbsandindirectobjectsSomeverbscommonlytakeanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobject.Theseincludebring,buy,give,send,show,tell.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformanindirectobject.

Isentyouthebook.Sheshowedhermothertheletter.Wehadtotellherthebadnews.Theygavethechildrensomesweets.Maryboughtthemsomemagazinesforthejourney.Passmethesalt,please.

Anindirectobjectcanbeprecededbythewordtoorfor.SothesentenceHersenttheschoolaletter.couldberephrasedasHerfathersentalettertotheschool..

Andinthiscasethedirectobjectwouldcomebeforetheindirectobject.

Complement

Inasentencewheretheverbisalinkingverb,suchasbe,become,seem,etc,whatfollowstheverbinapredicateiscallednotanobject,butacomplement.

InthesentenceMarkisapoliceman.thewordsapolicemanformthecomplementofthesentence.

Similarly,inthesentenceJanebecameaheartsurgeon.thewordsaheartsurgeonformthecomplementofthesentence.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformacomplement:

Heseemsanhonestman.Shebecameahugefan.Theyareniceenoughpeople.Itappearsagoodbargain.

Punctuationofsentences

Asentencebeginswithacapital letter andendswithafullstopor anequivalentpunctuationmark,suchasaquestionmarkorexclamationmark.

Thus,thefollowingareallsentences:

Theydidnotlikethehouse.Helivesinthecountry.Hedesignedandbuiltthehouse.Wewillleavewhenhegetshere.Wheredidhego?Whydidsheleave?Getoutofhere!Helpme!

(SeePunctuation.)

Typesofsentence

Traditionally five types of sentence are recognized. These are statements, negative sentences,questions,directivesorcommandsandexclamations.

StatementsStatements are sentences that ‘state’ something or give information. They are sometimes calleddeclarativesentencesbecausethey‘declare’something.Inmoststatementsthesubjectcomesbeforetheverb.Thefollowingsentencesarealldeclarativesentences:

Theboyhithissister.Themanattackedtheoldwoman.Weserveeveningmeals.Theweatherwasdreadful.

NegativesentencesAnegative sentence is one that makes a negative, rather than a positive, statement. This is usuallycreatedbytheinclusionofawordsuchasnot,nothingornever.Thewordnotissometimescontractedton’t.Whennot orn’t is used it is accompanied by an auxiliary verb. The following sentences arenegativesentences:

Wedidnotinviteher.Ididn’tseehim.Idon’tlikeit.Idon’tknowtheman.Iheardnothingunusuallastnight.Theydidnothingaboutit.Shehasneverbeenhere.Wehaveneverdeniedthat.

NB:ThedoublenegativeTheoccurrenceoftwonegativewordsinasentenceorclauseisknownasadoublenegative.Iftakenliterally,thisactuallyconveystheoppositesensetothatwhichisintended.

ThusHedidn’tsaynothing.literallyconveystheideathathesaidsomething.

However,thisisrarelywhatisintendedbythespeakerorwriterandthedoublenegativeshouldbeavoidedinstandardEnglish,althoughitisafeatureofsomeregionaldialects.

Wordssuchashardlyandscarcely,whichcanberegardedassemi-negativeforms,areincorrectlyusedwithanegative.Whenthishappensitcreatesadoublenegative.

Thus,asentencesuchasWedidn’thardlyhavetimetocatchthetrain.isanexampleofincorrectusage.YoushouldsayWehardlyhadtimetocatchthetrain.

QuestionsQuestions(see1)aresentencesthatseekinformationofsomekind.Theyarefollowedbyaquestionmark(?)andtheyofteninvolvetheinversionofthesubjectandanauxiliary(see1)ormodalverb,asin:

Doyouplaythepiano?Didyoupasstheexam?Haveyouwrittentohim?Didn’tyoulikeit?

Therearethreemaintypesofquestions:yes-noquestions,wh-questionsandalternativequestions.

Yes-noquestions

Yes-noquestions aredesigned to seeka reply in the affirmativeornegative,whether the reply is just‘yes’or‘no’orwhetherthisisamplifiedinsomeway,asin:

Isthehouseoccupiedjustnow?No.

Hasthedoctorarrivedyet?Yes.He’sjustarrived.

Arewereadytobegin?Let’sgetstarted.Yes.

Tagquestions

Someyes-noquestions are tagquestions inwhich the questioning part is in the tag at the end of thesentence.Thefollowingareexamplesoftagquestions,withthetagsinbold:

She’salawyer,isn’tshe?He’snothereyet,ishe?Youwon’ttellher,willyou?

Wh-questions

Wh-questionsbeginwithawordbeginningwithwh,suchaswhy,where,when,whoandwhat,asin:

Whatdoyouwant?

Wheredidhego?Whendidyoulastseeher?Whogaveyouthat?

Alternativequestions

Alternativequestions requirea reply that refers to theoptionsgiven in thesentence.Theycontain theconjunction‘or’.Thefollowingareexamplesofalternativequestions:

Didyoucomebybusortrain?Bytrain.

IsthepartyonFridayorSaturday?It’sonSaturday.

IssheyoungerorolderthanhimShe’safewyearsyounger.

Exclamatoryquestions

Exclamatoryquestionsaresentenceswhichhavethestructureofquestionsbutwhichareactuallyusedasexclamationsandendwithanexclamationmark.Theyarereallyseekingthelistener’sagreementratherthanseekingananswer.Thefollowingareexamplesofexclamatoryquestions:

Wasn’tthatawonderfulmeal!Hasn’tshechanged!Isn’titadreadfulday!

Rhetoricalquestions

Rhetoricalquestionsarealsosentences thathave thestructureofquestionsand theyend inaquestionmark.However,thespeakerdoesnotrequireananswertothesequestions.

Thefollowingareexamplesofrhetoricalquestions:

WhyshouldIcare?Whodoesshethinksheis?HowshouldIknow?

QuestionbytoneofvoiceAyes-noquestioncanhavethestructureofastatement,rather thanaquestion,utteredinaquestioningtoneofvoiceandendingwithaquestionmark.

Thefollowingareexamplesofthis:

AnnetoldyouIwasgoing?Yes,shedid.

Tomhasactuallylefther?Hewenttoday.Yes.

Thehouseisnolongerforsale?No.It’sbeensold.

DirectivesDirectives(see1),whicharealsocalledcommands(althoughtheyarenotallactuallycommands),aresentencesthatinstructsomeonetodosomething.

Insomedirectivesanactualcommandisbeinggivenandthisisfollowedbyanexclamationmark,asin:

Keepquiet!

There isusuallynosubject inadirectiveand theverb is in itsbasicor infinitive form. In thiskindofstructuretheverbissaidtobeintheimperativemood.

Thefollowingareexamplesofdirectivesintheimperativemood:

Standup!Helpme,please!Haveapieceofcake.Taketwoofthesepillsaftermeals.Turnlefthere.

Somedirectivesbeginwiththeword‘let’ortheword‘do’,asin:

Letmehelp.Let’sgo.Docomein.Don’tworry.

ExclamationsExclamations are sentencesexpressedbysomeonewho is impressed,excitedor rousedbysomething.Exclamationssometimestaketheformofasinglewordoraminorsentencebuttheycanalsobemajorsentences,oftenbeginningwith‘what’or‘how’.Exclamationsalwaysendwithanexclamationmark(!).

Thefollowingareexamplesofexclamations:

Ouch!Whataday!Howprettyyoulook!

NB:SentencelengthAswehave seen above, sentences, particularlyminor sentences, canbe extremely short.They canevenbeoneword.Ontheotherhand,sentencescanbeextremelylong.

Thereisnorestrictiononthelengthofsentences,except,ofcourse,thattheyshouldnotbesolongthat theyareconfusingorunintelligible.Usually, relativelyshortsentencesmakeforgreaterclarity.However,aseriesofsentencesshouldnotallbesoshortthattheeffectistooabruptorjerky.

Apartfromclarity,thereisthequestionofstylewhenitcomestosentencelength.Fromthepointofviewofgoodstyle,itisimportanttovarythelengthofyoursentences.Amixtureofsentencelengthsmakesapieceofproseseemmoreinteresting.

Kindsofsentence

SimplesentencesShortsentencesoftencontainonemainclauseandasentencewithjustonemainclauseiscalledasimplesentence.

Thefollowingareexamplesofsimplesentences:

Theboylaughed.Heenjoyedthetrip.Welikedtheplayverymuch.Hersonisill.Herdaughterbecameadoctor.Theygavemeapresentyesterday.

MultiplesentencesSentenceswhichcontainmorethanoneclauseareknownasmultiplesentences,sometimesabbreviatedtomulti-sentences.Thesecaneitherbecompoundsentencesorcomplexsentences.

Compoundsentences

Longersentencesusuallycontainmorethanoneclause.Sometimestheyconsistofjusttwomainclauses(see1),sometimesmorethantwo.Theseclausesarelinkedbyacoordinatingconjunction(see4),suchasand,butoror,andthesentencesformedinthiswayareknownascompoundsentences.

Thefollowingareexamplesofcompoundsentences:

Shelovedthechildrenandshelookedafterthemwell.Heleftontimebutthebuswaslate.Shewillmendthedressorbuyanewone.IwassorryforhimbutIcouldnothelphimandIfeltbadaboutthat.Sheplayedwellbutheropponentplayedevenbetterandshelostthematch.

Complexsentences

Longer sentences are oftencomplexsentences. Incomplexsentences at least one of the clauses is amainclausebutoneormoreoftheclausesisasubordinateclause(see1).

A subordinate clause is connected to the main clause by a subordinating conjunction such asalthough,because,before,since,unless,when,whileandwhy.Oftenthemainclausecomesbeforethesubordinate,butsometimesthesubordinateclauseisputfirst.

Thefollowingareexamplesofcomplexsentences:

Shedancedwhileheplayed.Ileftwhentheyarrived.Thebookwasstillwherewehadleftit.

Shecannotgounlesshermothergivesherpermission.Becausehiscarbrokedownhearrivedlateatthewedding.Whereverhegoes,shegoes.Sinceyoulefthehasbeensad.

Theparagraph

Theparagraph is usually a considerably larger unit of structure than a sentence. Indeed, it usuallyconsists of several sentences. Pieces of prose are usually divided into paragraphs to make theinformationconveyedbytheprosemorecomprehensibleandeasierofaccess.

Unlike the construction of sentences, there are no set grammatical rules for the construction ofparagraphsandmanypeoplefinditdifficulttodividetheirworkintoparagraphs.However,thisimproveswithpracticeandsoonbecomesinstinctive.Herearesomeguidelines.

Thereisnosetlengththataparagraphshouldbe.Aparagraphshoulddealwithoneparticularthemeorpointofthewriter’swritingorargument.Whenthathasbeendealtwithsatisfactorily,anewparagraphshouldbestarted.Ifaparagraphisverylongitcanbedifficultforreaderstomaketheirwaythroughitanditcanalsoberatheroff-puttingvisually.Insuchcasesitisbesttoconsidersubdividingthethemeofthelongparagraphtomakeshorterparagraphs.

Ontheotherhand,itisbestnottomakeallone’sparagraphstooshortasthiscancreateadisjointedeffect.Trytoaimforamixtureof lengthstocreatesomevariety.Traditionally, itwasfrownedupontohaveaone-sentenceparagraphbuttherearenohardandfastrulesaboutthis.Usually,however,ittakesmore than one sentence to develop the theme of the paragraph, unless one is a tabloid journalist orcopywriterforanadvertisingfirm.

Theopeningparagraphofapieceofwritingshouldintroducethetopicaboutwhichyouarewriting.Theclosingparagraphshouldsumupwhatyouhavebeenwritingabout.

New paragraphs begin on new lines and they are usually indented from themargin. In the case ofdialogueinaworkoffiction,eachspeaker’sspeechusuallybeginsonanewlinetomakethingsclearerforthereader.

EXERCISES1

1Whichofthefollowingareminorsentences?

Haveyoufinished?Rubbish!Thisfoodistasteless.Howsimplydelicious!Whatlovelyflowers.What’scausingthatdreadfulsmell?Nopain,nogain.Thereisnosmokewithoutfire.Betterlucknexttime.Nosmoking.

2Underlinethesubjectinthefollowingsentences.

Theyownseveralflatsinthearea.Skatingisherlatesthobby.AnnehasbecomeengagedtoPeter.Tostudyhardshouldbeyourmainconcern.Thereisnosenseinthis.Wherewegohasnotyetbeendecided.Itwasacompletedisaster.Teachersfromlocalschoolsprotestedagainsttheschoolclosures.MycousinJackknowstwooftheaccidentvictims.Manydisenchantedworkersresignedrightaway.

3Underlinethepredicateinthefollowingsentences.

Theoldladyslippedontheice.Heleftsuddenlywithoutwarning.Thesoldiersmovedslowlyandcautiously.Theyoungmanwasviolentandvindictive.Thelorrybrokedownyesterdayonthemotorway.Theteacherpunishedbothpupils.Jackquicklytelephonedthepolice.Sherecoveredfromherterribleinjuriesintime.Theheavyrainbatteredagainstthecottagewindowsalldayandallnight.

4Whichoftheunderlinedwordsinthefollowingsentencesformdirectobjectsandwhichformindirectobjects?

Theapplicantgavetheofficialthenecessaryinformation.Eachguestbroughtabottleofwine.

Sherecognizedanoldcolleague.Thechildsenthermotherabirthdaycard.Iknowwhatyoumean.Passourguestthebread,please.Sheshowedherfriendhernewoutfit.Theresultgavetheteamrenewedconfidence.Sendmethedocument,please.Wehadtotellherwhathappened.

5Whichoftheunderlinedwordsinthefollowingsentencesformcomplements?Theybecamebestfriends.Wemadegreatchangestothesystem.Hisfriendsblamethemselves.Sheseemsaverycaringperson.Heappearedasiffromnowhere.Jack’sfatherisaprofessionaltennisplayer.Thislooksexactlywhatweneed.Shealwaysgetswhatshewants.

6Whichofthefollowingsentencesarenegativesentences?

Wehavesomethingimportanttotellyou.Ihaveneverseenanythinglikeit.Hedidn’teverloveher.Shesawsomethingmovetheundergrowth.Itdoesn’tmatteranymore.Iknownothingabouttheincident.Theywillmournherforever.Wesawnothingintheleastbitsuspicious.Theyweren’tadequatelyequipped.Hedidcareforheronce.

7Replacethefullstopwiththeappropriatepunctuationmarkattheendofanyofthefollowingsentenceswhicharequestions.

Wherehewentisamysterytousall.Shehasbeengonealongtime,hasn’tshe.Whatdidhesayinreply.Didshegoabroadonholidayorstayathome.WhenIlastsawhershewasveryill.Issheolderoryoungerthanhersister.Whysheleftsosuddenlyisunclear.Haveyoulivedherelong.Theflatisn’tverybig,isit.He’llcomebackoneday,I’msure.

8Whichofthefollowingquestionsarelikelytoberhetoricalquestions?

HowcanGoddothistome?Whereisthenearestbusstop?Nooneisservingme—amIinvisible?Doyouknowwhereweare?WhydoesitalwaysrainwhenIwanttospendthedayatthebeach?Howdoesthismachinework?

9Whichofthefollowingsentencesarecompoundsentencesandwhicharecomplexsentences?

Heenjoyedhisworkandhewasverygoodatit.Whileshewasgoodatherwork,shedidn’tenjoyitverymuch.Iwon’tgounlessitstopsraining.Wehadintendedgoingbutitstartedtorainveryheavily.Youcaneitherstudyhereoryoucanstudyinthelibrary.Asitwasgettinglate,welookedforsomewheretostaythenight.Theycangetthelastbusortheycangetataxi.Ifyoumissthelastbusyouwillhavetogetataxi.He’sgoingtoacceptthedinnerinvitation,althoughhedoesn’treallywanttogo.

ANSWERS1

1Rubbish!Howsimplydelicious!Whatlovelyflowers.Nopain,nogain.Betterlucknexttime.Nosmoking.

2Theyownseveralflatsinthearea.Skatingisherlatesthobby.AnnehasbecomeengagedtoPeter.Tostudyhardshouldbeyourmainconcern.Thereisnosenseinthis.Wherewegohasnotyetbeendecided.Itwasacompletedisaster.Teachersfromlocalschoolsprotestedagainsttheschoolclosures.MycousinJackworksthere.Manydisenchantedworkersresignedrightaway.

3Theoldladyslippedontheice.Heleftsuddenlywithoutwarning.Thesoldiersmovedslowlyandcautiously.Theyoungmanwasviolentandvindictive.Thelorrybrokedownyesterdayonthemotorway.

Theteacherpunishedbothpupils.Jackquicklytelephonedthepolice.Sherecoveredfromherterribleinjuriesintime.Theheavyrainbatteredagainstthecottagewindowsalldayandallnight.

4directobjectsabottleofwine,anoldcolleague,whatyoumean,theblood-stainedknife,whathappened.indirectobjectstheofficial,hermother,ourguest,theteam,me.

5bestfriends,averycaringperson,aprofessionaltennisplayer,whatweneed.

6Ihaveneverseenanythinglikeit.Hedidn'teverloveher.Itdoesn'tmatteranymore.Iknownothingabouttheincident.Wesawnothingintheleastbitsuspicious.Theyweren'tadequatelyequipped.

7Shehasbeengonealongtime,hasn'tshe?Whatdidhesayinreply?Didshegoabroadonholidayorstayathome?Issheolderoryoungerthanhersister?Haveyoulivedherelong?Theflatisn'tverybig,isit?

8HowcanGoddothistome?Nooneisservingme—amIinvisible?WhydoesitalwaysrainwhenIwanttospendthedayatthebeach?

9compoundsentencesHeenjoyedhisworkandhewasverygoodatit.Wehadintendedgoing,butitstartedtorainveryheavily.Youcaneitherstudyhereoryoucanstudyinthelibrary.Theycangetthelastbusortheycangetataxi.complexsentencesWhileshewasgoodatherwork,shedidn’tenjoyitverymuch.Iwon’tgounlessitstopsraining.Asitwasgettinglate,welookedforsomewheretostaythenight.Ifyoumissthelastbusyouwillhavetogetataxi.He’sgoingtoacceptthedinnerinvitation,althoughhedoesn’treallywanttogo.

CLAUSES,PHRASESANDPHRASALVERBS

Clauses

Aclause(see1,2),likeamajorsentence,isameaningfulgroupofwordscontainingasubject(see2)andpredicate(see2).However,unlikesentences,notallclausescanstandaloneandmakesense.

Mainclause

Aclausethatcanstandaloneandmakesenseisknownasamainclause.Everymajorsentencemusthaveat least one main clause (see 2). (SeeTypes of sentence). In each of the following sentences theunderlinedwordsformamainclause:

HewasattheofficewhenIarrived.Iknewwhyheleft.Wetookthetrainbecausethecarbrokedown.

Somesentencesconsistofmorethanonemainclauseconnectedbyacoordinatingconjunction (see1)suchasand,butoror.Suchsentencesareknownascompoundsentences.

Thefollowingsentencesconsistoftwomainclauses(see1):

Iwasveryangryandheknewit.Youcaneitherapologizeoryoucanleaveimmediately.Itwasasunnydaybutitwasverycold.

Thefollowingsentencesconsistofmorethantwomainclauses:

Shewasintelligentandshewasveryefficientbutshehadnoluckinfindingajob.Wecangetaflighttodayorwecangetonenextweek,butwecannotgetoneattheweekend.

Punctuationandmainclauses

Acommamaybeusedtoseparatemainclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunction(see2),butthisisnotusual,especiallyiftheclauseshavethesamesubjectandthecoordinatingconjunctionisand.Whenthecoordinatingconjunctionisbut, theuseofacommatomarkoffthemainclauseismoreamatterofchoice,especiallywhenbothclausesarequitelong.

SubordinateclauseAclause thatcannotstandaloneandmakesenseand isdependenton themainclause tomakesense iscalledasubordinateclause(see1,2,4).Asubordinateclausecancomebeforeorafteramainclause.Ineachofthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformasubordinateclause.

Hearrivedafterwehadstartedthemeal.

Wewon’tbeabletoputinanofferforthehouseuntilwesellourown.Hefailedtheexamalthoughheworkedhard.Ifyoubuythatcaryouwillregretit.Whenhesawherhesmiled.Iwonderwhysheleft.

Thereareseveral typesofsubordinateclause.With theexceptionof averb, a subordinateclausecanreplacemostelementsofasentence(adverb,adjectiveandnoun).

Adverbialclause

Asubordinateadverbialclauseperformsasimilarfunctiontoanadverbinasentence.

ForexampleinthesentenceSheleftfortheairportearly.thewordearlyisanadverb.

Thisadverbcanbereplacedbyanadverbialclause,asin:Sheleftfortheairportwhenitbecamelight.orSheleftfortheairportbeforethecitytrafficgottooheavy.

Inboththesesentencestheunderlinedwordsformanadverbialclause.

Insomecasesanadverbialclausecancomebeforethemainclause,asin:Beforehelefthegaveheraletter.

Iftheadverbialclausecomesbeforethemainclauseitissometimesseparatedfromthemainclausebyacomma,especiallywhentheadverbialclauseisquitealongone.Whentheadverbialclausefollowsthemainclausethereisusuallynocomma.SeeCommasandsubordinateclauses(see3).

Typesofadverbialclause

Therearevarioustypesofadverband,correspondingly,therearevarioustypesofadverbialclause.

adverbialclauseoftimeThis indicates the time somethinghappensand is introducedbyaconjunction relating to time suchasafter,before,when,whenever,while,until,assoonas.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanadverbialclauseoftime:

Weneedtoleavebeforethetrafficgetsbad.HegotthereasIwasleaving.Ithadsnowedheavilywhileweslept.Whenevertheymeettheyquarrel.Whilewesleptsomeonebrokeintothehouse.

adverbialclauseofplaceThis indicates theplace that somethinghappensand is introducedbyaconjunction (see1) relating toplacesuchaswhere,wherever,everywhere.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanadverbialclauseofplace:

Weleftthebookswherewehadfoundthem.Whereverwewentwesawsignsofterriblepoverty.Everywhereshegoessheupsetspeople.

NB:ConjunctionsandrelativeclausesIftheconjunctionswhereorwhenfollowanounthesubordinateclausesoformedisnotanadverbialclauseofplace,butarelativeclause(seeRelativeclause).Forwhereyoucansubstitute inwhichandforwhen youcan substituteatwhich. In eachof the following sentences theunderlinedwordsformarelativeclausenotanadverbialclause.

Thisistheplacewherewelastsawhim.Thisisthetimewhenthepaingetsworse.

adverbialclauseofpurposeThisindicatestheintentionsomeonehaswhendoingsomethingandisintroducedbyaconjunction (see2)relatingtopurposesuchasinorder(to),to,soasto,sothat.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanadverbialclauseofpurpose:

Westartedonourjourneyveryearlysothatwecouldavoidthecityrushhour.Inordertopasstheexamyouaregoingtohavetoworkalotharder.Hereducedthenumberofstaffinorderthathemightavoidbankruptcy.Wearesavinghardsothatwecanbuyanewhouse.

adverbialclauseofreasonThisindicateswhysomethinghappensorisdoneandisintroducedbyaconjunction(see3)relatingtoreason such as because, since, as, in case. The words underlined in the following sentences formadverbialclausesofreason:

Icouldn’tgototheweddingbecauseIhadtoworkthatday.Asitwasrainingwehadthepartyindoorsinsteadofinthegarden.Sinceyourchildbrokethewindowyoushouldpayfortherepair.I’mtakingsomesandwichesincasethereisnobuffetonthetrain.

adverbialclauseofresultThis indicates theresultofaneventorsituationand is introducedbyaconjunction (see4) relating toresult,sothat.Thewordssoandthatcanbeseparated,socomingbeforeanadjectiveoradverbinthemainclauseandthatbeingthefirstwordinthesubordinateclause.Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanadverbialclauseofresult:

Shespokeveryquicklysothatwecouldscarcelyunderstandherinstructions.Hefellawkwardlysothathebrokehisleg.Shewassoillthatshehadtobetakentohospitalimmediately.Weweresoboredthatweleftthelectureearly.

Anadverbialclauseofresultalwayscomesafterthemainclause,unlikesomeotheradverbialclauseswhichcanalsocomebeforeit.

adverbialclauseofconditionThis indicates a possible situation and its consequences and is introduced by a conjunction (see 5)relatingtoconditionsuchasunless,if,asif,provided(that),providing,aslongas.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanadverbialclauseofcondition:

I’llcometothepartyprovidedIdon’thavetowork.Ifyoufinishyourprojectyoucanleaveearly.Icouldhavetoldyouthatifyouhadbotheredtoaskme.Wewillmisstheplaneunlessweleavefortheairportnow.Aslongasyouworklatethiseveningyoucanhavetomorrowmorningoff.Ifyoustudyhardanddowellinyourexams,youwilleasilygetintouniversity.

adverbialclauseofmannerThisindicatesthewaysomeonebehavesorthewayinwhichsomethingisdone,andisintroducedbyaconjunction(see6)relatingtomannersuchasasthough,asif,as,like.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanadverbialclauseofmanner.

Hetalksasifheknowsalotaboutthesubject.Shelookedathimasthoughshehatedhim.Whydoeshebehaveashedoes?

Anadverbial clause ofmanner always follows themain clause, unlike some other adverbial clauseswhichcanalsocomebeforeit.

adverbialclauseofconcessionThiscontainsafactthatcontrastsinsomewaywiththemainclauseormakesitseemsurprisingand isintroducedbyaconjunction(see7)suchasalthough,though,eventhough,whereas,while,whilst.Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanadverbialclauseofconcession:

IadmirehisworkalthoughIdon’treallylikehim.Eventhoughsheloveshimshedoesn’ttrusthim.Whilstheworksveryhard,hedoesn’treallyachieveanything.Myfriendlovestolieonthebeachallday,whereasIliketoexplorethesurroundingvillages.Although he had all the right qualifications and experience for that particular post, he was notappointed.

ComparativeclauseAcomparativeclause isasubordinateclausethatmodifiescomparativeadjectivesandadverbsandisintroducedbythan.Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformacomparativeclause:

Thetaskwasmuchmoredifficultthananyofushadanticipated.Heworkedharderthanwecouldeverhaveimagined.Shesomehowlookedlessattractivetodaythanshedidlastnight.

RelativeclauseA relative clause (see 1, 2) performs a similar function to an adjective in a sentence. It comesimmediatelyafteranouninthemainclause,whichiscalledtheantecedent,andgivesmoreinformationaboutthisnoun.Arelativeclauseisintroducedbyarelativepronoun(see1),suchaswho,whose,whichandthat,andthiscomesimmediatelyaftertheantecedent.Whoandwhomareusedwhenthenounreferstoaperson,which is usedwhen it refers to a thing and that can be usedof either a personor thing.Whom isusedwhentherelativepronounistheobjectoftheverbintherelativeclause.Whose isusedwhen youwant to refer to something relating to the person or thing you are talking about. Thewordsunderlinedineachofthesentencesbelowformarelativeclause.

That’stheboywhostolethebike.Iknowthemanwhosewifewasasurgeon.Thesearethemenwhosewageshavebeenincreased.Itisacountrywhosepopulationisindecline.Heistheneighbourwhomwelikebest.HereisthebookthatIborrowed.Ilosttheringwhichhegaveme.Hehitthedriverthatdamagedhiscar.

Sometimestherelativeclausedividesthepartsofamainclauseratherthancomingafterit.Thewordsunderlinedineachofthesentencesbelowformarelativeclause:

Thehousethatwelikedmostwasmuchtooexpensiveforus.Thewomanwhosedaughterisillisveryupset.ThedreamwhichIhadlastnightwasveryvivid.

NB:RelativepronounSometimes there isno relativepronounat thebeginningof the relativeclause, as in theunderlinedclausesbelow:

Hewasthebestcookweeverhad.Shewasnotthentherichwomanshelaterbecame.Hewasn’tthemanshethoughthewas.

NB:Ofwhich

InformalEnglish,especiallywrittenEnglish,ofwhichissometimesusedinsteadofwhose,asintheunderlinedclausesbelow:

Itisoneofthosecitiesofwhichthecentrehasbecomeaslum.Theruinedcastleisoneofthosebuildingsofwhichthehistoryisinadequatelydocumented.

Typesofrelativeclause

Therearetwotypesofrelativeclause.Adefiningrelativeclauseidentifieswhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.

DefiningrelativeclauseThewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformadefiningrelativeclause:

Irecognizedthewomanwhostolemypurse.Thereisthemanwhomsheadores.Heboughtthenecklacewhichshehadadmired.ThesearethechocolatesthatMumlikesbest.

Non-definingrelativeclauseAnon-definingrelativeclauseisnotneededtoidentifythepersonorthingthatyouaretalkingabout,butitgivesfurtherinformationaboutthatpersonorthing.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformanon-definingrelativeclause:

Theywalkeddownthetown’smainstreetwhichwascalledGeorgeStreet.Hefellinlovewiththegirlnextdoorwhobecamehiswife.Hegothispromotionwhichwaslongoverdue.

Punctuationinrelativeclauses

Whereanon-definingrelativeclausedividesthepartsofamainclauseitisplacedwithincommas.

Histwosisters,whowereveryclosetohim,nevergotoverhisdeath.Theoldman,whoisnearly90,hasbecometheoldestpersontocompleteamarathon.

Commasarenotusedinthiswayinthecaseofdefiningrelativeclauses.

Thebookthathetookwasveryvaluable.Thecarthatweboughtprovedtobeunreliable.

Prepositionsinrelativeclauses

Whenthereisaprepositioninarelativeclausethisisoftenplacedattheendoftheclause,whichisoftenalsotheendofthesentence.Previouslyitwasconsideredagrammaticalerrortoendasentencewithapreposition, but this attitude has changed.However, the preposition can be put in front of the relative

pronoun as long as the sentence so formed sounds natural. This ismost often done in formal English,particularlywrittenEnglish.

Thisiswhathashappenedtothesocietywhichwelivein.orThisiswhathashappenedtothesocietyinwhichwelive.

Unbelievably,hehasgivenupthejobwhichhetrainedsohardfor.orUnbelievably,hehasgivenupthejobforwhichhetrainedsohard.

ThisisthekindofbehaviourthatIrefusetoputupwith.

YouwouldNEVERsay:ThisisthekindofbehaviourupwithwhichIrefusetoput.

Nounclauseornominalclause

Anounornominalclauseperformsasimilarfunctiontoanounornounphraseinasentence.Likeanounitcanactasthesubject(see4),objectorcomplementofthemainclause.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesarenounclausesthatactasthesubjectof thesentence:

Whereyougoisofverylittleinteresttome.Whatyouknowshouldbetoldtothepolice.Whathedoesnowisuptohim.

Thewordsunderlined ineachof thefollowingsentencesarenounclauses thatactas theobject of thesentence:

I’mnotaskingwhyyou’regoing.Wedidn’tknowwhohaddoneit.Herefusedtosaywherehewasgoing.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesarenounclausesthatactasthecomplementofthesentence:

Thetheoryisthattherewilldefinitelybeenoughmoneyforeveryone.Mypointisthatwesimplycan’taffordtomovehouse.

NB:NounsandprepositionsSometimes noun clauses come after a preposition. Thewords underlined in each of the followingsentencesarenounclauses:

Itdependsonhowmuchmoneyisavailable.

Theyallcommentedonwhatalotofweighthehadlost.

CommentclauseA comment clause is a short clause inserted into a sentence, sometimes used to show the speaker’sattitude to what he or she is saying and sometimes used as a filler without muchmeaning. Commentclausesareparticularlycommonininformalspeech.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesformacommentclause.

Toputitbluntly,heisaliar.Hewasn’tsenttoprisonforthecrime,more’sthepity.Thepatientwillmostlikelysurvive,I’mgladtosay.She’sonlyafewyearsolderthanme,youknow.He’sbeenmarriedtwicebefore,itseems.

NB:UseofacommaAcommentclauseisoftenseparatedfromthemainclausebyacomma.

Phrases

Aphraseusuallyreferstoagroupofwordsthatworktogethertoformagrammaticalunit,although,infact,aphrasemayconsistofjustoneword.

Aclauseorsentencecanusuallybebrokendownintophrases.Therearefivekindsofphraseandeachphrase takes itsnamefromthewordclass (seeMainpartsofspeech)whichplays themainpart in itsstructure.

Thus,inanounphraseanounisthemainpartofthestructureofthephraseandinanadjectivephraseanadjectiveisthemainpartofthestructureofthephrase.

NounphraseAnounphrase,alsocalledanominalphrase,isagroupofrelatedwordsinwhichthemainwordisanounandwhichfunctionslikeanouninasentenceorclause.Thus,averylongblackcarisanounphraseinwhichthemainwordisthenouncar.

Anounphrasecaneitheractasthesubject,objectorcomplementofthesentenceorclause.Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesareallnounphrases.

Inthefirsttwosentencesthenounphrasesactasthesubject:

Themostdreadfulroadaccidenthashappened.Aterriblestormisforecast.

Inthenexttwosentencesthenounphrasesactastheobject:

Wehavesomeinterestingnewneighbours.Imetaverycharmingwomanattheparty.

Andinthelasttwosentencesthenounphrasesactasthecomplement:

Hisfatherisafairlytalentedartist.Mygreat-auntlaterbecameafamousoperasinger.

AdjectivephraseAnadjectivephrase,alsocalledanadjectivalphrase, isagroupof relatedwords inwhich themainwordisanadjectiveandwhichfunctionslikeanadjectiveinasentenceorclause.Thus,rathertoooldisanadjectivalphrasesinwhichthemainwordistheadjectiveold.Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesareadjectivephrases:

Shewastired,miserableandhungry.

Thetaskwasextremelychallenging.Thepatientwasgettingpalerandweaker.Theflowerswerefreshfromthegarden.Onthedayofthepicnictheweatherwastheworstpossible.

AdverbphraseAnadverbphrase,alsocalledanadverbialphraseoranadverbial,isagroupofrelatedwordsinwhichthemainwordisanadverbandwhichfunctionslikeanadverbinasentenceorclause.

Thus,

extremelyfrequently

isanadverbphraseinwhichthemainwordistheadverbfrequently.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesareadverbphrases:

Iusedtoplaytennisfairlyregularly.Isawbothofthemveryrecently.Ican’tstandthisnoiseformuchlonger.Shegreetedherguestsextremelywarmly.Thestudentsareworkingreallyhard.Theyliveveryclose.

PrepositionphraseAprepositionphrase,alsocalledaprepositionalphrase,isagroupofrelatedwordsinwhichthemainwordisaprepositionandwhichfunctionslikeaprepositioninasentenceorclause.

Thus

onthetable

isaprepositionphraseinwhichthemainwordistheprepositionon.

Thewordsunderlinedineachofthefollowingsentencesareprepositionphrases:

Wewaitedatthebusstop.Heplacedthebookonthetable.Theywalkedintotheroom.Youmuststayinthegarden.

ParticipialphraseAparticipialphrase(see1)isagroupofrelatedwordsinwhichthemainwordisaparticipleofaverb,

eitherapresentparticiple,asinthefollowingsentence:

Walkingalongthebeach,hethoughtdeeplyabouthisproblems.

Orapastparticiple,asinthesentence:

Disgustedbyhertreatment,sheresignedfromherjob.

Thewordsunderlinedinthefollowingsentencesareparticipialphrases(see2):

Boredbytheparty,shewenthomeearly.Livingbyhimself,hewasfrequentlylonely.Relievedbythenews,hesmiledbroadly.Laughinghappily,shewentofftocelebrate.Builtbyhisfather,thehousehadbeendesignedbyhim.Weepingbitterly,thechildheldthebrokentoy.Destroyedbywar-timebombing,thecityisnowbeingrebuilt.Badlyinjured,theminerssomehowmanagedtomaketheirwaytothesurface.Deeplytouchedbythegesture,theyoungwomanwroteathankyou-note.

Phrasalverbs

Aphrasal verb (see 1, 2) is a verb that consists of two or threewords. They can consist of a verbfollowedbyanadverbortheycanconsistofaverbfollowedbyaprepositionor theycanconsistofaverbfollowedbyanadverbandapreposition.

Examplesofphrasalverbsareshowninthesentencesbelowwiththephrasalverbunderlined.

Inthisfirstgroupofsentencesthephrasalverbsallconsistofaverbfollowedbyanadverb:

Wesatdownandwaited.Sheslippedontheiceandfellover.Theysetoffjustbeforedawn.Whendoestheplanetakeoff?It’stimetogoin.Thepriceofpropertyherewillgoup.Comeupnow,please.Howlongdidittakeforthepatienttocomeround?Winterwillsetinsoon.Theeffectsofthepainkillerbegantowearoff.Ourholidayplanshavefallenthrough.Liedownandtrytosleep.Thecarhadmovedoff.Hehopestofindapermanentjobandsettledown.Thechildcurledupandwenttosleep.ThecallerrangoffbeforeIgottothephone.

Inthenextgroupofsentencesthephrasalverbsallconsistofaverbfollowedbyapreposition:

Theywalkedthroughtheforest.Wedrovethroughthecityatmidnight.Youshouldcallonyournewneighbour.Thechildfellintothewater.Myfatherfinallygotoverhisillness.Theworkersaskedformoremoney.HeoriginallycamefromLondon.Shewaslivingwithherparentsatthetime.Wehadporedoveralltheholidaybrochures.Heisembarkingonanewcareer.Webankedonyoursupport.Shebroughtupherchildrenalone.Heturneddownthejoboffer.

Inthislastgroupofsentencesthephrasalverbsallconsistofaverbfollowedbyanadverbandapreposition.

Tirednesscreptuponherasshedroveandshedecidedtostopforsomecoffee.We’llhavetocomeupwithanothersourceoffunding.Itistimetheydidawaywiththeseout-datedlaws.Hemustfaceuptothepossibleconsequencesofhisaction.Irefusetoputupwithournoisyneighboursanylonger.Youareboundtocomeupagainstafewproblemsinthecourseofthistask.Shelookeduptoherfatheruntilshediscoveredthathewasacrook.Thechildrengetuptoalotofmischievoustrickswhentheteacherleavestheroom.Heranoffwithhisbestfriend’swife.Itallcomesdowntomoneyintheend.

PositionofobjectinphrasalverbsManyphrasalverbsactlikeintransitiveverbs(seeintransitive).Some,however,actliketransitiveverbsand,assuch,takeadirectobject.

Whenaphrasalverbisusedinatransitivesituationyousometimeshaveachoiceastowheretoplacetheobject.Ifitconsistsofashortnounphrase,theobjectcanbeplacedeitherafterthesecondwordofthe phrasal verb, or after the first word and before the second word. In the following sentences theunderlinedwords,indifferentpositions,representtheobject:

Wefilledupthewaterjugwithcoldwaterfromthekitchentap.orWefilledthewaterjugupwithcoldwaterfromthekitchentap.

He’llneverlivedownthisterriblescandal.orHe’llneverlivethisterriblescandaldown.

Thequarreltoreaparttheentirefamily.orThequarreltoretheentirefamilyapart.

Whentheobjectisapronoun,suchashim,her,it,itusuallycomesbeforethesecondwordofthephrasalverb.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformphrasalverbsandtheirpronounobjects:

Igavemyletterofcomplainttothemanager,butsheimmediatelyhandeditovertoherassistant.Whenshebrokeofftheengagementhewantedhertokeepthering,butshegaveitback.ItwasJimwhothoughtoftheidea,butitwasJackwhoputitforwardtothecommittee.Thelittlegirlwasbadlyinjuredandpolicearetryingtofindthedriverwhoknockedherover.Theyoungboxerwasknockedoutanddoctorstookseveralminutestobringhimround.

NB:DanglingparticipleAdanglingparticipleisaparticiplethathasbeenmisplacedinasentence.Aparticipleisoftenusedtointroduceaphrasethatisattachedtoasubjectmentionedlaterinasentenceasin:

Wornoutbythelongwalk,shefelltothegroundinafaint.Wornoutistheparticipleandshethesubject.

Itisacommonerrorforsuchaparticiplenottoberelatedtoanysubject,asin:Workingmainlyatnight,itseemedalongtimesinceshehadseendaylight.Thisparticipleissaidtobe‘dangling’.

AnotherexampleofadanglingparticipleiscontainedinLivingalone,thedaysseemedlong.whereLivingaloneisnotrelatedtoaparticularsubject.

Itisalsoacommonerrorforaparticipletoberelatedtothewrongsubjectinasentence,asin:Paintingtheceiling,someoftheplasterfellonhishead.Painting istheparticipleandshouldgowithasubjectsuchashe.Insteaditgoeswithsomeof theplaster.Participles in this situation aremore correctly known asmisrelated participles, although they arealsocalleddanglingparticiples.

EXERCISES2

1Underlinethesubordinateclausesinthefollowingsentences.

Nooneknewwhoshewas.Theyleftbeforetherushhourgotunderwayinearnest.Thereistheyouthwhostolemypurse.Doctorswon’tknowhischancesofrecoveryuntiltheygetthetestresults.Asthesuncontinuedtoshinewedecidedtostayatthebeachalittlelonger.ThatisthebookthatIhavebeenlookingfor.Ifyouleavenowyouwillbetherebynightfall.Thedrainsgetblockedwheneveritrainsheavily.Sheactsasifsheweresuperiortotherestofus.Shedidn’ttellhimwhenshewouldbeback.

2Writedownwhichtypeofadverbialclause(i.e.time,place,reason,etc)isunderlinedinthefollowingsentences.

BecausetheticketsweresoexpensiveIdidn’tgototheconcert.Heismovingtothisareainordertobenearerhiswork.Theringwillbewhereyouleftit.HewalkedsoquicklythatIhaddifficultyinkeepingupwithhim.Aslongaswegethimtoahospitalrightawayheshouldbeallright.She’sgoingtobuythedressalthoughshecan’taffordit.TherentoftheflatwasmuchmoreexpensivethanIhadanticipated.

3Underlinetherelativeclausesinthefollowingsentences.

Sheisoneofthosemotherswhooverprotecttheirchildren.ThatisthenameofthemanwhosecarIbought.Heboughtthecottagewhichmyauntusedtoown.Thisisthedressthatshelikesbest.Thevillageistheplacewherewefirstmet.Jackwasthefriendwhommyfathertrustedmost.Shewasnotthehonestwomanthatweallconsideredhertobe.Thatwasthemomentwhenshefellinlove.Itisoneofthoseareasinwhichthepopulationhasdeclinedrapidly.

4Whichofthefollowingrelativeclausesaredefiningandwhicharenon-defining?

Sheboughttheflowerswhichwerehermother’sfavourites.WewenttotheexhibitionatthecityportraitgallerywhichisinQueenStreet.Thatistheteacherwhoteachesmysonmaths.Hisbirthmother,whomhefinallytrackeddown,didnotwanttoknowhim.Theyhaddinneratthetown’sbestfishrestaurantwhichisquitenearwheretheylive.

Weeventuallyboughtthehousewhichwehadseenfirst.Thestudentswhopassedtheexamwereallinthetopsectionoftheclass.Thisistheareawheremostpeoplewanttolive.Myformerneighbour,whomovedawayafewyearsago,diedlastweek.

5Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainanounclauseandunderlinethatclause.

Thepolicesuspectedthatshewasthethief.Weknewwhocommittedthecrime.Theyarethepeoplewhoreallycare.Werealizethatitisnotyourfault.Wherehegoeseverynightnooneknows.Thisistheplacewheretheymeet.I’mnottellingyouwhenIplantoleave.Thatwasthedaywhenhisexamresultsweredue.Histheoryisthatthemurdererisoneofthevictim’srelatives.

6Underlinethecommentclausesinthefollowingsentences.

Tobefrankaboutit,Iwouldn’tbelieveawordhesays.Wehavetomovetothecity,I’msorrytosay.Thepolicearrestedthewrongman,itappears.Toberealistic,Ithinkthejobwilltakeatleastsixweeks.

7Writedownwhichofthefollowingunderlinedphrasesarenounphrases,whichareadjectivalphrasesandwhichareadverbialphrases.

Aterribleaccidentoccurredlastnight.Theweatherwaswet,windyandbitterlycold.Theyworkedrapidlyandcompetently.Wesawsomewonderfulscenery.Ionceknewthemverywellindeed.Shedrovequicklyandcarelessly.Theyoungwomanwasbeautiful,slenderandwell-dressed.Shemarriedahandsomebutuntrustworthyman.

8Underlinetheparticipialphrasesinthefollowingsentences.

Smilinghappily,shecongratulatedtheyoungcoupleontheirengagement.Sheranalongtheroad,shoutingloudly.Completelyexhaustedbytheday’swork,shehadabathandwenttobedearly.Savagelybombedbyenemyaircraft,theareawasawildernessformanyyears.Greatlyamusedbythespeech,thecrowdapplaudedenthusiastically.Designedandmadebyhermother,thedressattractedagreatdealofadmiration.Walkingslowlyandpainfully,Ieventuallyreachedthedoctor’ssurgery.

9Underlinethephrasalverbsinthefollowingsentences.

Theystoodupandapplaudedwarmly.Ifelloverthecat.Thedoglaydownbythefire.Ourneighboursaremovingaway.HecomesfromLondonoriginally.Sheaskedformoretimetopay.Ourguestssetoffafterdinner.Ican’tputupwiththisnoiseanylonger.Theybroughtuptheirchildreninextremepoverty.Theplanewilltakeoffshortly.Theeffectsofthesleepingpillsworeoffslowly.

ANSWERS2

1Nooneknewwhoshewas.Theyleftbeforetherushhourgotunderwayinearnest.Thereistheyouthwhostolemypurse.Doctorswon’tknowhischancesofrecoveryuntiltheygetthetestresults.Asthesuncontinuedtoshinewedecidedtostayatthebeachalittlelonger.ThatisthebookthatIhavebeenlookingfor.Ifyouleavenowyouwillbetherebynightfall.Thedrainsgetblockedwheneveritrainsheavily.Sheactsasifsheweresuperiortotherestofus.Shedidn’ttellhimwhenshewouldbeback,

2Becausetheticketsweresoexpensive(reason)inordertobenearerhiswork(purpose)whereyouleftit(place)thatIhaddifficultyinkeepingupwithhim(result)Aslongaswegethimtoahospitalrightaway(condition)althoughshecan’taffordit(concession)thanIhadanticipated(comparative)

3Sheisoneofthosemotherswhooverprotecttheirchildren.ThatisthenameofthemanwhosecarIbought.Heboughtthecottagewhichmyauntusedtoown.Thisisthedressthatshelikesbest.Thevillageistheplacewherewefirstmet.Jackwasthefriendwhommyfathertrustedmost.Shewasnotthehonestwomanthatweallconsideredhertobe.Thatwasthemomentwhenshefellinlove.

Itisoneofthoseareasinwhichthepopulationhasdeclinedrapidly.

4whichwerehermother’sfavourites(defining)whichisinQueenStreet(non-defining)whoteachesmysonmaths(defining)whomhefinallytrackeddown(non-defining)whichisquitenearwheretheylive(non-defining)whichwehadseenfirst(defining)whopassedtheexam(defining)wheremostpeoplewanttolive(defining)whomovedawayafewyearsago(non-defining)

5Thepolicesuspectedthatshewasthethief.Weknewwhocommittedthecrime.Werealizethatitisnotyourfault.Wherehegoeseverynightnooneknows.I’mnottellingyouwhenIplantoleave.Histheoryisthatthey’llcomeroundeventually.

6Tobefrankaboutit,Iwouldn’tbelieveawordhesays.Wehavetomovetothecity,I’msorrytosay.Thepolicearrestedthewrongman,itappears.Toberealistic,Ithinkthejobwilltakeatleastsixweeks.

7Aterribleaccidentoccurredlastnight.(nounphrase)Theweatherwaswet,windyandbitterlycold.(adjectivalphrase)Theyworkedrapidlyandcompetently.(adverbialphrase)Wesawsomewonderfulscenery.(nounphrase)Ionceknewthemverywellindeed.(adverbialphrase)Shedrovequicklyandcarelessly.(adverbialphrase)Theyoungwomanwasbeautiful,slenderandwell-dressed.(adjectivalphrase)Shemarriedahandsomebutuntrustworthyman.(nounphrase)

8Smilinghappily,shecongratulatedtheyoungcoupleontheirengagement.Sheranalongtheroad,shoutingloudly.Completelyexhausted,shehadabathandwenttobedearly.Savagelybombedbyenemyaircraft,theareawasawildernessformanyyears.Greatlyamusedbythespeech,thecrowdapplaudedenthusiastically.Designedandmadebyhermother,thedressattractedagreatdealofadmiration.Walkingslowlyandpainfully,Ieventuallyreachedthedoctor’ssurgery.

9Theystoodupandapplaudedwarmly.Ifelloverthecat.Thedoglaydownbythefire.Ourneighboursaremovingaway.HecomesfromLondonoriginally.Sheaskedformoretimetopay.

Ourguestssetoffafterdinner.Ican’tputupwiththisnoiseanylonger.Theybroughtuptheirchildreninextremepoverty.Theplanewilltakeoffshortly.Theeffectsofthesleepingpillsworeoffslowly.

PARTSOFSPEECHI

Mainpartsofspeech

The smallest unit of language is theword. In grammar eachword is assigned a grammatical categoryknownasapartofspeech.

Thefollowingmainpartsofspeecharediscussedinthissection:noun,pronoun,adjective,determiner,verb,adverb,prepositionandconjunction.

Nouns

Oftencalleda ‘namingword’ inprimaryschools,anoun isused to refer toaperson, thingorquality.Nouns are a very common feature of language and they are categorized into various classifications asfollows.

CommonandpropernounsAcommon noun refers to something ofwhich there aremany examples and so is very common. Thefollowingwordsareexamplesofcommonnouns:

apple,band,car,city,country,day,dog,man,month,planet,religion,street.

Apropernoun,ontheotherhand,referstosomethinginparticularofwhichthereisonlyoneexample.Unlikecommonnouns,propernounsbeginwithacapitalletter.Thus,thefollowingwordsareexamplesofpropernouns:

GrannySmith(typeofapple),Beatles(nameofpopgroup),Buddhism,Volkswagen(tradenameoftypeof car), London, Sweden, Wednesday, Doberman (type of dog), Jack (name of man), March, Mars(nameofplanet),ScotlandStreet.

ConcreteandabstractnounsAconcretenounreferstosomethingthatyoucantouch.Thefollowingareexamplesofconcretenouns:

bag,carpet,door,flower,grape,hand,lake,monkey,orange,pan,road,shoe,window.

Anabstractnounreferstosomethingthatyoucannottouch.Inotherwords,itreferstoaquality,conceptoridea.Thefollowingareexamplesofabstractnouns.

anger,beauty,Christianity,courage,danger,fear,greed,happiness,loyalty,Marxism,wisdom,youth.

CountableanduncountablenounsAcountablenoun,alsoknownasacountnoun,isanounthatcanbeprecededbytheword‘a’andcanexistinapluralform.Whenthepluralformisuseditisnotusuallyprecededbyadeterminer,butisusedalone.Mostconcretenounsarecountable.Thefollowingareexamplesofcountablenouns:

city (plural cities), gate (plural gates), foot (plural feet), hat (plural hats), lady (plural ladies),monkey(pluralmonkeys),mouse(pluralmice),taxi(pluraltaxis),window(pluralwindows).

In the following sentences the underlined words, either in the singular or plural form, are countablenouns:

I’vejustboughtaflatthere.Iprefercitiestothecountryside.Openthedoorplease.Thechildbelievesinfairies.Thechurchisoverthere.Therearemiceinthehouse.

Anuncountablenoun,alsoknownasanuncountnoun,isanounthatcannotusuallybeprecededbytheword‘a’or‘an’anddoesnotusuallyexistinapluralform.Abstractnounstendtobeuncountable.Thefollowingareexamplesofuncountablenouns:

Theylivedinpoverty.Ourluggagewentmissing.Wearewaitingforvitalinformation.Youshouldputsugarinthispudding.Educationisanobsessionwithher.Iputsomepetrolinthecaryesterday.I’llhaveakiloofflour,please.CouldIhaveasliceofbread?

VerbalnounWhenthepresentparticiple functionsasanoun it isknownasaverbalnoun (see1) orgerund. Theverbal noun is so called because, although formed from a verb, it functions as anoun, acting as thesubjectofasentence.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbalnounsorgerunds:

Smokingisbadforyourhealth.Stealingisacrime.Joggingisgoodexercise.Swimmingishisfavouritesport.

NB:CountableanduncountablenounsSomenounsexistinbothcountableanduncountableforms.Oneexampleisthewordcakewhich iscountableintheexampleThechildatethreecakes.anduncountableintheexampleDohavesomecake.

AnotherexampleisthewordlightwhichiscountableintheexampleThelightsinthehousesuddenlywentout.anduncountableintheexampleShewasdepressedbythelackoflightinthewinter.

Insomesituationsitispossibletohaveacountableversionofwhatisusuallyanuncountablenoun.Thus,althoughthewordsugarisusuallyconsidereduncountable,asintheexampleAddalittlesugartothemixture.itcanbeusedcolloquiallyasacountablenounintheexample

Itaketwosugars(=teaspoonfulsofsugar).

Similarly,althoughthewordteaisusuallyconsidereduncountable,asintheexamplesIwouldloveacupoftea.andSheinvitedmetotea.TeacanbeusedcolloquiallyasacountablenounintheexampleI’llhavetwoteaswithoutsugar,please.

Sometimestheverbalnouncanactastheobjectofasentence.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbalnounsorgerundsactingastheobjectofasentence.

Idon’tenjoyswimming.Shehatesdancing.Shegaveupsmoking.Hetookupjogginginthepark.Theyloatheeatinginrestaurants.Theyoungmenlovedrinkinginpubs.Shetooktogivingnoisypartieslateatnight.

Nounsorpronounsthatqualifyverbalnounsorgerundsshouldbeinthepossessivecase(seepersonalpronouns,possessivedeterminers,possessivedeterminers(see1),possession),asin:

Mymotherhatesmysmokinginherhouse.andTheheadteacherobjectedtoourwearingcasualclothesontheschooltrip.

Inthesesentencesthewordsmyandourarebothinthepossessivecase.

However, there is a general tendency to think of gerunds as being a very difficult area of theEnglishlanguage.Theresultisthatmostpeopledonotunderstandthatthegerundshouldbeprecededbyanounorpronouninthepossessivecaseandthey,instead,useanobject,asin:

Mymotherhatesmesmokinginherhouse.andTheheadteacherobjectedtouswearingcasualclothesontheschooltrip.

Althoughungrammatical,suchusageisbecomingmoreandmorecommon.

CollectivenounsAcollectivenoun isasingularnounthatreferstoagroupofthingsorpeoplewhenthewholegroupisbeingconsidered.Inthefollowingphrasestheunderlinedwordisacollectivenoun:

apackofwolvesaflockofsheep

aherdofcattleaschoolofwhalesashoalofherringafleetofshipsaprideoflionsaswarmoffliesagaggleofgeeseaconstellationofstars.

Singularandpluralformsofnouns

Regularsingularformsofnouns

MostEnglishnounshaveadifferentendingfor‘one’ofsomething(calledthesingularform)thantheydofor ‘more thanone’ (called theplural form). In the case of themajority of nouns the plural is formedregularlysimplybyaddingsorestothesingular,asinbat/bats,monkey/monkeys,church/churches. Incaseswherethesingularnounendsinaconsonantfollowedbyythenthepluralformregularlybecomesies,asinfairy/fairies.

Regularpluralformsofnouns

Thefollowingisalistofcommonnounswiththeirregularpluralforms:

banana bananasberry berriesbush bushesdog dogselephant elephantsfriend friendshouse houseskiss kisseslady ladiesmarch marchesporch porchesroad roadsstory storiestable tablestaxi taxisumbrella umbrellasvariety varieties.

Irregularpluralformsofnouns

Somenounsdonotformtheirpluralintheaboveregularways.Insteadtheirpluralformsaresaidtobeirregular.

Someirregularpluralsareformed,notbyaddinganendingtothesingularform,butbychangingthevowelinthesingularforms,asinman/men,orbyhavingacompletelydifferentformfromthesingular,asinmouse/mice.

Thefollowingareexamplesofnounswiththeirirregularpluralforms:

foot feetgoose geesetooth teethwoman women.

Afewirregularpluralformsareformedbyadding‘en’tothesingularform,asinox/oxen.Inthecaseofthewordchildtheletterrisaddedbeforetheen.

Somenounsendinginfformirregularpluralsendinginves,asinloaf/loaves.Thefollowingisalistofsuchnounswiththeirpluralforms:

half halvesleaf leavesscarf scarveswife wiveswolf wolves.

NB:IrregularandregularformsThewordhoofcaneitherhavetheirregularpluralformhoovesortheregularpluralformhoofs.Thewordroofusuallyhastheregularpluralformroofs.

Foreignpluralformsofnouns

Somenouns inEnglish have a plural form that follows the spelling rules of the foreign language fromwhich they are derived, as in stimulus (stimuli). The following are examples of suchwordswith thepluralformintheiroriginalforeignlanguage:

bacterium bacteriabacillus bacillicriterion criterialarva larvaephenomenon phenomena.

Unchangingpluralform

Someirregularpluralformsarethesameasthesingularformofthenoun.Theseincludesheep,salmonandgrouse(thegamebird).

Nounsusedonlyinthepluralform

Therearesomewords,suchasjeans,scissorsandtrousers,whichareonlyusedinthepluralformandhavenosingularequivalentform.Torefertoanyoftheseinthesingulartheconstructionapairofjeans,scissorsortrousersisused.

NB:ForeignpluralsInmodernEnglishthereisatendencytoanglicizethepluralformsofforeignwords.Manyoftheseco-existwith theoriginal foreignplural form,as thesaurus(thesauri/thesauruses).Otherexamplesinclude formula (formulae/formulas), appendix (appendices/appendixes), index (indices/indexes)andgateau(gateaux/gateaus).

Inthecaseofthewordsappendixandindex the twoplural formsareused indifferentcontexts.The plural appendices is used in a literary context, as in the appendices added as additionalinformationtoabook,whereasthepluralappendixesisusedinamedicalcontext,asinthesurgicalremoval ofappendixes. The plural indices is usually used in amathematical context,whereas thepluralindexesisusuallyusedinaliterarycontexttorefertoaguidetoabook.

GenderofnounsManylanguages,suchasFrenchandGerman,areaffectedbytheconceptofgrammaticalgender.Thus,inFrenchthewordhillisfeminine(lacolline)accordingtogrammaticalgender,althoughingenderintherealworld itwould be neuter. Similarly, theGermanword for amountain (derBerg) ismasculine intermsofgrammaticalgender,althoughintherealworlditisneuter.

This is not true of English because English nouns tend to be grouped according to the naturaldistinctions of sex, or, where appropriate, absence of sex. Thus, we have the gender categories ofmasculine, feminine and neuter and aman or boy is classified asmasculine, a girl or woman isclassifiedasfeminineandatableorchairasneuter.

Thewordsinthefollowinglistaremasculine:

bridegroom,brother,duke,drake,emperor,father,husband,king,nephew,prince,son,widower.

Thewordsinthefollowinglistarethefeminineequivalentsofthewordsinthemasculinelist:

bride,sister,duchess,duck,empress,mother,wife,queen,niece,princess,daughter,widow.

Thewordsinthefollowinglistareneuter:

apple,bottle,car,desk,egg,house,letter,newspaper,road,shoe,town,window.

Dualgender

SomenounsinEnglish,suchaschild,caneitherrefertoamaleorafemale,unlessthesexisindicatedinthecontext.Thewordsinthefollowinglistfallintothiscategory:

adult,architect,artist,athlete,baby,author,cousin,doctor,parent,secretary,singer,student,teacher.

Feminineforms

Somewordsinthedualgendercategory,suchasauthor,poet,sculptorandproprietor,wereformerlyautomaticallyassumedtobemasculineandtheyhadfeminineforms,asinauthoress,poetess,sculptressandproprietrix. The rise of theWomen’sMovement in the 1960swith its concern for the equality ofwomeninsocietygaverisetoacorrespondingconcernforsexisminlanguage.Wordssuchasauthoressandpoetesswerethoughttobesexistandarenowgenerallythoughttobeunacceptable.However,somefeminineforms,suchaswaitress,arestillincommonuseandbothactorandactressareusedforafemaleactor.

Personincompoundnouns

Theneedtoremovesexismfromlanguagealsoresultedintheincreaseinuseofthewordpersontoformcompoundsthatcouldrefertoeitheramanorawomanandwere,therefore,ofdualgender.Suchwordsincludechairpersonandspokesperson.These replacedchairman and spokesmanwhichwere hithertothoughttobeabletoapplytoamanorawoman,althoughtheysoundedmasculine.

(SeeheunderPronoun.)

CompoundnounsManynouns, knownascompoundnouns, consistof two ormorewords.A compound noun is a fixedexpressionthatismadeupofmorethanonewordandfunctionsasanouninasentenceorclause.Mostcompoundnounsconsistoftwonounsoranadjectiveandanoun,butsome,suchascover-upandmake-up,arederivedfromphrasalverbsandsome,suchaspasser-byandlooker-on,arederivedfromanounplusadverb.Afewcompoundnounsconsistofa letterof thealphabetandanoun,as inX-rayandU-turn.

Somecompoundnounsarewrittenastwowords,asinestateagent,someareseparatedbyahyphen,asinpen-friend,andsomearewrittenasoneword,asinhousewife.Sometimeswhichstyleofwritingyou use for compound nouns is a matter of choice. For example, baby-sitter can also be written asbabysitterandspin-offcanbewrittenasspinoff.Ifyouwanttobeconsistentinyourwriting,itisbesttoselectareliabledictionaryandfollowitsrecommendations.

Thewordsinthefollowinglistareallexamplesofcompoundnouns:

air conditioning, bank account, blood pressure, coffee jug, doorstep, fairy tale, frying pan, healthcentre,housewife,incometax,letter-box,make-up,musicalinstrument,nailvarnish,passer-by,policestation,seaweed,swimmingpool,teapot,washingmachine.

Pluralformsofcompoundnouns

Thepluralformsofcompoundnounsvaryaccordingtothetypeofwordstheyaremadeupof.Ifthefinalwordofacompoundnoun isacountablenoun, theplural formof thecountablenoun isusedwhen thecompoundnounismadeplural,asinswimmingpools,policestations,letter-boxesandcoffeejugs.

Compoundnouns that are directly derived fromphrasal verbs (see 1) usually have a plural form

endingins,asincover-up/cover-upsandshow-off/show-offs.Inthecaseofcompoundnounswhichconsistofacountnounandanadverb theplural formof the

noun is used before the adverb when the compound noun is in the plural form, as in passers-by andlookers-on.

NounsandnounphrasesinappositionAnounornounphraseissaidtobeinappositionwhenitisplacednexttoanothernounornounphraseandprovidesfurtherinformationaboutit,especiallybysayingsomethingthatidentifiesordescribesit.Insuchasituation,themainnounorphraseandtheamplifyingnounorphraserefertothesamepersonorthing.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareinapposition:

Myeldestbrother,theactingheadofthefirm,hascalledashareholdermeeting.Mynearestneighbour,theownerofGrangeFarm,haskindlyofferedtocheckinonmyhousewhileIamaway.GeorgeJones,awell-knownlocallawyer,isstandinginthelocalcouncilelections.Themanwhocausedallthistrouble,thechildren’sfather,haswalkedawaywithoutpunishment.

ForpunctuationseeThecommawithnounsorphrasesinapposition.

Pronouns

Apronounisawordthattakestheplaceofanounornounphraseinasentence.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordisapronoun:

Iboughtanappleandateit.IphonedJaneandinvitedhertodinner.Youshouldhaveaskedpermission.JacktoldSallyallabouthimself.Isanyonethere?Whosaidthat?Thosearegloves.Eachofushadtosingasong.Hethankedthemanwhohadsavedhislife.

Thereareseveraltypesofpronounandtheyarecategorizedasfollows.

PersonalpronounsApersonalpronounisapronounthatisusedtoreferbacktosomeoneorsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Ofthedifferentkindsofpronounthepersonalpronounsarethemostcommon.

Thereare three typesofpersonalpronoun, according to their function in the sentence.Thesubjectpronounisusedasthesubjectofasentence;theobjectpronounisusedastheobjectofasentence;thepossessivepronoun isusedtoindicate thatapersonor thingbelongsto,or isassociatedwith,anotherpersonorthing.Insentence1below,theunderlinedwordisapersonalsubjectpronoun, insentence2theunderlinedwordisapersonalobjectpronounandinsentence3theunderlinedwordisapossessivepronoun.

1Ilookedafterthechildren.2Thegrandparentslookedafterher.3Thatcarismine.

Iandwe:thefirstpersonpersonalpronoun

Personalpronounsarealsocategorizedaccordingtoperson.Thefirstpersonpersonalpronounreferstothepersonwhoisspeakingorwritingwhenreferringto

himselforherself.Thefirstpersonpersonalpronoun,inthesingularform,isIand,inthepluralform,we,whenitactsasthesubjectofasentence.Whenitistheobjectofasentencethesingularformismeandthepluralformisus.Thepossessiveformofthefirstpersonpersonalpronouninthesingularformismineandinthepluralformisours.

In the following sentences the underlinedwords are first person personal pronouns acting as thesubjectofthesentences:

Shesaid,‘Iamgoinghome.’‘Iamgoingshopping,’hesaid.

‘Wehaveverylittlemoneyleft,’shesaidtoherhusband.Hesaid,‘Weshallhavetoleavenowifwearetogetthereontime.’

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarefirstpersonpersonalpronounsactingastheobjectofthesentences:

‘Ithinkhehatesme,’Janesaid.‘It’sobviousthatshedeceivedus,’saidJim.‘Youhavebeenverykindtome,’saidSue.

In thefollowingexamples theunderlinedwordsare firstpersonpersonalpronouns, in thepossessiveformalsoknownaspossessivepronouns:

‘Thatbookismine,’saidAnne.‘Wewon,’saidBill,‘andsotheprizeisclearlyours.’

You:thesecondpersonpersonalpronoun

Thesecondpersonpersonalpronounreferstothepersonorthingthatisbeingaddressedinthesentence.Thesecondpersonpersonal pronoun isyou,whether it is the pronoun or object of the sentence andwhetheritissingularorplural.Unlikeinsomelanguages,thesecondpersonpersonalpronoundoesnotalter its form inEnglish.Thepossessive formof the secondpersonpersonalpronoun isyours in bothsingularandpluralforms.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsaresecondpersonpersonalpronounsactingasthesubjectofthesentences:

Youshouldhavetoldmeearlier,Jane.You,MumandDad,havebeenverygeneroustome.Youallareequallytoblame.

NB:MeandIManypeopleareconfusedaboutwhentouseIandwhentouseme.ItisoftenwronglyassumedthattheuseofthewordmeislesspolitethanthatthatofthewordI.

Infact,thepronounIshouldbeusedasthesubjectofasentence,asin:JimandIaregoingonholidaytogether.orMayJaneandIcometotheparty?

Thepronounmeshouldbeusedastheobjectofasentence,asin:Theyinvitedmybrotherandmetotea.orTheyplayedtennisagainstmyfatherandme.

ExceptionExceptinveryformalcontexts,itisnowconsideredquiteacceptabletosay.Itisme.

although,strictlyspeaking,thisuseisungrammaticalanditshouldbeItisI.However,thissoundsverystiltedanditisrarelyused.

In the following sentences the underlined words are second person personal pronouns acting as theobjectofthesentences:

NB:Between,IandMeThere is some confusion as to whether the preposition between should be followed by I orme.Becausebetweenisfollowedbyanobject,thecorrectanswerisme,asThedogstoodbetweenmeandthegate.orThereisagreatdealofillfeelingbetweenmycousinandme.ItiswronglyassumedthattheuseofmeislesspolitethanthatofI.

Someonehascalledyou.Iblameyouforwhathappened,Jim.Yourmotherlovesyoubothequally.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsaresecondpersonpersonalpronounsinthepossessiveform.Thesearealsoknownaspossessivepronouns.

Thispenisyours,Jim,isit?SueandSally,theprizeisyours.Isthisdogyours,MrandMrsJones?

He,she,itandthey:thethirdpersonpersonalpronoun

Thethirdpersonpersonalpronounreferstoathirdparty,nottothespeakerorwriterofthesentenceortothepersonbeingaddressed.Thethirdpersonpersonalpronounsare,inthesingularform,he,sheanditand,inthepluralform,they,whenthepersonalpronounisthesubjectofthesentence.Whenthethirdpersonpersonalpronounistheobjectofthesentenceittakestheformofhim,herorit inthesingularformand, in theplural form, them.Thepossessive formsof the thirdpersonpersonalpronoun in thesingulararerespectivelyhis,hersorits.Inthepluralthepossessivefromistheirs.

In the following sentences the underlinedwords are thirdpersonpersonal pronouns acting as thesubjectofthesentence:

Heleftschoollastyear.Sheistheyoungestofthethreesisters.Itwastheonlyhotelwithvacanciesinthearea.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarethirdpersonpersonalpronounsactingastheobjectofthesentence:

Janemethimataparty.

Idrovehertothestation.Thehousewascharmingandweloveditatfirstsight.

In thefollowingsentences theunderlinedwordsarethirdpersonpersonalpronouns in thepossessiveform.Theyarealsoknownaspossessivepronouns.

Thestolencaristheirs.Thefaultistheirs,apparently.Thatpartofthegardenistheirs.

NB:PersonalpronounsandsexistlanguageUntil fairly recently, it was very common to use amasculine personal pronoun to refer to a nounwherethegenderwasnotknown,asin:

Ifastudentdoesnotattendclassesregularlyhewillbeaskedtoleavecollege.

or

Iftheapplicantissuccessfulhewillbeexpectedtostartthejobnextweek.

WhenthemovementtowardstheremovalofsexistlanguagefromtheEnglishlanguagebegan,thisuseofhewasconsideredtobesexistandsuchsentencesrequiredtoberephrased.

Theproblemisthatthisisnoteasytodo.Wherepossible,theeasiestwayofdoingthismaybetoturnthewholesentenceintotheplural,asin:

Ifstudentsdonotattendclassesregularlytheywillbeaskedtoleavecollege.

Alternatively,theeasiestcourseofactionmaybetouse‘heorshe’or‘he/she’insteadofhe,as

Iftheapplicantissuccessfulheorshe(he/she)willbeexpectedtostartworknextweek.

This last way round the problem is felt by many people to be clumsy, particularly in spoken orinformal English. The solution often used now is ungrammatical in nature. Thus, instead of using‘he/she’manypeopleuse‘they’instead,althoughtherestofthesentenceisleftinthesingularform.Insteadofsaying

Everystudenthasbeeninstructedthathe/shemustregisterfortheexamsbytheendofDecember.

theysay

EverystudenthasbeeninstructedthattheymustregisterfortheexamsbytheendofDecember.

Theuseof the thirdpersonpersonalpronouninplural forminsuchcontexts isbecomingmoreandmorecommon,frequentlybeingusedintextbooksanddictionariesandevenmoresoinnewspapers,magazinesandworksoffiction.

PossessivepronounsPossessive pronouns see first person personal pronouns, second personal pronouns and thirdpersonalpronouns.

ReflexivepronounsReflexivepronounsendin-selfor-selvesandreferbacktoanounorpronounthathasbeenmentionedearlierinthesentence.Thefollowingisalistofreflexivepronouns:

myself,ourselves,yourself,yourselves,himself,herself,itself,themselves.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarereflexivepronouns:

Icutmyselfwiththebreadknife.Youwillhavetowashyourselfincoldwater.Heseeshimselfbecomingalawyer.Thecatwaslickingitself.Thetown’sinhabitantsbracedthemselvesforthestorm.

Reflexivepronounscanalsobeusedforemphasis,asinthefollowingsentences:

Thetownitselfisnotveryattractive,butthesurroundingcountrysideisbeautiful.Theheadmasterhimselfdecidedontheboys’punishment.Weourselvesmustprovidethefundingfortheproject.

NB:EmphaticpronounsReflexive pronouns which are used, as above, for emphasis are sometimes known as emphaticpronouns.

Reflexivepronounscanalsobeusedtoindicatethatsomeonehasdonesomethingalonewithoutthehelpofanyoneelse,asin:

Thebridemadethatbeautifuldressherself.Theyoungcoupleareplanningtobuildthehousethemselves.I’msurethathedidnotwritethatbookhimself.

ReciprocalpronounsReciprocalpronounsarepronounswhichareusedto indicatea two-wayrelationshipor toconveytheideaofreciprocity.Thereciprocalpronounsareeachotherandoneanother.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformreciprocalpronouns:

Thetwosistershavehatedeachotherfromchildhood.Itisimportanttohelpeachotherasmuchaspossible.Thechildrenarealwayscallingoneanotherunpleasantnames.Thefriendshelpedoneanotherwiththeirgeographyhomework.

DemonstrativepronounsDemonstrativepronounsareusedtoindicateorpointtothingsorpeople.Thedemonstrativepronounsarethis,that,theseandthose.

Thedemonstrativepronounsthisandtheseareusedtorefertosomethingorsomeoneclosetothewriterorspeaker,whilethatandthoseareusedtorefertosomethingfurtheraway.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsaredemonstrativepronouns:

I’msurethisismybook.Thisismyfather.ThatisdefinitelyDad’scar.Thatismycousin.Thesearemyfavouriteflowers.Thesearemynephews,JimandJohn.Thesearesomeoftheissueswhichwewillbediscussingthisterm.Thoseareveryexpensivehouses.Thosewereinterestingpointswhichyouraisedatthemeeting.Thoseareournearestneighbours.

IndefinitepronounsIndefinitepronouns are pronouns that are used to refer to people or thingswithout specifying exactlywhoorwhattheyare.Thefollowingisalistoftheindefinitepronouns:

anyone,anybody,anything,everyone,everybody,everything,someone,somebody,something,noone,nobody,nothing.

NB:NooneUnliketheotherindefinitepronounsnooneiswrittenastwowords.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformanindefinitepronoun:

Isanyonethere?Idon’tknowanybodyhere.Ididn’tbuyanything.Doeseveryonehaveadrink?Nothingmattersnow.Everybodyknowsatleastoneotherpersonhere.Shehaseverythingshecouldeverwant.

Someonemustknowwhathappened.Noonecanhelpmenow.Iknowsomebodywhocanhelp.Ihavesomethingtotellyou.Nobodyunderstands.

Someotherpronounsaresometimesclassifiedasindefinitepronouns.Seedistributivepronounsbelow.

DistributivepronounsSomepronounsweretraditionallyknownasdistributivepronounsbutarenowalsovariouslyknownasindefinitepronouns (see above)oruniversalpronouns.Often such pronouns are followedby an ‘of’construction.Thefollowingisalistofsuchpronouns:

all,both,each,either,neither,more,most,some.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsaredistributive/indefinite/universalpronouns:

Wethoughtafewworkerswouldbedeclaredredundant,but,intheend,allkepttheirjobs.Allofthevictimsofthecrashsurvived.Thethreeboyswereinvolvedinthecrimeandeachdeservestobepunished.Eachofthegirlsstandsachanceofwinningthecompetition.Iamveryimpressedbythesetwoprojectsandthinkthateitherofthemwouldsuitourpurposewell.Neitherofthecandidatesseemedsuitableforthejob.There are too many student applicants for the college positions available and some will bedisappointed.

InterrogativepronounsInterrogativepronounsarepronounswhichareusedtoaskquestions.Theyareamongwordssometimescalledwh-wordsbecausetheyallbeginwiththeletters‘wh-’.Thefollowingisalistofinterrogativepronouns:

who,whom,towhom,whose,which,what.

Whoisusedasthesubjectofaninterrogativesentence,whiletheobjectinformalorwrittenEnglishiswhom. In informal or spoken English the object of an interrogative sentence is often who. TheinterrogativepronountowhomisconfinedtoformalorwrittenEnglish.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareinterrogativepronouns:

Whohasgotthejob?Whomdidsheblame?Whomdidheappointashisheir?Towhomwashereferring?Whoseisthebluecar?

Whichofthesedoyouprefer?Whathappenedthen?

Seeinterrogativeadverbs.

RelativepronounsRelativepronouns(see1)arepronounsthatintroducearelativeclause(see1).Therelativepronounrefers back to a noun or noun phrase in the main clause, called the antecedent. In each case theantecedent is the word immediately before the relative pronoun. The following is a list of relativepronouns:

who,whom,whose,which,that.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarerelativepronouns:

There’sthemanwhostolethecar.ShewastheonlypersonwhomIcouldtrust.That’sthemanwhosepermissionweneedfortheprojecttogoahead.Thisisthelasthousewhichhebuilt.ThedressthatIwouldlikeistooexpensive.

EXERCISES3

1Whichofthefollowingnounsarepropernounsandsoshouldbespeltwithacapitalletter?

lion,child,tuesday,book,october,castle,venus,america,region,mounteverest,day,sunshine,unclewilliam,ocean,newyork,city,chapel,flower,oak,atlantic,queenelizabeth.

2Whichofthefollowingareconcretenounsandwhichareabstractnouns?

hat,sorrow,basket,folly,tyre,sadness,floor,mountain,grief,bliss,hut,ceiling,silence,lamp,faith,computer, gluttony, dish, rug, depression, contentment, dustbin, hatred, plum, sofa, clarity, portrait,finger,hospitality,tool,enmity.

3Whichofthefollowingarecountablenounsandwhichareuncountablenouns?

happiness, saucer, source, discretion, fence, lawn, misery, cooker, information, beach, location,luggage,bottle,forest,poem,inspiration,jewel,milk,suitcase,music,poetry,essay,literature,choir,legislation,beauty,cookery,knowledge.

4Underlinethewordsinthefollowingsentenceswhichareverbalnouns:

Walkingisexcellentexercise.Smokingcankillyou.Shehatesdancing.Hehastakenuprunning.Sheenjoysswimming.

5Whatisthecollectivenounforagroupofthefollowing?

wolves,cattle,flies,lions,stars,herring,geese,sheep,ships,whales.

6Givethepluralformsofthefollowingwords.

house,table,friend,dog,road,elephant,umbrella,banana,taxi,berry,bush,march,variety,kiss,lady,story,porch,child,loaf,wolf,tooth,woman.

7Givethesingularformsofthefollowingwords.

feet,geese,scarves,wives,halves,sheep,criteria,larvae,phenomena,bacteria,formulae,appendices.

8Writedownthewordsinthefollowinglistwhichareoffemininegender.

nephew, town, widow, empress, car, bridegroom, duchess, road, drake, sister, desk, niece, duke,waitress.

9Writedownthewordsinthefollowinglistthatcanbeofdualgender.

artist,egg,writer,shoe,widower,king,poet,author,doctor,letter,princess,teacher,newspaper,bride,drake,parent,student,waitress,singer,athlete.

10Givethepluralformsofthefollowingcompoundnouns.

passer-by,swimmingpool,looker-on,coffeepot,show-off,policestation,letter-box,cover-up.

11Underlinethephraseineachofthefollowingsentenceswhichisinappositiontoanounphrase.

Themostimportantpeopleinvolved,thepupilsintheschool,havenotbeenconsultedatall.Myfavouritehouse,theonewesawlast,isfartooexpensiveforourbudget.HercousinMark,aseniorpartnerinthefirm,hasjustbeenarrestedforfraud.Thelocalbeach,afavouritemeeting-placeforteenagers,hasbeenclosedtemporarily.

12Writeoutthoseofthefollowingsentencesthatcontainapersonalpronounusedas thesubjectofasentence,underliningtherelevantpersonalpronoun.

Youmustleaverightaway.Peoplesimplydon’ttrustyou.Shedidn’ttelluswhattodo.Theynearlykilledtheirvictim.Youshouldhavetoldthetruth.Thepolicedon’tbelieveyou.Hewasdrivingdangerously.Hercolleaguesadmireher.Abunchofflowerswillmakeherfeelbetter.Wegavetheminvitationstothewedding.

13WriteoutthefollowingsentencesfillingintheblankswitheithermeorI.

Jackasked...togiveyouthis.Janeand…aregoingonholidaytogether.Heisgoingtoplaychessagainst….CanSueand…cometotheparty?Justaskfor…atthefrontdesk.There’sbeentroublebetweenmyneighboursand…Thestudentsand…welcomethisopportunitytoputourpointofview.Justbetweenyouand…Ithinkhe’sabitcrazy.

14Writeoutanyofthesentencesbelowthatcontainareflexivepronounusedasanemphaticpronoun,underliningtherelevantemphaticpronouns.

Thechildrenthemselvesshouldchooseabooktobereadaloud.Wehurtourselvesbadlywhenfallingoffourskis.

Weourselveshelpedhimasmuchaswecould,butothersdidnothing.Doctorsthinkthatheharmedhimselfdeliberately.Youyourselveswillhavetodothebulkofthework.Thechildcutherselfwithhermother’sscissors.Theprimeministerhimselfmusttakefullresponsibilityfortheerrorofjudgement.Thehouseitselfisnotveryattractive,butithasabeautifulgarden.

15Underlinethewordsinthefollowingsentenceswhicharedemonstrativepronouns.

ThisisnottheringwhichIlost.Letmehavealookatthose.Thatisanattractiveplant.Thesearethemostexpensivecarsinthesaleroom.Thosearethemembersofthejury.Thisisthebusyoumusttake.

16Underlinethewordsinthefollowingsentenceswhichareindefinitepronouns.

Nothinghasbeendonetoremedythesituation.Ididn’tseeanythingwhichIwantedtobuy.Somethingmustbeseriouslywrong.Ididn’trecognizeanyoneinthecrowd.Nobodyseemstoknowwhathappened.Everyonewasaffectedbythebadweather.

17Underlinethewordsinthefollowingsentenceswhichareinterrogativepronouns.

Whomadethismess?Whychangejobsnow?Whoseisthebriefcaseonthechair?Whichdoyoulikebest?Howdoeshedoit?Wherehashegoneto?Whosebikedidyouborrow?Towhomdidheapplyforthejob?

18Underlinethewordsinthefollowingsentenceswhicharerelativepronouns.

IthinkIknowthemanwhodidthis.Thereisthewomanwhosecarwasintheaccident.Hedoesn’tknowwhosheis.Hereisthebookwhichwonfirstprize.Hewalkedsoslowlythathewaslate.Theflatthatwelikedbesthadalreadybeensold.Whogotthejobisnotyetknown.Thisistheemployeetowhomthethreateningletterwasaddressed.

Itwasherhusbandwhomsheblamedforthedisaster.

19Underlinetheantecedentineachofthefollowingsentences.

Herearethekeyswhichhelost.Thatisthestudentwhowasaccusedofcheating.Theboywhosebikethisiswasinjuredintheaccident.Thenewspaperthatfirstpublishedthestorygotthefactswrong.Thisistheaddressoftheofficialtowhomyoushouldapply.

ANSWERS3

1propernounsTuesday,October,Venus,America,MountEverest,UncleWilliam,NewYork,Atlantic,QueenElizabeth.

2concretenounshat,basket,tyre,floor,mountain,hut,ceiling,lamp,computer,dish,rug,dustbin,plum,sofa,portrait,finger,tool.abstractnounssorrow,folly,sadness,grief,bliss,silence,faith,gluttony,depression,contentment,hatred,clarity,hospitality,enmity.

3countablenounssaucer,source,fence,lawn,cooker,beach,location,bottle,forest,poem,jewel,suitcase,essay,literature,choir.uncountablenounshappiness,discretion,misery,information,luggage,inspiration,milk,music,poetry,legislation,beauty,cookery,knowledge.

4Walkingisexcellentexercise.Smokingcankillyou.Shehatesdancing.Hehastakenuprunning.Sheenjoysswimming.

5apackofwolves,aherdofcattle,aswarmofflies,aprideoflions,aconstellationofstars,ashoalofherring,aflockofgeese,aflockofsheep,afleetofships,aschoolofwhales.

6houses,tables,friends,dogs,roads,elephants,umbrellas,bananas,taxis,berries,bushes,marches,varieties,kisses,ladies,stories,porches,children,loaves,wolves,teeth,women.

7foot,goose,scarf,wife,half,sheep,criterion,larva,phenomenon,bacterium,formula,appendix.

8widow,empress,duchess,sister,niece,waitress.

9artist,writer,poet,author,doctor,teacher,parent,student,singer,athlete.

10passers-by,swimmingpools,lookers-on,coffeepots,show-offs,policestations,letter-boxes,cover-ups.

11Themostimportantpeopleinvolved,thepupilsintheschool,havenotbeenconsultedatall.Myfavouritehouse,theonewesawlast,isfartooexpensiveforourbudget.HercousinMark,aseniorpartnerinthefirm,hasjustbeenarrestedforfraud.Thelocalbeach,afavouritemeeting-placeforteenagers,hasbeenclosedtemporarily.

12Youmustleaverightaway.Shedidn’ttelluswhattodo.Theynearlykilledtheirvictim.Youshouldhavetoldthetruth.Hewasdrivingdangerously.Wegavetheminvitationstothewedding.

13Jackaskedmetogiveyouthis.JaneandIaregoingonholidaytogether.Heisgoingtoplaychessagainstme.CanSueandIcometotheparty?Justaskformeatthefrontdesk.There’sbeentroublebetweenmyneighboursandme.ThestudentsandIwelcomethisopportunitytoputourpointofview.JustbetweenyouandmeIthinkhe’sabitcrazy.

14Thechildrenthemselvesshouldchooseabooktobereadaloud.Weourselveshelpedhimasmuchaswecould,butothersdidnothing.YouyourselveswillhavetodothebulkoftheworkTheprimeministerhimselfmusttakefullresponsibilityfortheerrorofjudgement.Thehouseitselfisnotveryattractive,butithasabeautifulgarden.

15ThisisnottheringwhichIlost.Letmehavealookatthose.Thatisanattractiveplant.Thesearethemostexpensivecarsinthesaleroom.Thosearethemembersofthejury.Thisisthebusyoumusttake.

16Nothinghasbeendonetoremedythesituation.Ididn’tseeanythingwhichIwantedtobuy.

Somethingmustbeseriouslywrong.Ididn’trecognizeanyoneinthecrowd.Nobodyseemstoknowwhathappened.Everyonewasaffectedbythebadweather.

17Whomadethismess?Whoseisthebriefcaseonthechair?Whichdoyoulikebest?Whosedidyouborrow?Towhomdidheapplyforthejob?

18IthinkIknowthemanwhodidthis.Thereisthewomanwhosecarwasintheaccident.Hedoesn’tknowwhosheis.Hereisthebookwhichwonfirstprize.Hewalkedsoslowlythathewaslate.Theflatthatwelikedbesthadalreadybeensold.Whogotthejobisnotyetknown.Thisistheemployeetowhomthethreateningletterwasaddressed.Itwasherhusbandwhomsheblamedforthedisaster.

19Herearethekeyswhichhelost.Thatisthestudentwhowasaccusedofcheating.Theboywhosebikethisiswasinjuredintheaccident.Thenewspaperthatfirstpublishedthestorygotthefactswrong.Thisistheaddressoftheofficialtowhomyoushouldapply.

PARTSOFSPEECHII

Adjectives

Anadjectiveisawordthatdescribesorgivesmoreinformationaboutnounsorpronouns.

Anadjectiveissaidtoqualifyanounorpronounbecauseitlimitstheworditdescribesinsomewaybymakingitmorespecific.Thus,qualifyingthewordbookwiththeadjectiveredmeansthatweknowthatweareconcentratingonaredbook and thatwecan forget aboutbooksofanyothercolour.Similarly,qualifyingthewordcarwiththewordlargemeansthatweknowthatweareconcentratingonalargecarandthatwecanforgetaboutcarsofanothersize.Seedeterminer.

Adjectivesusuallytellussomethingaboutthecolour,size,quantity,qualityorclassificationofanounorpronoun.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadjectives:

Sheworeawhitedress.Itwasatinydog.Theyhadfivechildren.Theyweresadpeople.ItwasaVictorianhouse.

Gradableandnon-gradableadjectivesMostadjectivesaregradableadjectives.Suchadjectivesrefertoqualitiesthatcanvaryindegree.Suchadjectives can take a comparative and a superlative form or can be accompanied by an adverb ofdegree suchasvery.Adjectiveswhichdonot take a comparative and superlative formandcannotbemodifiedbyanadverbofdegreearecallednon-gradableadjectives.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsaregradableadjectives:

Hedroveasmallcar.Itwasabrightshadeofred.Wewerehappy.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarenon-gradableadjectives:

Therewasawoodenfenceroundthegarden.Itwasaplastictoy.Itwasauniqueexperience.

PositionofadjectivesAdjectives canbeplaced immediatelybeforenounsor theycanbe joined to their relevantnounsbyaverb.Afewadjectivesgodirectlyafterthenoun.Adjectivesareclassifiedasfollowsinthisrespect.

AttributiveadjectivesAttributiveadjectivesareplacedimmediatelybeforethenounswhichtheyqualify.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareattributiveadjectives:

Thebluedresssuitedherverywell.Theylivedinahugehouse.Welivedthereforsixyears.Theyselldeliciouscakes.Theybuiltawoodenhutinthegarden.TheyliveinaGeorgiansquare.

NB:AttributivepositionSomeadjectivesare foundonly in theattributiveposition.Theunderlinedwords in thefollowinglistareexamplesofthese:

myformerbossherchiefreasonforbeingherehissheerfollyindoingthattheutterbeautyofthescenepayingscantattentiontohisworkinacommandingleadthesearingheatathanklesstaskafatefulmeeting.

PredicativeadjectivesPredicativeadjectivesarejoinedtotheirrelevantnounsbyaverb.Theyaresocalledbecausetheyhelptoformthepredicate(see3)ofasentence.

Thecurtainsinthebedroomwereblue.Thedogwashuge.Wewerehungry.Theresultisstilluncertain.

Someadjectives are followedby apreposition suchas to,of orwith. In the following sentences theunderlinedwordsformapredicativeadjectivepluspreposition:

Thebugwasresistanttotheantibiotics.Sheisallergictoeggs.Heisafraidofhisboss.Thehouseisdevoidofcharm.Thebehaviourischaracteristicofarecoveringalcoholic.Ishecapableofmurder?Thetaskwasfraughtwithdanger.Ababyisjustnotcompatiblewithsuchalifestyle.Sheisreliantonherparents.Sheisgoodattennis.

Post-modifiersAdjectiveswhicharepost-modifiersgoimmediatelyafterthenounwhichtheyqualify.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarepost-modifiers:

Thepresident-electtakesoverthepresidencyatthebeginningoftheyear.Thesoldieristoappearbeforeacourtmartial.

QualitativeadjectivesThere arevarious typesof adjective.The twomaingroups arequalitativeadjectives and classifyingadjectives.Qualitativeadjectives tellyousomethingaboutaquality thatsomeoneorsomeonehas,asin:

sad,happy,wealthy,foolish,intelligent.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarequalitativeadjectives:

Heisaviolentman.Itwasaneffectiveremedy.Pleasegiveabriefdescription.Youdidsomeusefulwork.Theyarebusypeople.Wehadapleasantday.Wehaveanewcar.Itisahugehouse.

NB:Qualitativeadjectivesincludeadjectivesrelatingtosize,suchastinyandmassive.

ClassifyingadjectivesClassifyingadjectivesidentifytheparticularclassthatsomethingbelongsto.Forexample,ifyoutakethenounpain,therearevariouskindsorclassesofpainsuchasmentalpain,physicalpainandemotionalpain.Theadjectivesmental,physicalandemotionalareallexamplesofclassifyingadjectives. In the

followingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareclassifyingadjectives:

Itisnotademocraticgovernment.Theyneedafinancialsystem.Thecountryhasanagriculturaleconomy.Thisisnotamedicalproblem.Thisisanurbanissue.Wehaveannualmeetings.

ColouradjectivesColouradjectivesidentifythecolourofsomething,asinblack,red,yellow,purpleandbrown.

Inordertogiveamoreprecisedescriptionofacolouryoucanprecedethecolouradjectivewithawordsuchasdark,pale,bright,light,deep.Theunderlinedwordsinthefollowingsentencesareexamplesofthis:

Shehaslightbrownhair.Heworeadarkblueshirt.Itwasabrightgreenhat.Shewantsadeeppurpledress.

Ifyouwishtobelesspreciseaboutthecolourofsomethingyoucanaddthesuffix–ish to therelevantcolour,asingreenish,yellowish.

NumberadjectivesSeenumberdeterminers.

EmphaticadjectivesEmphaticadjectivesareadjectiveswhichyouplaceinfrontofanountoemphasiseyourfeelingsaboutsomethingortoemphasisethedegreeofsomething,asinabsolute,pure. In thefollowingsentences theunderlinedwordsareemphaticadjectives:

Theplaywasanutterdisaster.Itwaspuremagic.Heisanutteridiot.Sheisacompletefool.Thewholethingwasapositivenightmare.Thecampaignwasatotalfailure.

InterrogativeadjectivesTheadjectiveswhich?andwhat?areknownasinterrogativeadjectives.Theyareusedtoaskquestionsabout thenounswhich theyqualify. In the following sentences theunderlinedwords are interrogative

adjectives:

Whichbookwouldyouliketoborrow?Whichbusgoestothecentreoftown?Whatschooldidyougoto?Whatplanshaveyoumadeforthewedding?Whichdressdidyouchooseintheend?Whatrestauranthavetheygoneto?

DemonstrativeadjectivesFormerly demonstrative determiners were commonly known as demonstrative adjectives. Seedeterminers(see1)anddemonstrativedeterminers.

PossessiveadjectivesFormerlypossessivedeterminers were commonly known aspossessive adjectives. Seedeterminers(see2)andpossessivedeterminers(see2).

CompoundadjectivesCompound adjectives are made up of two or more words, usually separated by a hyphen. In thefollowinglisttheunderlinedwordsarecompoundadjectives:

agrey-hairedmanapart-timepostablack-and-whitecatanair-conditionedofficeakind-heartedwomanagood-lookingyoungwomanabroken-heartedyoungmanafirst-classhotel.

OrderofadjectivesIfseveraladjectivesareusedtoqualifyanountheytendtobeplacedinacertainorder.Theusualorderisqualitativeadjectives,suchaspretty,adjectivesrelatingtosize,suchaslarge,verbparticiplesusedasadjectives, such as exciting,depressing, broken,disappointed,worried, adjectives relating to colour,such asorange, adjectives relating to nationality or region, such asAmerican ornorthern, adjectivesrelatingtoclassification,suchaswooden,Victorian, followedbyadjectives relating topurposeorusesuchasdiningtable.Thefollowingsentencesshowtheusualsequenceofadjectives:

Theyliveinaprettylittlewhitehouse.Sheworeabeautifulshortblackdress.Therewasalargedeepcircularpondinthegarden.TherosesweregrowinginthesmallenchantingItaliancountrygarden.

Theylivedinanuglydepressingcitysuburb.Theysatroundalargepolishedmahoganydiningtable.

NB:OrderofadjectivesaEnglishisaveryflexiblelanguageandtheusualorderofadjectivescanbechangedforemphasis.

AdjectivesusedasnounsSometimesadjectivescanbeusedasnouns,especiallywhentheyareprecededbythedefinitearticle.Inthe followingsentences theunderlinedwordsareadjectivesusedasnouns. It is sometimesconsideredoffen-sivetousethisconstruction,suchas thedisabled,as itcansoundas thoughyouare just lumpingpeopletogetherratherthanconsideringthemasindividuals:

Therearefewopportunitiesfortheunemployedaroundhere.Thepoorseemtokeepgettingpoorer.Theoldareoftenlonely.

Sometimescolouradjectivesfunctionasnounswithoutthedefiniteorindefinitearticle:

Yellowismeanttomakepeoplefeelmoreoptimistic.Blueisherfavouritecolour.Healwayswearsblack.

NB:ListcommasIncaseswherethereisalistofadjectivesbeforeanoun,theuseofcommasbetweentheadjectivesisnowoptionalalthoughitwasformerlystandardpractice.Whentheadjectiveimmediatelybeforethenounhasacloserrelationshipwithit thantheotheradjectives,andindeedoftenhelpstodefinethenoun,nocommashouldbeusedbeforethatadjective,as

Wewanttobuysomelargejuicygreenpeppers.

SeeThecommaasaseparatingdeviceinalistofadjectives.

Adjectiveoradverb?Somewordscanbeusedbothasadjectivesandadverbs.

Whichpartofspeechtheyareisobviousfromthecontextinwhichtheyappear.Thewordearlyisanadjectiveinthefirstofthefollowingsentencesandanadverbinthesecond.

Wecaughttheearlytrain.Thetrainleftearlyandwemissedit.

Comparativeformsofadjectives

Manyadjectives have acomparativeform used to indicate that something hasmore of a quality thansomething else. It ismostly qualitative adjectives that take comparative forms, although a few colouradjectivescanalsodoso.

Some adjectives add -er to the absolute form to form their comparative form such as braver andlouder.Someotheradjectivesareprecededby thewordmore to form their comparative formsuchasmorebeautifulandmoresuitable.

Which is the correct form of the comparative to use is often largely amatter of length.Adjectiveswhichconsistofonesyllable,suchasloud,usuallyadd-ertomakelouder.

Comparativeandnumberofsyllables

Whenaone-syllableadjectiveendsinasinglevowelfollowedbyasingleconsonant, theconsonant isdoubledbeforethe-erendingisadded,asinbig,bigger.

Some adjectives which consist of two syllables form their comparative by adding -er. This isespeciallytrueofadjectiveswhichendin-y,suchasmerry/merrier,butitisalsotrueofsomeothertwo-syllableadjectivessuchasclever/clevererandquiet/quieter.Inothercases,suchasfamousorcareful,the comparative form is formed with more, as in more famous, more careful. In some cases thecomparativeofa two-syllableadjectivecanbeformedeitherbyadding -er to thepositiveorabsoluteformorbypreceding thiswithmore.Thus thewordgentle canhave the comparative formgentler ormoregentleandthewordpleasantcanhavethecomparativeformpleasanterormorepleasant.

Adjectiveswhichconsistofthreeormoresyllablesusuallyhavecomparativeformsusingmore,suchasmore dangerous. Some three-syllable adjectives which begin with the prefix -un can form theircomparativeformsbyadding-er,suchasunhappy/unhappier,unlucky/unluckier.

Theaboveareregularwaysofformingthecomparativeofadjectives.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareexamplesofthese:

Sheisprettierthanhersister.Itwasabrighterday.Thewallsarewhiternow.Heisyoungerthanhiswife.It’sasaferplacenow.Thehouseisevendirtier.It’saheavierburden.Sheisthemorecarefulworker.Hewastheclevererstudent.Sheismadderthanever.Thatdeathwassadderstill.Thechildisquieterthanherbrother.Heisthemorehonestofthetwobusinesspartners.Ichosethebiggerroom.Shegetsloveliereachyear.Thisisanevenriskierventure.Thisessayisfarmoreinteresting.Thisdoorwayisnarrowerthantheother.Thisisapoliter/morepolitewayofsayingthesamething.Thisiscertainlyapleasanter/morepleasantwayofspendingtheday.Thatisthelikelier/morelikelysolution.

Thatisanevenmoreridiculousidea.

Irregularcomparatives

Theadjectivesgoodandbadhavetheirregularcomparativeformsbetterandworse,asinagoodday/abetterdayandabadexperience/aworseexperience.

Nocomparativeform

Someadjectiveshaveonlyanabsoluteformanddonotnormallyhaveacomparativeform.Theseincludemere,perfect,real,right,uniqueandutter.

SuperlativeformsYoucanalsodescribesomethingbysayingthatsomethinghasmoreofaqualitythananythingelseofitskind.Inordertodothisyouusethesuperlativeformofanadjective.Theregularsuperlativeformofanadjectiveisformedinthesamewayasthecomparativeform,exceptthatthecomparativeending-er isreplacedby thesuperlativeending -est, and thewordmore,which isused to form thecomparative, isreplacedby thewordmost.Thus, in thefollowingsentences theunderlinedwordsareexamplesof thesuperlativeformofadjectives:

Iwantthelargestsize.ItwasthelongestjourneyI’veevertaken.Thatisthemaddestideayet.HeistheunhappiestpersonIknow.ItwasthemostdisappointingnewsthatIhadhadallyear.Thisisthequietestroominthehotel.Heiscertainlytheclevereststudent.Shewasthemostbeautifulwomanthere.Theroseistheloveliestflower.Thisseemsthemostdangerousplan.

Irregularsuperlatives

Theadjectivesgoodandbadhavetheirregularsuperlativeformsbestandworst,asinagoodday/thebestdayandabadexperience/theworstexperience.

Nosuperlativeform

Someadjectiveshaveonlyanabsoluteformanddonotnormallyhaveasuperlativeform.Theseincludemere,perfect,real,right,uniqueandutter.

Determiners

Adeterminer (see1,2) isaword that isused in frontofanounorpronoun togivesome informationabout it. Formerly, determiners were classified as adjectives. However, because, unlike adjectives,determinersdonot,strictlyspeaking‘describe’anounorpronoun,themoderngrammaticalpracticeistodrawadistinctionbetweenthem.Thus,thecategorydeterminerhasbeencreated.

Typesofdeterminer

Definiteandindefinitearticles

Thedefiniteandindefinitearticlesareoftencategorizedasdeterminers.

DefinitearticleThedefinitearticleistheanditcanbeusedinvariousways.Itcanbeusedinasentencetoreferbacktoapersonorthingthathasalreadybeenmentionedoridentified.

Inthefollowingsentencestheisusedinthisway:

MrsBrowngavebirthtoaboyandtheboywascalledJohn.IwasaskedtochoosearestaurantandtherestaurantIchosewasTheOliveTree.FatherboughtanewdogandthedogisaLabrador.

Thedefinitearticlecanalsobeusedtoidentifysomeoneorsomethingastheonlyoneofitskind.Inthefollowingsentencestheisusedinthisway:

HeisreadingtheBible.TouristsoftenvisittheTowerofLondon.HehasbeendeclaredthenewPrimeMinisteroftheUK.

Thedefinite article is used to refer to a whole class or group of things or people. In the followingsentencestheisusedinthisway:

Lionsbelongtothebigcats.ShereallydoesnotliketheEnglish.Becauseof a long-lasting family feud the Smiths did not speak to the Simpsons at John and Jane’swedding.

Lesscommonly,thedefinitearticlecanbeusedtoindicatetheuniquequalityofsomeoneorsomething.Inthiscontext the isemphasizedand ispronounced thee. In thefollowingsentences the isused in thisway:

InthesixtiesitwastherestauranttogotoinLondon.

Itiscurrentlythecityvenueforfashionableweddingreceptions.ThemusicalistheshowtoseethisChristmas.

IndefinitearticleTheformofthe indefinitearticle iseitheraoran.Theforma isusedbeforewords thatbeginwithaconsonantsoundsuchasabox,agarden,aroad,astar,awall.Theformanisusedbeforewordsthatbeginwithaninitialvowelsoundsuchasanapple,anegg,anigloo,anostrich,anuncle.

NB:It’sthesoundthatcountsItisthesoundoftheinitialletterandnotthespellingthatcountsinthiscase.Thus,aisusedbeforewordsbeginningwiththeletteruwhenthesearepronouncedasthoughtheybeganwiththeconsonanty, as a unit. Similarly, an is used before words beginning with the letter h where this is notpronounced,asanheir,anhour,anhonestman.

Formerly itwas quite common to usean beforewordswhich beginwith theh sound and alsobeginwithanunstressed syllable, asanhotel, anhistoricoccasion, anhabitual criminal andanhereditary disease. Nowadays, it ismore usual to use a in these cases, as in a hotel, a historicoccasion,ahabitualcriminal,ahereditarydisease.

Theindefinitearticlecanalsobeusedinvariousways.Itcanbeusedinthesamewayastheadjectiveone.Inthefollowingsentencesa/anisusedinthisway:

Thetownisexactlyamileaway.Wewaitedanhourforthebustocome.Ayearagowewerehappy,butthingshavechanged.

NB:JusttheoneIfyouwishtostressthatyouarereferringtojustoneofsomething,ratherthantoseveral,youusethepronunciationaytorhymewithhay,asin:

Iwanteda(ay)biscuit,notapacketofthem.It’sOKtohavea(ay)drink,butyouwillcertainlynotbefittodriveifyouhavehalfabottleofwine.

The indefinitearticle isalsoused to refer toorsingleoutaspecificpersonor thing. In the followingsentencesa/anisusedinthisway:JimmarriedagirlcalledMaryfromthenextvillage.ThefamilyhadablackcatcalledSooty.SueisgoingoutwithayoungmancalledTom.

The indefinite article is also used with an indefinite meaning, in the same way that any is. In thefollowingsentencea/anisusedinthisway:Hewasasbigasahouse.Anislandisapieceoflandentirelysurroundedbywater.Apaediatricianisadoctorwhospecializesinchildren’sillnesses.

Theindefinitearticleisalsousedinthefollowingway,withtheword‘for’impliedbutomittedbeforeit:Thegrapesare£3akilo.Thegardenerwillchargeyou£12anhour.Thecakeis£2aslice.

NB:ZeroarticleTheabsenceofboththedefiniteor indefinitearticlesissometimesreferredtoaszeroarticle.Thefollowingsentencescontainexamplesofthis:

Wewentbytrain.Heisinhospital.Haveyouhadlunch?She’satwork.

Demonstrativedeterminers

Formerly known as demonstrative adjectives, demonstrative determiners are used to point out orindicatethenounswhichtheyqualify.

Thedemonstrativedeterminers are this, that, these and those, as in this book, that house, theseflowersandthosegirls.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareexamplesofdemonstrativedeterminers:Thiscakeisabsolutelydelicious.Idoadmirethoseflowers.Iusedtoliveinthathouse.Thesestudentsarealltakingtheexam.Ilovethisdress,butIcan’taffordit.Whoisthatmanoverthere?Whyarethosepeoplelaughingatus?Thesetreesarehuge.Thoseredgrapesaredelicious.Thesegreengrapesaresour.

Possessivedeterminers

Whenyouwishtoindicatethatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorsomethingorthatitisconnectedinsomewaywithsomeoneorsomethingyouusethepossessivedeterminers(see1,2)my,our,your,his/her/its,their. Formerly, possessive determiners were commonly known as possessive adjectives. In thefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarepossessivedeterminers:

Iwouldlikemybookback,please.Whereareyourchildren?Dadletmeborrowhiscar.Hewasbrushinghisteeth.Shelooksverylikehermother.Unfortunately,thedogbrokeitslegintheaccident.

Thechildrenlovedtheirnewbikes.

(Seepossessivepronounsunderpersonalpronouns.)

IndefinitedeterminersThe indefinite determiners, also calledgeneral determiners, are used to qualify nouns or pronounswhenyouaretalkingaboutpeopleorthingsinageneralorindefiniteway,withoutidentifyingthem.

Theindefiniteorgeneraldeterminersincludeall,any,both,each,either,every,few,little,less,many,much,more,neither,no,several,someandneither,asunderlinedinthefollowingsentences:

Anyroominthehotelwilldo.Bothstudentsaretoblame.Neitherhouseisreallysuitable.Eitherbuswilltakeyoutothevillage.Everycarhasbeendamaged.Manybooksweredestroyedinthefire.Fewpatientshavesurvivedsuchanoperation.Nofactsareknownyet.Somegardensarebeautifullykept.Severalbusesgointothecentreoftown.Littleinformationhasbeenreleased.Wehaveenoughchildrentostartanewclass.Hedoesnothaveenoughknowledge.Hehasnomorework.Therehavebeenmoreaccidentsonthatstretchofroad.Arethereanyjobsavailable?

Numberdeterminers

Numberswhentheyareusedbeforeanounaresometimesclassifiedasdeterminers,andsometimesasadjectives.Numberssuchasone,two,ten,twenty,etcarecalledcardinalnumbers,whilenumberssuchasfirst,second,tenth,twentieth,etcarecalledordinalnumbers.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarecardinalnumbers:

Weonlyhaveonechancetosucceed.Therearesevenpeopleinthehouse.Morethansixtysoldiersdiedinthebattle.Therearefivehundredandfiftypupilsintheschool.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareordinalnumbers:

Thisisthethirdtimehe’sbeeninprison.Thisisthelittlegirl’sfourthbirthday.They’recelebratingtheirtwenty-fifthweddinganniversary.

EXERCISES4

1 Which of the underlined adjectives in the following sentences are attributive and which arepredicative?

Itwasadelightfultrip.Thebridewasbeautiful.Shehasaninterestingjob.Thejobwasboring.Themealwasdelicious.Thebasketwasfullofripefruit.Thedogwassafelybehindirongates.Thehungrychildrenateallthefoodquickly.Theyaren’tbusytoday.Theviolentmanwasarrestedbythepolice.Theweatherwasverypleasant.Thecarpetwasred.Thedifficulttasktookalongtime.Thewhitedressstainedveryeasily.Shecombedherlonghair.Hereyeswerebrown.Theydoausefuljob.Thestorywasbrief.Thenewcarwasexpensive.Thechildwassad.

2Writeoutthefollowingsentencesreplacingtheblankswiththeappropriateprepositions.

Therewasagarden,butitwasdevoid…flowers.Heisnotatallgood…administration.Doyouthinktheyarecapable…suchdeceit?Somepeoplearenaturallyresistant…thedisease.Thechildisallergic…dairyproducts.Hissymptomsarecharacteristic…aneurologicaldisorder.Suchinvestmentsarefraught…risk.

3Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainanemphaticadjective,underliningtheemphaticadjectives.

Sheisanabsoluteidiottotrustthatman.Shegavetherightanswer.Thewholeeveningwasatotalsuccess.Itwasatruestory.Theend-of-schoolplaywasapositivetriumphforthedramadepartment.Shegaveapositiveresponsetohisqueries.Thesituationwasacompletedisaster.

Theprincerequireshisbridetobevirtuousandpure.Hemustbeanuttermaniactodosuchathing.

4Writeoutthoseofthefollowingsentenceswhichcontainanadjective,underliningtheadjectives.

Heranfast,butfailedtowintherace.Theearlyflightleavesat7a.m.Ifyouarrivelateyouwillnotbeallowedintotheconcert.Itwasafastraceandseveraloftherunnersdidnotfinish.There’salatebusthatleavesatmidnight.Wegotthereearlyforourappointment.

5Writeoutthefollowingsentences,insertingineachblankthecomparativeformoftheadjectivegiveninboldinbrackets.

Sheis…thanever.(lovely)Thestreetsherearemuch…thantheyareinotherareasofthetown.(dirty)Thisweek’slecturewas…thanlastweek’s.(interesting)Herstoryiseven…thanthatoftheotherorphans.(sad)Theyare…nowthantheyhaveeverbeen.(unhappy)Youmustbe…whenwalkinginthatarea.(careful).Heseemstobethe…ofthetwobrothers.(honest)Thisloadseemstoget…thefurtherIwalk.(heavy)Thewriterisover-shadowedbyhis…brother.(famous)Theplaceis…nowsincethestudentsmovedout.(quiet)

6Writeoutthefollowingsentences,insertingineachblankthesuperlativeformoftheadjectivegiveninboldinbrackets.Thisisthe…resultthatwecouldhavehad.(disappointing)Theteenagerhadthe…birthdayofherlife(good)Itisthe…villageonthatcoast.(beautiful)Itwasthe…experienceofmylife.(bad)Shewasthe…womanattheball.(lovely)Thisisthe…dayoftheyear.(long)Thatwasthe…periodofhisentirelife.(unhappy)

7Writeoutthefollowingsentences,insertingthecorrectformoftheindefinitearticleintheblanks.

Helives…mileawayfromthecitycentre.Thefeewillbe£15…hour.They’rebuilding…wallroundthebackgarden.Thechildwaseating…apple.Wepackedupallthebooksin…box.Thehousehasnoheatingandit’slike…igloo.Weneed…starforthetopoftheChristmastree.She’slike…ostrichthat’sburyingitsheadinthesand.Hehas…hereditaryheartdiseasethatislikelytoshortenhislife.

Themetreis…unitoflength.

8Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainordinalnumbersandunderlinethesenumbers.

Theyhavesixchildren.Jackishersecondhusband.Thebusinessmanownsthreelocalcompanies.Thebabyistheirfirstgrandchild.Therewerefivemembersofthegang.Thisisyourthird,andfinal,warning.Thereisonlyonethingtobedone.They’rehavingapartytocelebratetheirtwenty-fifthweddinganniversary.Sueistheirseventhchild.Weneedatleasttwentyworkerstofinishthejobintime.They’vebeenonfourholidaysthisyear.Heiscelebratinghisninetiethbirthday.ThisisthethirdcoldI’vehadthiswinter.

9Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainindefinitedeterminersandunderlinethesedeterminers.

Thatmanlooksill.Heownsthishouse.Severaltrainshavebeencancelledtoday.Fewvictimsrecovered.Herdogattackedmycat.Lesshelpwasgiventopensionersthisyear.Themonkeybrokeoutofitscage.Thesepaintingsarelovely.Bothmenwerechargedwiththeoffence.Isthisyourcoat?Neitherjacketismine.Everybagmustbesearched.Thereisnoroominthehallforallthesepeople.Wedonothaveenoughinformationonwhichtoact.Dadtookhiscartowork.Thisisacompletedisaster.Whyblamethiserroronme?Somechildrenwillhavetogototheschoolinthecity.

10Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainpossessivedeterminersandunderlinethesedeterminers.

Youliedtome.Thisbookismine,notyours.Heparkedhiscarinthenextstreet.Shetookherchildrenwithher.JackandSuehavelefttheirflatemptyforthewholesummer.Wemustgetbacktherebeforenightfall.

Ithinkthisnotebookisyours.Ourrosegardenislovelyatthistimeofyear.Theyneedtotakeactionrightaway.Theirassistanceisrequired.Yourexperiencewillbeinvaluable.Hisattitudetohisworkannoyshiscolleagues.Herneglectofherchildrenisabsolutelyshameful.

ANSWERS4

1attributiveadjectivesdelightful,interesting,ripe,iron,hungry,violent,difficult,white,long,useful,new.predicativeadjectivesbeautiful,boring,delicious,busy,pleasant,red,brown,brief,sad.

2Therewasagarden,butitwasdevoidofflowers.Heisnotatallgoodatadministration.Doyouthinktheyarecapableofsuchdeceit?Somepeoplearenaturallyresistanttothedisease.Thechildisallergictodairyproducts.Hissymptomsarecharacteristicofaneurologicaldisorder.Suchinvestmentsarefraughtwithrisk.

3Sheisanabsoluteidiottotrustthatman.Thewholeeveningwasatotalsuccess.Theend-of-schoolplaywasapositivetriumphforthedramadepartment.Thesituationwasacompletedisaster.Hemustbeanuttermaniactodosuchathing.

4Theearlyflightleavesat7a.m.Itwasafastraceandseveraloftherunnersdidnotfinish.There’salatebusthatleavesatmidnight.

5Sheislovelierthanever.Thestreetsherearemuchdirtierthantheyareinotherareasofthetown.Thisweek’slecturewasmoreinterestingthanlastweek’s.Herstoryisevensadderthanthatoftheotherorphans.Theyareunhappiernowthantheyhaveeverbeen.Youmustbemorecarefulwhenwalkinginthatarea.Heseemstobethemorehonestofthetwobrothers.ThisloadseemstogetheavierthefurtherIwalk.

Thewriterisover-shadowedbyhismorefamousbrother.Theplaceisquieternowsincethestudentsmovedout.

6Thisisthemostdisappointingresultthatwecouldhavehad.Theteenagerhadthebestbirthdayofherlife.Itisthemostbeautifulvillageonthatcoast.Itwastheworstexperienceofmylife.Shewastheloveliestwomanattheball.Thisisthelongestdayoftheyear.Thatwastheunhappiestperiodofhisentirelife.

7Helivesamileawayfromthecitycentre.Thefeewillbe£15anhour.They’rebuildingawallroundthebackgarden.Thechildwaseatinganapple.Wepackedupallthebooksinabox.Thehousehasnoheatingandit’slikeanigloo.WeneedastarforthetopoftheChristmastree.She’slikeanostrichthat’sburyingitsheadinthesand.Hehasahereditaryheartdiseasethatislikelytoshortenhislife.Themetreisaunitoflength.

8Jackishersecondhusband.Thebabyistheirfirstgrandchild.Thisisyourthird,andfinal,warning.They’rehavingapartytocelebratetheirtwenty-fifthweddinganniversary.Sueistheirseventhchild.Heiscelebratinghisninetiethbirthday.ThisisthethirdcoldI’vehadthiswinter.

9Severaltrainshavebeencancelledtoday.Fewvictimsrecovered.Lesshelpwasgiventopensionersthisyear.Bothmenwerechargedwiththeoffence.Neitherjacketismine.Everybagmustbesearched.Thereisnoroominthehallforallthesepeople.Wedonothaveenoughinformationonwhichtoact.Somechildrenwillhavetogototheschoolinthecity.

10Heparkedhiscarinthenextstreet.Shetookherchildrenwithher.

JackandSuehavelefttheirflatemptyforthewholesummer.Ourrosegardenislovelyatthistimeofyear.Theirassistanceisrequired.Yourexperiencewillbeinvaluable.Hisattitudetohisworkannoyshiscolleagues.Herneglectofherchildrenisabsolutelyshameful.

PARTSOFSPEECHIII

Verbs

Insimpletermstheverbisknownasa‘doingword’—youmighthavebeentoldthisinprimaryschool.Inmanywaysthisdescriptionisanoversimplificationandundulyrestrictivesinceittendstooverlookthefact that, although many verbs do express action, many simply indicate a condition or state. Thedescriptionalsoexcludesauxiliaryverbs,modalverbs,etc.

Nevertheless,theverbisusuallythewordinasentencethatismostconcernedwiththeactionanditis usually essential to the structure of a sentence. The verb is usually the most important part of thepredicate.

Verbshaveanumberoffunctions.Inparticular,theyindicatetense,voice,mood,numberandperson.

Verbsareclassifiedasregularverbsandirregularverbs.

RegularverbsMost verbs are regular verbs, occasionally known as weak verbs. They are described as regularbecause they obey certain rules, especially regarding the forming of tenses.Regular verbs obey thefollowingsuchrules:

1Regularverbsaddtheending-stothebaseorinfinitiveformoftheverb,asinwalk,playandlook,toformthethirdpersonsingularofthepresenttense,asin:

hewalks,itplays,shelooks.

Whiletherestofthepresenttenseisformedbyusingjustthebaseorinfinitiveform,asin:

Iwalk,youplay,theylook.

Thepresentparticipleofregularverbsisformedbyaddingtheending-ingtothebaseform,asin

walking,playing,looking.

Ifthebaseformendsin-etheeisusuallyomittedbeforethe-ingendingisadded,asin:

hating,loving,loathing.

2Regularverbsaddtheending-edtothebase(ortheending-d ifthebaseformalreadyendsin-e) to

formthepasttense.

Thisappliestoallpersons,asin:

Iwalkedtheyplayedyoukilledheworkedshelovedtheyhated.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsallformexamplesofregularverbs:

Yourarelysmile.Shewalkedslowly.Youallseemedsosad.Welaughalot.Theylookhappy.Heplaystennis.Shereadscrimefiction.Sheislookingpale.Lovingherashedid,hewasdistraughtatherdeath.Itrainseveryday.Sheloathedherboss.Helookedattheviewfromthewindow.

IrregularverbsIrregularverbs(see1,2)donotobeytheruleswhichapplytoregularverbs.Inparticular,theydeviatefromthepatternofadding-edor-dtotheinfinitiveformtoformthepasttenseandpastparticipleforms.

Categoriesofirregularverbs

Irregularverbsfall intoseveralcategorieswhenitcomestoformingthepast tenseandpastparticipleforms.

1Onecategoryconcernsthoseverbswhichhavethesameformastheinfinitiveforminthepasttenseandpastparticipleforms,asin:

tocut:Icutmyhandyesterday.Ihavecutmyself.

toburst:Theriverburstitsbanks.Thechildhasbursttheballoon.

Thefollowingverbsareincludedinthiscategory:

infinitive pasttense pastparticiplebet bet betburst burst burstcast cast castcost cost costcut cut cuthit hit hithurt hurt hurtput put putset set setshut shut shutsplit split splitspread spread spread

2Anothercategoryincludesthoseirregularverbswhichhavetwopasttensesandtwopastparticiples,the past tenses having the same forms as the past participles, such as spoil, spoiled/spoilt, havespoiled/spoilt.Thefollowingverbsareincludedinthiscategory:

infinitive pasttense pastparticipleburn burned/burnt burned/burntdream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamtdwell dwelled/dwelt dwelled/dwelthang hanged/hung hanged/hungkneel kneeled/knelt kneeled/kneltlean leaned/leant leaned/leantleap leaped/leapt leaped/leaptlearn learned/learnt learned/learntlight lighted/lit lighted/litsmell smelled/smelt smelled/smeltspeed speeded/sped speeded/spedspill spilled/spilt spilled/spiltspoil spoiled/spoilt spoiled/spoiltweave weaved/woven weaved/wovenwet wetted/wet wetted/wet

3Anothercategoryincludesthoseirregularverbswhichhavepasttensesthatneverendin-edandwhichhavethesameformasthatofthepastparticiples.Thefollowingverbsareincludedinthiscategory:

infinitive pasttense pastparticiple

bend bent bentbuild built builtdig dug dugfeel felt feltfight fought foughtfind found foundget got gothear heard heardhold held heldkeep kept keptlay laid laidlead led ledleave left leftlend lent lentlose lost lostmake made mademean meant meantmeet met metpay paid paidsay said saidsell sold soldsend sent sentshine shone shonesit sat satsleep slept sleptspend spent spentstand stood stoodstick stuck stuckstrike struck struckswing swung swungteach taught taughttell told toldthink thought thoughtunderstand understood understoodweep wept weptwin won won

4Anothercategoryincludesirregularverbswhichhaveregularpasttenseformsendingin-edor-dandtwopossiblepastparticiples,oneofwhichisregularandthesameasthepasttense.Thefollowingverbsareincludedinthiscategory:

infinitive pasttense pastparticiplemow mowed mowed/mownprove proved proved/provensew sewed sewed/sewnshow showed showed/shownsow sowed sowed/sownswell swelled swelled/swollen

5 Another category includes irregular verbs which have past tenses and past participles which aredifferent from each other and different from the infinitive. Some common verbs in this category areincludedinthefollowinglist:

infinitive pasttense pastparticiplebear bore bornebegin began begunbite bit bittenblow blown blewbreak broke brokenchoose chose chosendo did donedraw drew drawndrink drank drunkdrive drove driveneat ate eatenfall fell fallenfly flew flownforbid forbade forbiddenforgive forgave forgivenforget forgot forgottenfreeze froze frozengive gave givengrow grew grownhide hid hiddenknow knew knownlie lay lainride rode riddenrise rose risenring rang rungsee saw seenshake shook shaken

shrink shrank shrunkspeak spoke spokensteal stole stolenswear swore swornswim swam swumtake took takentear tore tornthrow threw thrownwake woke wokenwear wore wornwrite wrote written

Tense

Oneof themost important functionsof theverb is to indicate the time atwhich an action takesplace,whethersomeoneorsomething isdoingsomething,wasdoing somethingorwilldo something.This isexpressedbytenseandinmanylanguagesthisismarkedbyinflection.

InEnglish, tense ismarkedby inflectiononly in thepresent tenseand thepast tense. Thus, in thecaseoftheverbtowalkthethirdpersonsingularmasculineofthepresenttenseishewalksandthethirdpersonsingularmasculineofthepasttenseishewalked.

ThereareseveraltensesinEnglish.Themajoronesarepresenttense,pasttenseandfuturetest,butthereareothercategoriesrelatingtothese.

PresenttenseThepresenttenseindicatesanactionnowgoingonorastatenowexisting.Itusesthebaseform,alsoknownastheinfinitiveform,oftheverb,aswalk,run,make,gobutitchangesinthethirdpersonsingularwhenitadds-stothebaseform,sometimeswithaspellingchange,aswalks,runs,makes,goes.

Therearetwoformsofthepresenttense,thesimplepresenttenseandthecontinuouspresenttense.

Simplepresenttense

The simple present tense is used to indicate an action that is currently going on. In the followingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareallverbsinthesimplepresenttense:

Heworksinthecity.Shelivesbythesea.Iwantsomefood.Myheadhurts.Heisanexcellentchef.

The simple present tense is also used to indicate something that is always or generally true. In thefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareallverbsinthesimplepresenttense:

Theworldisround.Threeandthreemakesix.Thinglassbreakseasily.Tigersarecarnivorous.Milkgoessourquicklyinheat.

Thesimplepresenttense isalsousedtoindicateanactionthat isregularorhabitual.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbsinthesimplepresenttense:

Iriseatseven.

Hedrinkswhisky.IworkonSaturdays.Hedrivesawhitevan.Theywalktowork.

Thesimplepresenttenseisalsousedwithsomeadverbsoradverbialsoftimetorefertoatimeinthefuture.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbsinthesimplepresenttensereferringtothefuture:

Wearriveatmidnight.Theyleaveearly.Theholidaysstarttomorrow.Imovenextmonth.Thematchbeginsinanhour.

Continuouspresenttense

Thecontinuouspresenttense(see1),alsocalledtheprogressivepresenttense,isusedwhenyouaretalking about something that is happening at the verymomentwhen you are speaking orwhen you arereferringtoanactioncontinuingoveraperiodoftime,includingthepresent,andnotcompleteatthetimewhenyouarereferringtoit.

Thistenseisformedusingthepresenttenseoftheverbtobe,isandare,andthepresentparticiple,endingin-ingofthemainverb.Itfrequentlyoccursinacontractedform,suchasI’mforIam,you’reforyouare,aren’tforarenotetc.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbsinthecontinuouspresenttense:

Wearehavingapicnic.Iamstudyingthereport.Sheisfeelingverynervous.Theyarelaughingloudly.I’mdrivinghome.Theyaren’ttrying.We’reclimbingthehill.She’sspendingChristmashere.Thestandardofworkisimproving.Thechildisdevelopingnormally.Wearestayinginahotelinthecentreoftown.IbelieveyouarestudyingEnglishatthelocaluniversity.

Thecontinuouspresenttenseisalsousedwithsomeadverbsoradverbialsoftimetorefertoatimeinthefuture.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbsinthecontinuouspresenttense:

Wearehavingameetingnextweek.He’sleavingnextmonth.I’mtravellingtomorrow.She’sgraduatingnextsummer.

PasttenseThepast tense refers to an action that has takenplacebefore thepresent time. In the caseofregularverbs it isformedbyadding-ed to thebaseor infinitiveformof theverb,aswalked, looked,started,failed.Forthepasttenseofirregularverbs.

Therearetwoformsofthepasttense,thesimplepasttenseandthecontinuouspasttense.

Simplepasttense

Thesimplepasttenseisusedtorefertoaneventorstatethatoccurredatsomepointinthepast.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbsinthepasttense:

Thecarcrashedintothevan.Icrackedthevase.Thechildclimbedthetree.Themotherrockedthecradle.Shelovedhimverymuch.Theyhatedeachother.Shedrownedintheriver.Theydrewtheirswords.Wesleptonthebeach.Shechoseasimpleweddingdress.Hestoleacar.Iheardastrangenoise.Intimesheforgavehim.Thedogstoodbythegate.Thebellsrangout.Hesworethathewouldbefaithful.Itmadeahugedifferencetotheirlifestyle.

Thesimplepasttenseisalsousedtoindicatearegularorrepeatedactioninthepast,asin:

Theyworkednightshift.Thechildrenattendedthelocalprimaryschool.Thepolicemanwalkedthebeatnightly.WhenIwasachildwelivedinthecity.Peopledrankverylittlealcoholinthosedays.Thesunalwaysshonewhenwewerethere.Aschildrenwerodeourponiesinthelanesaroundthevillage.

Continuouspasttense

Thecontinuouspasttense,alsocalledtheprogressivepasttenseandtheimperfecttense, isused torefertoacontinuingactionthathappenedinthepastandisprobablynowcomplete.Thistenseisformedbyusingthepasttenseoftheverbtobe,wasandwere,andthepresentparticiple,endingin-ing,ofthemainverb,asin:

Wewerelivingintheareaatthetime.

Inthefollowingsentencesthewordsunderlinedformthecontinuouspasttenseofaverb:

Wewerestudyingatuniversitythen.Youwerebuildingyourhousethatyear.Theywerepaintingthekitchenyesterday.Hewasrunninginthemarathonlastweek.Shewasservinginthebarlastnight.Iwassewingthedressuntilmidnight.

Thecontinuouspastisalsousedtorefertoaneventinthepastthatoccurredduringthecourseofanotherevent.Inthefollowingsentencesthewordsunderlinedareusedtoformthecontinuouspasttenseoftheverb:

Theywerewalkingtotheshopswhentheysawheracrosstheroad.IwasrunningdownthehillwhenItrippedandfell.Youwereriskingyourliveswhenyoudidthat.Weweredrivinghomewhenthecarbrokedown.

PerfecttenseThepresentperfecttense,alsoknownastheperfecttense,isanothertensewhichreferstothepast.Itis formedusing thepresent tenseof theverbhaveand thepastparticipleof themainverb (seepastparticipleandirregularverbs(see1),asin:

Ihavelookedeverywhereforit.

Itisusedtorefertoanactionthatbeganinthepastbutcontinuesintothepresenttimeortorefertoanaction in thepastwhichhas resultscontinuing to thepresent. In the followingsentences theunderlinedwordsformthepresentperfecttense:

HehaslivedinFranceforoverthirtyyears.Floodshavedestroyedthousandsofbooksinthewarehouse.Ihavemadeyourfavouritedessert.Youhaveruinedthiscarpetbyspillingwineonit.Ithaslastedwell,butnowneedsreplaced.Wehavethoughtagreatdealaboutthis.TheyhavetravelledthroughoutBritain.Agehaschangedhimratheralot.

Continuouspresentperfecttense

Thepresentperfecttensealsoexistsinacontinuousorprogressiveformindicatinganactioninthepastthat is still going on. In the following sentences the underlinedwords are examples of thecontinuouspresentperfecttense:

Ihavebeenlivingabroadformanyyearsnow.Wehavebeenthinkingofbuyinganewhouse.Theyhavebeenstudyingtheresultscarefully.Ourprojectshavebeendevelopingquiteslowlybecauseoflackoffunding.Youhavebeenstaringoutofthewindowforhours.

Pastperfecttense

Thepastperfecttense,alsoknownasthepluperfecttense,alsoreferstothepast.Itisformedusingthepast tense of theverbhave and thepastparticiple of themainverb (seepastparticiple (see 1) andirregularverbs(see2),asin:

Wehaddiscussedthematterindetail.

Thepastperfecttenseisusedtorefertoapastactionthattookplaceatanearliertimethananotheraction,theresometimesbeingacausallinkbetweentheevents,asin:

Shewentroundtoseehimaftershehadreceivedhismessage.

Itisalsousedtorefertoanactionthatcontinuesrightupto,orrelatesto,asinglepointinthepast,asin:

Bytheendoftheyeartheprojecthadbeenabandoned.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformexamplesofthepastperfecttense:

Byeveningitwasobviousthathehaddecidednottocome.HisconditionhaddeterioratedsinceIlastsawhim.Wehadknowneachotherforseveralyearsbeforewebecamepartners.Bythenwehadclimbedtothesummit.Ihadexpectedtoseehimthere.Shehadresignedfromherjobandwasunemployed.

Thepastperfect tense alsoexists inacontinuousorprogressive form. In the followingsentences theunderlinedwordsareexamplesofthecontinuouspastperfecttense:

Wehadbeenworkingontheprojectforthreemonthsbythen.Theyhadbeenhopingthatwewouldfail.Itwasclearthatshehadbeencontemplatingleaving.Youhadobviouslybeenthinkingofemigrating,althoughyoudidnot.

FuturetenseThefuturetensedescribesanactionorstatethatwilloccuratsomepointinthefuture.Thefuturetenseisformedbyusingwillorshallwiththeinfinitiveformofthemainverb.Itisusedtopredictorsaywhatislikelytohappeninthefuture,asin:

Workwillbeginnextweek.

Traditionalgrammar

AccordingtotraditionalgrammarrulesshallshouldbeusedwithIandwe,andwillshouldbeusedwithyou,he/she/itandthey,asin:

Weshallarriveintimefortea.Ishalltakethebustoworktoday.Youwillfindfreshmilkinthefridge.Hewillgiveyouthebooktomorrow.Shewillactasatemporarysecretary.Itwillcertainlyspoilthings.Theywillbepunishedforthis.

Again,accordingtotraditionalrules,thisorderisreversedforemphasisandwillisthenusedwithIandwe,asin:

Iwillsucceedatthis,believeme.Wewillhavethehouseofourdreamsoneday.YoushallgetthedressyouwantifIhaveanythingtodowithit.Heshallbepunishedforthis,ifthere’sanyjustice.Mydaughtershallhavetheweddingshedreamsof.Theyshallbemadetopayforthis,Iassureyou.

Modernusage

In modern usage things have changed and, increasingly, will is the preferred form in most moderncontexts,whether thesebespokenorwrittencontexts, inallbut themostformal.Theonlyexceptiontothis is theuseofshallasusedwithIandwewhenquestionsarebeingasked,and,even then, this isafairlyformalcontext,asin:

Shallweproceed?ShallIgoon?Shallwepostponethemeetinguntilnextweek?ShallIreservearoomforyou?

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareusedtoformthefuturetenseasitisfoundinmodernusage:

Iwillhavetoleavenow.Wewillgetthenextbus.Youwillrequiretogivereferences.Hewillseeyounow.Shewillbebacktomorrow.Itwilltakeamiracle.

Theywilldoanythingyouwant.ShallIsendyouanapplicationform?Shallwemeetatthesametimetomorrow?

Otherwaysofreferringtothefuture

Youcanalsousebeabouttoorbegoingtowiththeinfinitiveformofthemainverbtorefertothefuture.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsrefertothefuture:

Iamgoingtoseehertoday.Youareabouttodiscoverwhathappened.Theyaregoingtoexperiencedanger.Thingsareabouttoimprove.

Thecontinuousfuturetenseisusedtorefertoafutureaction.Itisformedbyusingwillbeorshallbefollowedbythepresentparticipleofthemainverb,ofteninacontractedform,asIwillbeworkinglatetonightandI’llbeannouncingthedateoftheexamtomorrow.

Thecontinuous future tense isused todescribeanaction thatwill,or is likely to, takeplace in thefuturebutemphasizingthattheactionwillgoonoveraperiodoftime,ortorefereventsthathavebeenplannedorarrangedforthefuture.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformthecontinuousfuturetense:

Theywillbechangingthecomputersystemtomorrow.Hewillbereportingthemattertothepolice.Thebuswillbechangingroutesfromtomorrow.Youwillbehearingfrommysolicitors.Wewillbestoppinghalfwayonthejourneytothecity.

Thefutureperfecttenseisformedbyusingwillhaveorshallhavefollowedbythepastparticipleofthemainverb.Itisusedtopredictthatafutureactionwillbecompletedbyaparticulartimeortomakedeductions,asin:

Thedecoratorswillhavefinishedtheroombythisevening.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformexamplesofthefutureperfecttense:

Theywillhavereachedhomebytomorrownight.YouwillhaverealizedbynowthatIamquiteserious.Shopswillhavestartedtheirsalesbynextweek.Doubtlessshewillhaveregrettedherdecisionbytomorrowmorning.

Thefutureperfectcontinuoustenseisusedtorefertoanactionthatwillhavebeencompletedatapointinthefuture,emphasizingthattheactionwillhavebeencontinuingoveraperiodoftime.

In the following sentences the underlined words form examples of the future perfect continuoustense:

Manypeoplewillhavebeensavingforyearsforthistrip.Studentswillhavebeenstudyingthistextforweekswithoutrealizingthatitisthewrongone.Wewillhavebeentravellingfortwoyearsbythesummer.

Mood

Moodisoneofthecategoriesintowhichverbsaredivided.Thesemoodsarecalledtheindicativemood,the imperativemood and the subjunctivemood. The wordmood in this sense acquired its meaningbecauseitwassaidtoshowtheattitudeorviewpointthataparticularverbindicated.

IndicativemoodTheindicativemoodofaverbisusedtomakeafactualstatement,asin:

Theyhavethreechildren.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareverbsintheindicativemood:

Theparkingrestrictionsapplyonworkingdays.Itsnowedlastnight.Theplaneleavesat7a.m.Istartmynewjobtomorrow.TheplayattheLyceumisverygood.Wegivegenerousdiscountstomembersofstaff.Wearelosingmoneyonthisventure.

ImperativemoodTheimperativemoodofaverbisusedtogiveordersorinstructionsortomakearequest,asin:

Bequiet!Shutthedoorbehindyou.Takecare!Bringusacopyofthemenu,please.

SubjunctivemoodThesubjunctivemoodwasoriginallyatermusedinLatingrammarwhereitwasusedtoexpressawish,supposition,doubt,improbabilityorothernon-factualstatement.ThesubjunctivemoodinEnglishisusedtoexpresshypotheticalstatements,asin:

IfIwereyouIwouldforgetallaboutit.

Thewordwereisinthesubjunctivemood.Thesubjunctivemoodisalsousedincertainformalclausesbeginningwiththat,asin:

Idemandthatshepaymeinfullimmediately.

Itisalsousedincertainfixedexpressions,suchasSobeit!

Inthefollowingsentencesthewordsunderlinedformexamplesofthesubjunctivemood:

IfheweretogodownonbendedkneeIwouldstillnotforgivehim.IfIwereyouIwouldleavenow.Iinsistthatheapologizeimmediately.Bethatasitmay,heshouldstillbefinished.GodsavetheQueen!Isuggestthathebetoldofourdecisionrightaway.

NB:ModernuseofthesubjunctivemoodThesubjunctivemood can sound rather stilted inmodern usage andmany people either ignore it,perhapsbeingignorantofitstrueuse,orelsechoosetoavoidit.

Forexample

Iinsistthatheapologizesimmediately

insteadof

Iinsistthatheapologizeimmediately

isconsideredquiteacceptable,especiallyinallbutthemostformalcontexts.

Voice

Voicewithreferencetoverbshasnothingtodowiththevoicethatmakessounds.Instead,itdenotestwowaysoflookingattheactionoftheverb.Transitiveverbs,verbswhichtakeanobject(see1),caneitherbeintheactivevoiceorthepassivevoice.

ActivevoiceIn the case of sentences using the active voice of the verb, the subject (see 3) performs the actiondescribedbytheverb.Thus,inthesentence

Theboythrewtheball.

theverbthrewisintheactivevoicebecausethesubjectofthesentenceTheboyisperformingtheactionofthrowing.

Similarly,inthesentence

Sheisdrivingthecartoofast.

theverbisdrivingisintheactivevoicebecausethesubjectofthesentenceSheisperformingtheactionofdriving.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformexamplesofverbsintheactivevoice:

Terroristshijackedtheplane.Rainspoiledtheday.Hefoundthesolution.Daddugthegarden.Ilostthering.Athiefstolethepurse.

PassivevoiceInthecaseofsentencesusingthepassivevoiceoftheverbthesubjectistherecipientoftheactionoftheverb.Thus,inthesentence

Theballwasthrownbytheboy.

theverbwasthrown is inthepassivevoicebecause thesubjectof thesentenceTheball ishaving theactionofthrowingperformedonit.Similarly,inthesentence

Thecarwasbeingdriventoofastbyher.

theverbwasbeingdrivenisinthepassivevoicebecausethesubjectofthesentenceThecarishavingtheactionofdrivingperformedonit.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformexamplesofverbsinthepassivevoice:

Hewasfatallywounded.Awomanwasfounddead.Thecarwasbadlydamagedinthecrash.Weweredelightedbythenews.Itisknownthatastatementwillbereleasedtomorrow.

AsyouwillseefromtheexamplesgiveninActivevoiceandPassivevoiceabove,itisoftenquiteeasytoconvertactiveformtopassiveformandviceversa.

VerbsintheactivevoicearemuchmorecommonlyusedinEnglishthanverbsinthepassivevoice.Overuse of thepassive voice can sound rather formal and unnatural and it canmake sentences soundunnecessarilycomplicated.

However,itshouldnotbeavoidedaltogether.Forexample,itisausefulconstructionwhenitisnotyetknownwhocarriedouttheactionoftheverb,asin:

Ayoungmanhasbeenmurdered.

Itisalsouseful,especiallytopeoplesuchasjournalists,insentencessuchasthefollowingwhereitisnotknownwhoseopinionisbeinggiven:

Itisbelievedthatsuchconditionsmayoccuragain.

However,thishabitofgeneralizationshouldnotbeoverdone.Also,thepassiveconstructionisoftenusedin pieces of scientific or other specialistwritingwhere the question ofwho exactly is performing theactionofaverbisnotimportant,asin:

Asampleofthebacteriumisbeingtestedunderlabconditions.

Transitiveverbandintransitiveverb

Wehaveseenabovethat it isonlytransitiveverbswhichareaffectedbyvoice.Transitiveverbsareverbswhichcantakeadirectobject(see1).Inthesentence

Themenlovetheirchildren.

thenounchildrenisadirectobjectandtheverbloveistransitive.Similarly,inthesentence

Thechildrenlikejelly.

thenounjellyisadirectobjectandtheverblikeistransitive.Ontheotherhand,inthesentence

Snowfellyesterday.

theverbfell(fall)isintransitivebecauseitdoesnottakeanobject.Similarly,inthesentence

Thesituationimproved.

theverbimproved(improve)isintransitive.

Manyverbscanbeeithertransitiveorintransitiveaccordingtocontext.Thus,inthesentence

Theybothplaythepiano.

theverbplayistransitive,while,inthesentence

Thechildrenplayonthebeacheveryday.

theverbplayisintransitive.

Similarly,inthesentence

Theyclimbthehighestmountains.

theverbclimbistransitive,whileinthesentence,

Thepathsclimbsteeply.

theverbclimbisintransitive.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformatransitiveverb:

Weknowthetruth.

Theyhatetheclimatehere.Ichosethebluecurtains.Youwilladorehim.Shecrossedthestreet.Wearepaintingthehouse.Theydigthegardenatweekends.Weappreciatethegesture.Theywelcomethepraise.Thedoctorcuredhim.Wewantmoremoney.Theydrinkredwine.Sheispickingflowers.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformanintransitiveverb:

Afigureappeared.Sheblusheseasily.Theseplantsgrowrapidly.Wefailed.Theyworkhard.Hediedyesterday.Hetalksconstantly.Thingsaregoingbadly.Iwalkwithdifficulty.Theyranaway.Sheissleeping.

Linkingverb

Alinkingverb,alsocalledacopulaorcopularverb,isaverbthat‘links’asubjectwithitscomplement.Unlikeotherverbs,linkingverbsdonotdenoteanactionbutindicateastate.

Themostcommonlinkingverbisbe,asin:

Heisafool.

Othersincludebecome,seem,appear,look,asin:

Youseemedratherananxiousperson.

and

Helooksanewman.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformlinkingverbs:

Heappearsquitecalm.Sheappearsaverycompetentyoungwoman.Marylooksquiteexhausted.Itlooksjustwhatwewant.Jimbecameafamouswriter.Ifeeladifferentpersonaftermyholiday.Ifeelunwell.

Auxiliaryverb

Anauxiliaryverb (see1) isaverb that isusedwithamainverb to formcertain tensesand to formanegativeorquestionandtoformthepassivevoice.Themainauxiliaryverbsarebe,haveanddo.Thesearealsoknownasprimaryauxiliaryverbsandallthreecanalsobeusedasmainverbs,asin:

Thehouseisveryold.Ihaveabook.andIdoalotofworkinthegarden.

Theverbbeisusedasanauxiliaryverbwiththe-ingofthemainverbtoformthecontinuouspresenttense,asin:

WearethinkingofmovinghouseandSheisattendingschool.

Theverbbeisusedwiththepastparticiple(see2)ofthemainverbtoformthepassivevoice,asin:

ThecarwasparkedhereandHerhandswerecoveredinblood.

Theverbhaveisusedasanauxiliaryverbwiththepastparticiple(see3)ofthemainverbtoformthepresentperfecttenseandthepastperfecttenseasin:

Wehaveopenedthebox.andIhadassumedthatthetwoofyouwereoldfriends.

Theverbbeisusedasanauxiliaryverbwiththemainverbtoformnegativesentences,asin:

Sheisnotacceptingthejob.andTheworkisnotfinishedyet.

Theverbdoisalsousedasanauxiliaryverbwiththemainverbtoformnegativesentences,asin:

Idonotbelieveyou.andShedidnotlovehim.

Theverbdoisalsousedasanauxiliaryverbwiththemainverbtoformquestions,asin:

Dotheystilllivehere?andDidtheygobybus?

Theverbdoisalsousedasanauxiliaryverbwiththemainverbtoemphasizethemainverb,asin:

Thebusdoesstophere,I’msure.andTheshopdoesopenonSundays.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformprimaryauxiliaryverbs:

Hedoesstillloveher,hesays.Doesthebusstophere?Shedoesn’tworkherenow.Theschemeisnotoperatingyet.Wehaverejectedtheidea.Ihadsomehowgottheideathatyouwererelatedtohim.

Modalauxiliaryverb

Amodal auxiliary verb is a verb that is used with a main verb to help it express a wide range ofmeanings including possibility, probability, ability, permission, prediction, obligation, suggestions,requests,invitations,offers,promisesetc.Themainmodalauxiliaryverbsarecan,could,may,might,will, shall, would, should, must, ought to.Modal auxiliary verbs, unlike primary auxiliary verbs,cannotbeusedasmainverbs,havingonlyoneform.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsallformexamplesofmodalauxiliaryverbs:

Thechildcanrideabike.Shecouldstaythereifshewantedto.Youmayborrowthecarifyoureturnitbylunchtime.Wemaybeintimeforthe5o’clocktrain.Hemightstillhavethereceiptforthebook.Weshouldgettherebeforenightfall.Thosewhomakefraudulentclaimsshallbeprosecuted.Willyouhavesomemoretea?Wouldyoutakeaseatoverthere,please.Youmayprefertocomebackanothertime.Youmightprefertopaybycreditcard.Canyoupostthisletterforme?Couldyougiveheramessage?Wemustgettherebeforedinner.Youmustleaveatonce.Theyoughttopayforthedamage.Youcouldendangeryourlifebysuchanaction.

Concord

Concordorverbagreement refers to the fact thataverbmust ‘agree’with the subject innumber. Inotherwordsasingularsubjectmustbeaccompaniedbyasingularverb,asin:

Theboyloveschocolate.

Andapluralsubjectmustbeaccompaniedbyapluralverb,asin:

Theboyslovechocolate.

ConcordisnotabigissueinEnglishsinceverbsinEnglishgenerallyhavethesameform,irrespectiveofnumber,apartfromthechangeofforminthethirdpersonsingularofthepresenttensewhen-sor-es isaddedtothebaseform.Adifficultyariseswhenasubject takestheformofasingularnounlinkedtoapluralnounbyof,asin:

Anumberofproblems.

Althoughitisgrammaticallycorrecttouseasingularverb,asinthesentence

Anumberofproblemshasarisen.

itiscommoninmodernusagetohavetheverbagreeingwiththepluralnounbecauseitisnearesttoit,thissoundingmorenatural,asin:

Anumberofproblemshavearisen.

Sometimes it depends onwhether thewriter or speakerwishes to emphasize the unity of the groupofthings or people referred to orwhether the individual components are to be emphasized. Thus, in thesentence

Acollectionofhispaintingsistobedisplayedatthetownhall.

theverbissingularbecausethepaintingsarebeingregardedasasingleentity.However,inthesentence

Acollectionofmiscellaneousvaluableobjectswerefoundinthethief ’shouse.

theverbisinthepluralformbecausetheemphasisisonthenumberofindividualobjects.Thisdualityofsingularandpluralverbsalsoariseswithregardtosomecollectivenouns.Thusinthesentence

Thefamilyiswhatmattersmosttoher.

theverbissingular,whereasinthesentence

ThefamilyarecomingfromallpartsoftheworldtobehomeforChristmas.

theverbisplural.

Partsofaverb

InfinitiveTheinfinitive,orbase,istheformofaverbwhenusedwithoutanyindicationofperson,numberortense.Therearetwoformsoftheinfinitive.Oneisthetoinfinitiveform,asin:

Theywishedtoleave.Thechildhasnothingtodo.

Theotherformoftheinfinitive,withoutto,issometimescalledthebaseinfinitive.Thisformconsistsofthebaseformoftheverbwithoutto,asin:

Wesawhimfall.andShewatchedhimgo.

NB:ThesplitinfinitiveThesplitinfinitiveisaninfinitivethathashadanotherwordintheformofanadverbplacedbetweenitselfandto,asin

torudelypushandtoquietlyaccept.

Thiswasonceconsideredabadgrammaticalerror,butthesplitinfinitiveisbecomingacceptableinmodern usage. In any case, it sometimesmakes for a clumsy sentence if one slavishly follows thecorrectform.

ParticiplesTherearetwoparticiples.Oneisthepresentparticiplewhichisformedbyaddingtheending-ingtothebaseorinfinitiveform,asingoing.Ifthebaseformendsin-e,the-eisusuallyremovedbeforethe-ingendingisadded,asmaking.Theotheristhepastparticiplewhichisformedbyaddingtheending-edtothebaseorinfinitiveform.

Presentparticiple

Thepresentparticipleisusedwithpartsoftheverbbetoformthecontinuouspresenttense(see1)andothercontinuoustenses,asin:

Iamwaiting.andShewaswatching.

Thepresentparticiplecanalsofunctionasanadjective,positionednexttothenounwhichitmodifies.Inthefollowingphrasestheunderlinedwordisapresentparticiplefunctioningasanadjective:

norunningwaterthesinkingshiptheprotestingcrowdthewhisperingonlookersthecrumblingseawalladisappearingwayoflifeafadingmemorythedrivingrain.

Thepresentparticiplecanalsofunctionasanoun.(verbalnoun(see1)).

Thepresentparticipleisalsousedinparticipialphrases.

Pastparticiple

Inregularverbs, thepastparticiple (see1,2,3)has the same formas thepast tense. In the case ofirregularverbs,however,thepastparticipleisformedindifferentways.

Thepastparticipleisusedwithpartsoftheverbhavetoformtheperfecttenseandotherperfecttenses.

Thepastparticipleisalsousedinparticipialphrases(see2).

EXERCISES5

1Whichofthefollowingarepartsofregularverbs?

walked, looked, stuck, met, smiled, kept, held, seemed, hated, meant, climbed, drew, loved, begun,laughed,worked,felt,called,fought,rained,snowed.

2Writedownthepasttenseofthefollowingirregularverbs.

do,swim,drink,fly,rise,blow,tear,throw,write,shut,choose,tell,think,understand,dig,find,send,build,cut,hit,make,grow,ring,speak,break,wear,give,know,steal.

3Thefollowingsentencescontainunderlinedverbsinthepasttense.Rewrite thesentences tocontainthesameverbsbutinthecontinuouspasttense.

Themanstoodoutsidetheshop.Thechurchbellsrangout.Thechildrensleptpeacefully.Themotherrockedthecradleslowly.Thesunshonebrightlyfromveryearlyinthemorning.Theywalkedasfastastheycould.IstudiedEnglishatuniversity.

4Whichofthefollowingunderlinedverbsareinthefuturetense?

Wewillgoimmediately.Iamcleaningthehousejustnow.Theywillneedavisatocrosstheborder.Theprojectwillcostalotofmoney.Hewassureofsuccess.Sheisabouttoleaveonadangerousjourney.Wehavefinishedthejob.Thingsaregoingtoimprovesoon.Iwillconsultmysolicitorshortly.Theyaregoingtosubmitanapplication.Theluggagewasdamagedduringtheflight.

5Whichof the followingunderlinedverbs are in the subjunctivemood,which are in the imperativemoodandwhichareintheindicativemood?

IfIweretheheadteacher,Iwouldexcludethebulliesimmediately.Getoutnow!Hesellsawiderangeofelectricalgoods.Theparkingregulationsapplyonlyinthecitycentre.Watchout!

Wewalktoworkeverymorning.Isuggestthatthestudents’lockersbesearchedforthestolengoods.Itrainedalllastweek.Idemandthatyougivemebackthemoneyimmediately.Stopthief!Ibelievehim.

6Inthefollowingsentenceswhichoftheunderlinedverbsareintheactivevoiceandwhicharein thepassivevoice?

Rainisspoilingthepicnic.Hewasdrivingthelorrydangerously.Shewassupportedbyherhusband.Someonehasstolenavaluablepaintingfromtheartgallery.Abicyclehasbeenstolenfromtheshopbyagangofyouths.Theseverestormdestroyedthecrops.Thewholevillagewasdevastatedbythetragedy.Wearedigginganewflowergarden.Theancientartefactwasfoundbyafarmerinhisfield.Thefloodsdamagedagreatdealofproperty.Theballwasthrownoverthehedgebytheboy.Anewofficesystemisbeingtestedrightnow.

7Inthefollowingsentenceswhichverbsaretransitiveandwhichareintransitive?

Snowfellthatnight.Theyneedaplacetolive.Theypaintedthefrontdoor.Thingswentwell.Amansuddenlyappeared.Theywelcomedtheirguestswarmly.Wewerepickingwildflowers.Theirguestsdrankonlywater.Thetreegrewrapidly.Doctorscouldnotcurethepatient.Weworkedallnight.Thechildchosetwolibrarybooks.Shediedaboutayearago.Fewpeopleknowtherealfacts.Hecan’twalkwithoutasticknow.

8Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainalinkingverb,underliningeachofthelinkingverbs.

Theghost,apparently,appearedlastnight.Sheappearsadifferentpersonsincehercounsellingsessions.Welookedcarefullyatsamples.Helookedinthemirror.

Shelooksasuitableenoughcandidateforthejob.Shesaysthatshefeelsacompletelynewpersonsincehershortbreak.Jackbecamealawyer.Theyseemfineyoungpeople.Hisbrotherisadoctor.Sheisanattractiveyoungwoman.Herfatherappearedtoherinadream.Itseemsanappropriatesolution.Welookedoverafewhouses.

9Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainamodalauxiliaryverb,underliningeachofthemodalauxiliaryverbs.

Couldyougivemesomeassistance?Shedoeshavetalent.Theymightgetthereintime,ifthetraffic’slight.Jackdidknowtheaccidentvictim.Sheshouldpassthedrivingtestfirsttime.Shehaslosthermemory.Dadsaysthatwemayborrowthecar.Sheistakinggreatcareofthem.Theycouldlosealotofmoneyinthisventure.Ican’tmeetyoutoday.Thetaskisnotfinishedyet.Wouldyoucomethisway,please?Canyousignhere,please?Wearestudyingtheevidence.Mightwediscussthisatamoreconvenienttime?

10Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainthebaseinfinitiveofaverb,underliningeachbaseinfinitive.

Iheardhimgo.Wewishedhimtoleave.Wewatchedthechildrenplay.Ihavetogonow.Hesawherdie.Haveyousomethingimportanttosay?Iwantyoutogivemesomeadvice.Didyouseehimattackher?Theyaimedtoleaverightaway.Webothheardsomeonedrivepastthehouse.Manyolderworkersplantotakeearlyretirement.Twopeoplewitnessedthemanfallfromthebridge.

ANSWERS5

1walked,looked,smiled,seemed,hated,climbed,loved,laughed,worked,called,rained,snowed.

2did,swam,drank,flew,rose,blew,tore,threw,wrote,shut,chose,told,thought,understood,dug,found,sent,built,cut,hit,made,grew,rang,spoke,broke,wore,gave,knew,stole.

3Themanwasstandingoutsidetheshop.Thechurchbellswereringingout.Thechildrenweresleepingpeacefully.Themotherwasrockingthecradleslowly.Thesunwasshiningbrightlyfromveryearlyinthemorning.Theywerewalkingasfastastheycould.IwasstudyingEnglishatuniversity.

4futuretensewillgo,willneed,willcost,isabouttoleave,aregoingtoimprove,willconsult,aregoingtosubmit.

5subjunctivemoodwere,besearched,giveback.imperativemoodgetout,watchout,stop.indicativemoodsells,apply,walk,rained,believe.

6activevoiceisspoiling,wasdriving,hasstolen,destroyed,aredigging,damaged.passivevoicewasmurdered,hasbeenstolen,wasdevastated,wasfound,wasthrown,isbeingtested.

7transitiveneed,painted,welcomed,picking,drank,cure,chose,know.intransitivefell,went,appeared,grew,worked,died,walk.

8Sheappearsadifferentpersonsincehercounsellingsessions.Shelooksasuitableenoughcandidateforthejob.Shesaysthatshefeelsacompletelynewpersonsincehershortbreak.Jackbecamealawyer.Theyseemfineyoungpeople.Hisbrotherisadoctor.Sheisanattractiveyoungwoman.Itseemsanappropriatesolution.

9Couldyougivemesomeassistance?Theymightgetthereintime,ifthetraffic’slight.Sheshouldpassthedrivingtestfirsttime.Dadsaysthatwemayborrowthecar.Theycouldlosealotofmoneyinthisventure.Ican’tmeetyoutoday.Wouldyoucomethisway,please?Canyousignhere,please?Mightwediscussthisatamoreconvenienttime?

10Iheardhimgo.Wewatchedthechildrenplay.Hesawherdie.Didyouseehimattackher?Webothheardsomeonedrivepastthehouse.Twopeoplewitnessedthemanfallfromthebridge.

PARTSOFSPEECHIV

Adverbs

Themainfunctionofanadverbistogivemoreinformationaboutaverb.Anadverbissaidtomodifyaverbbecauseitlimitstheworditdescribesinsomeway.Thus,modifyingtheverbwalkwiththeadverbquicklymeansthatweknowthatweareconcentratingonwalkingquicklyandthatwecanforgetaboutwalkinginanyotherway.Adverbscanalsomodifyotheradverbs,asinextremelysuddenly,adjectives,asingravelyill,prepositions,asinjustafterdinnerandconjunctionsasinexactlywhathesaid.

Anadverbisusuallyasingleword.Whenagroupofwordsperformsthesamefunctionasanadverbitisknownasanadverbialphraseoradverbial.

Typesofadverb

Therearevarioustypesofadverb—adverbsoftime,frequency,duration,place,manneranddegree,aswellasinterrogativeadverbs.

Adverbsoftime

Adverbs of time indicate when something has happened. They include words such as then, now,afterwards,before,later.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadverbsoftime:

I’llseeyousoon.Theyhaven’tseenhimlately.Itwasherbirthdaytoday.Iwasn’tmarriedthen.We’dnevermetbefore.Afterwardswehadafternoontea.

Adverbsoffrequency

Adverbsof frequency indicatehow frequently somethinghappens.They includewords such asoften,always,never,andseldom.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadverbsoffrequency:

ItalwayssnowedatChristmasthere.Werarelymeetthesedays.Heneverdrinksalcohol.Sheisforevercriticizinghim.

Weplaytennistogetherregularly.Thepatientisbeingmonitoredconstantly.Weusuallyhavedinnerat8p.m.

Adverbsofduration

Adverbsofduration indicatehowlongsomethinglastsoroccurs.Theyincludewordssuchasalways,briefly,permanently,indefinitely.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadverbsofduration:

Sheislivingwithhergrandmothertemporarily.Hehasbeensuspendedfromhisjobindefinitely.Ihaven’tknownherlong.Wewillstayhereovernight.She’salwayslivedhere.Theystoppedbrieflytofillthecarwithpetrol.

Adverbsofplace

Adverbsofplaceareusedtoindicatewheresomethinghappensortakesplace.Theyincludesuchwordsashere,there,near,downstairsandindoors.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadverbsofplace:

Hehasgoneoverseas.Theylivenearby.Shewentinside.Hewalkedalongside.Theyaretravellingnorthward.Wewadedashore.Thechilddoesn’tlivehere.Heheldthebanneraloft.Wemetmidway.

Adverbsofmanner

Adverbsofmannerindicatehowsomethinghappensorthecircumstancesinwhichsomethinghappens.Theyare frequently formedbyadding -ly to an adjective and they includecarefully, easily, hurriedly,plainly,quickly,safely,suddenly,willingly.Afewofthemendin-wise,-waysor-wards.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadverbsofmanner:

Shewasneatlydressed.Hesmiledvaguely.Theyspokeeloquently.Ibehavedfoolishly.Helivesdangerously.Wewaitedpatiently.Youareneededurgently.

Shelaughedexcitedly.Theyfilmedhimsecretly.Imethimaccidentally.Sheactedindependently.Hemovedsideways.

Adverbsofdegree

Adverbsofdegreeareused to indicate thedegree towhichanaction isperformed.Manyof themareformedbyadding-lytoanadjectiveandtheyincludefairly,moderately,remarkably,veryandpartly.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadverbsofdegree:

Ienjoyedthefilmimmensely.Iwastremendouslypleasedbytheunexpectedgift.Shewashugelyimpressedbytheeffortsofthechildren.Shewasunbelievablybeautiful.Theywereonlymoderatelyenthusiasticabouttheproject.Shewasslightlyhurtbytheremark.Theywerepartlyresponsiblefortheerror.Herfatherwasasupremelysuccessfulbusinessman.Theylargelyignoredus.Thevillagewasvirtuallydestroyedbythestorms.Thechildalmostdrowned.Iwasenormouslyencouragedbytheirpraise.Hewasworkingveryhard.

AdverbsofemphasisA small group of adverbs of degree are known as adverbs of emphasis. These are formed fromemphaticadjectivesandincludeabsolutely,entirely,really,utterlyandpositively.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareadverbsofemphasis:

Wetotallydisagreewithyou.Iwasutterlydevastatedbythenews.Iquiteagree.Shepositivelyadoreshim.Hereallyloatheshisjob.Shecompletelybrokedownandweptuncontrollably.

InterrogativeadverbsInterrogativeadverbsareamongthewh-wordswhichareusedtoaskwh-questionsandincludewhen,where,howandwhy.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareinterrogativeadverbs:

Whendidyoulastseehim?Wherewasthemoneyhidden?

Howareyoufeeling?Whywashethere?

Prepositions

Aprepositionisusedtoshowtherelationship,suchastimeorplace,betweenanounorpronounandtherest of a sentence, clause or phrase. The preposition usually comes before the noun it refers to or‘governs’.Therearetwotypesofpreposition,simpleprepositionsandcomplexprepositions.

SimpleprepositionsSimpleprepositionsareoftenveryshortwords,suchasat,by,in,of,off,on,toandup,butalsoincludesuchwordsasamong,before,behind,duringandthrough.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareallsimpleprepositions:

Thecakesareonthetable.Thecatisupthetree.Shesleepsduringtheday.Theyleftbeforedawn.Wearrivedafterdinner.Iwillstaythereforthreeweeks.Heisayoungmanofgreattalent.Shecarriedabagwithablackhandle.Iwillgowiththem.Hewassackedfortheft.Ipaidbycash.WehadtoleavewithoutMary.Theywereagainstthescheme.

ComplexprepositionsComplexprepositionsconsistoftwoorthreewords.Theseincludeaheadof,becauseof,insteadof,onaccountof,bymeansofandonbehalfof.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformcomplexprepositions:

Sheattendedtheconferenceinspiteofillness.Hehadtoretireonaccountofhisage.Theyarenotrichintermsofmoney.Theyhaveadoginadditiontothethreecats.

Conjunctions

Aconjunction (see1,2,3,4,5,6,7) is a linkingwordused to joinwords,wordgroupsorclauses.Therearetwotypesofconjunction,coordinatingconjunctionsandsubordinatingconjunctions.

CoordinatingconjunctionsCoordinating conjunctions (see 1, 2, 3, 5) are conjunctions which join elements which are of equalstatus.Theseunitsmaybewords,wordgroupsormainclauses.Coordinatingconjunctionsincludeand,but,or,yetand,inpairsandoftenforemphasis,both…and,either…or,neither…nor.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarecoordinatingconjunctionswhichlinkwords:

Thewomenandchildrenleftthesinkingshipfirst.She’sanartistandawriter.Hewaswearingahatandgloves.Heisanintelligentandenthusiasticyoungman.Itwasadifficultandembarrassingproblem.Thefirmwasbeingrunefficientlyandeconomically.Hewastall,darkandhandsome.Shewaspoorbuthappy.Itwasasmallbutcomfortablehouse.Shewaselderlybutextremelyfit.Theyworkedslowlybutconfidently.Youcanservefruitorcheeseattheendofthemeal.Didyouoryourhusbandwitnessthecrime?Isthatgoodorbadnews?Theteacherwasfirmyetfair.Shewasbothprettyandclever.Heisbothacowardandabully.Theyareeitherstupidornaïve.Sheiseitherfoolishordeceitful.Theyareneitherskillednorexperienced.Wehaveneithersufficientmoneynorsufficienttimetoundertakethistask.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsarecoordinatingconjunctionswhichlinkmainclauses:

HehasaskedAnnetomarryhimandshehasaccepted.ThestudentsliveinLeedsandtheytravelhereeveryday.HewasborninEnglandbutlivesinAustralia.Theycanstayhereortheycangohome.Studentscaneitherliveinflatsortheycanliveinhallsofresidence.

SubordinatingconjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctions(see1)areusedtolinkasubordinateclause(see2)ordependentclauseto

themainclause.Subordinatingconjunctionsmayintroduceanadverbialclause,acomparativeclause,arelativeclause,oranounclause.Foralloftheseclause(see1).

Subordinatingconjunctionsintroducingadverbialclauses

These are clauses which have a function in a sentence similar to that of an adverb or an adverbialphrase.Theyaddinformationabouttime,place,concession,condition,manner,purposeandresult.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of time include after, before, since,when,whenever,while,until,assoonas.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedword/wordsformaconjunctionintroducinganadverbialclauseoftime:

Assoonasthebabysittercomeswe’llsetoff.IsmilewheneverIseethechild’shappyface.I’llwaituntilyourfriendcomes.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of place include where, wherever,everywhere. In the following sentences the underlinedword is a conjunction introducing an adverbialclauseofplace:

IforgetwhereIleftthepackage.Wherevertheactorgoes,photographersfollow.

Subordinatingconjunctionsintroducingadverbialclausesofpurpose include inorder (to), to,soasto, so that. In the following sentences the underlined word/words form a conjunction introducing anadverbialclauseofpurpose:

Weleftthepartyearlysoastocatchthelastbushome.Togetthereontimewe’dhavetoleavenow.IsavedmoneyallyearsothatIcouldaffordtogoonholidaytoSouthAfrica.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of reason include because, since, as, incase.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedword/wordsformaconjunctionintroducinganadverbialclauseofreason:

Weneedtoleaveveryearlyincasethetrafficisveryheavyonthemotorway.Becauseit’srainingheavilywe’llhavetocancelthepicnic.Sincehecommittedthecrimeheshouldacceptthepunishment.

Subordinatingconjunctionsintroducingadverbialclausesofresultincludesothat.Thewordssoandthatcanbeseparated,socomingbeforeanadjectiveoradverbinthemainclauseandthatbeingthefirstwordinthesubordinateclause.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedword/wordsformaconjunctionintroducinganadverbialclauseofresult:

Hehithisopponentsohardthatheknockedhimout.Hespokeclearlysothateveryoneheardeveryword.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of condition include unless, if, provided(that),providing,aslongas.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedword/wordsformaconjunctionintroducinganadverbialclauseofcondition:

I’llgoprovidedyoucomewithme.Aslongasyou’rehappyI’mhappytodowhatyouask.IfhestaysI’mleaving.

Subordinatingconjunctionsintroducingadverbialclausesofmannerincludeasthough,asif,as,like.Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedword/wordsformaconjunctionintroducinganadverbialclauseofmanner:

Hewalkedasthoughhewereinpain.Shesmiledbroadlyasifshewereveryhappy.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of concession include although, though,even though, whereas, while, whilst. In the following sentences the underlined word/words form aconjunctionintroducinganadverbialclauseofconcession:

Shestillloveshimalthoughhetreatedherbadly.EventhoughIdislikehimpersonallyIadmirehiswork.WhileMaryisanexcellentcookneitherofhersisterscanevenboilanegg.

EXERCISES6

1Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainanadverb,underliningtheadverbs.

Shewasverypretty.Hewassmartlydressed.Themanisanutterfool.Heutterlyadoresher.Sheenjoyedhertimeatuniversitytremendously.Thecampaignwasahugesuccess.Hewasonceasupremelysuccessfulchef.Itwasaregularoccurrence.Heactedimpulsivelyandfoolishly.Shewasnotinaverypatientmood.Wegotothecinemaregularly.Theyrarelymeet.Iusuallygotoworkbytrain.WegotoFranceinthesummer.Theywenttotheirusualrestaurantinthehighstreet.Shestampedherfootimpatiently.

2Writedowntheadverbsofdurationandtheadverbsoffrequencyinthefollowingsentences.

Jacknevertellslies.Iworryabouthimconstantly.Thecoupleplantoleaveherepermanently.Sueisforevertalkingoflookingforanotherjob.TheystoppedoverbrieflyinSingaporeontheirwaytoAustralia.Weseldomseeouroldfriends.TheboysoftenplayfootballonSaturdays.Sheisworkingasasecretarytemporarily.AreyougoingtoworkintheStatesindefinitely?

3Rewrite thefollowingsentences insertingin theblanksanadverbformedfromtheadjectivegiveninboldtypeinbrackets.

Imether...onthewaytothestation.(accidental)Hewon...andwentontothenextround.(easy)Youmustproceed...andbeawareofthedanger.(careful)Sheacted...withoutthinking.(foolish)Helefthisjobquite...inapanic.(sudden)Youhavetodecide...ifyouwantthejob.(quick)

4Writeoutthefollowingsentences,underliningthesimpleprepositions.

Istayedthereforsixmonths.Sheisapersonofconsiderablewealth.Shedidtheshoppingduringherlunchhour.Theyliveinthehousewiththegreendoor.Iwillpaybycheque.Themoneyisonthekitchentable.Theworkmanisuptheladder.Shestudiesduringtheevening.I’mleavingafterbreakfast.Ifweleavenowwe’llgettherebeforethebus.Shedirectedtheremarkathim.Shethoughthewasthemanofherdreams.

5Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainacomplexpreposition,underliningthecomplexprepositions.

Hewasinvited,buthissisterwentinstead.MycolleaguewasillandsoIwenttotheconferenceinsteadofher.Hehadtotakeearlyretirementonaccountofhisillhealth.Hewontheraceinspiteofhisinjuredback.Ican’tpayfortheworkinfull,buthereissomemoneyonaccount.Hehaspromisedtospeakforheratthecomplaintstribunal.Theunionleaderisgoingtotalktomanagementonbehalfofalltheworkers.Youcangettherebymeansoftransport,butitwilltakealongtime.Let’sgobytrain.Sheresignedbecauseofacutestress.Shemusthavegoneforherownreasons.

6Writeoutthesentenceswhichcontainacoordinatingconjunction,underliningeachofthecoordinatingconjunctions.

Thegirlsandboysgointotheschoolbydifferententrances.Youcanhaveeitherteaorcoffee.I’llwaittilltheyturnup.Wedecidednottogobecauseoftherain.Shewasveryoldbutingoodhealth.Iknowwhentoleave.Didyouoryourbrotherseeyourmotherbeforeyouleftforschool?IgetangrywheneverIcatchsightofhim.Heishard-workingandexperienced.Sheiseitherhiscousinorhisaunt,I’mnotsurewhich.Heforgotwhathesaid.Ifhedoesthathe’llbesacked.UsuallytheygotoFranceforthesummerbuttheyaregoingtoItalythisyear.Heaskedhertomarryhimandsheaccepted.Hecycledtoworkinordertogetfit.Theycanrentanapartmentortheycanstayinabudgethotel.

7Underlinethesubordinatingconjunctionsinthefollowingsentences.

Werealizedthathewasquiteill.Shesangwhileheplayedthepiano.Althoughheisverytalentedhehasbeenunabletofindajob.Ifyouleavenowyouwillgetthelastbus.I’lltellthemthegoodnewsassoonasIseethem.I’llgettherebeforedinnerprovidedthetrafficisnottooheavy.Afterdinnerhewassotiredthathefellasleepinhischair.Whilesheishighlyacademicallyqualified,shehasverylittleexperience.Sinceit’srainingveryheavilythebeachpicnicwillhavetobecancelled.She’sbeengoingtothatseasideresortsinceshewasachild.We’llsetoutassoonasitstopsraining.WhydidshegoIwonder?Thestudentswon’tpasstheexamsunlesstheystudyhard.

ANSWERS6

1Shewasverypretty.Hewassmartlydressed.Heutterlyadoresher.Sheenjoyedhertimeatuniversitytremendously.Hewasonceasupremelysuccessfulchef.Heactedimpulsivelyandfoolishly.Shewasnotinaverypatientmood.Wegotothecinemaregularly.Theyrarelymeet.Iusuallygotoworkbytrain.Shestampedherfootimpatiently.

2adverbsofdurationpermanently,briefly,temporarily,indefinitelyadverbsoffrequencynever,constantly,forever,seldom,often

3Imetheraccidentallyonthewaytothestation.Hewoneasilyandwentontothenextround.Youmustproceedcarefullyandbeawareofthedanger.Sheactedfoolishlywithoutthinking.

Helefthisjobquitesuddenlyinapanic.Youhavetodecidequicklyifyouwantthejob.

4Istayedthereforsixmonths.Sheisapersonofconsiderablewealth.Shedidtheshoppingduringherlunchhour.Theyliveinthehousewiththegreendoor.Iwillpaybycheque.Themoneyisonthekitchentable.Theworkmanisuptheladder.Shestudiesduringtheevening.I’mleavingafterbreakfast.Ifweleavenowwe’llgettherebeforethebus.Shedirectedtheremarkathim.Shethoughthewasthemanofherdreams.

5MycolleaguewasillandsoIwenttotheconferenceinsteadofher.Hehadtotakeearlyretirementonaccountofhisillhealth.Hewontheraceinspiteofhisinjuredback.Theunionleaderisgoingtotalktomanagementonbehalfofalltheworkers.Youcangettherebymeansofpublictransport,butitwilltakealongtime.Sheresignedbecauseofacutestress.

6Thegirlsandboysgointotheschoolbydifferententrances.Youcanhaveeitherteaorcoffee.Shewasveryoldbutingoodhealth.Didyouoryourbrotherseeyourmotherbeforeyouleftforschool?Heishard-workingandexperienced.Sheiseitherhiscousinorhisaunt,I’mnotsurewhich.UsuallytheygotoFranceforthesummerbuttheyaregoingtoItalythisyear.Heaskedhertomarryhimandsheaccepted.Theycanrentanapartmentortheycanstayinabudgethotel.

7Werealizedthathewasquiteill.Shesangwhileheplayedthepiano.Althoughheisverytalentedhehasbeenunabletofindajob.

Ifyouleavenowyouwillgetthelastbus.I’lltellthemthegoodnewsassoonasIseethem.I’llgettherebeforedinnerprovidedthetrafficisnottooheavy.Afterdinnerhewassotiredthathefellasleepinhischair.Whilesheishighlyacademicallyqualified,shehasverylittleexperience.Sinceit’srainingveryheavily,thebeachpicnicwillhavetobecancelled.She’sbeengoingtothatseasideresortsinceshewasachild.We’llsetoutassoonasitstopsraining.WhydidshegoIwonder?Thestudentswon’tpasstheexamsunlesstheystudyhard.

PUNCTUATION

THEIMPORTANCEOFPUNCTUATION

Punctuation is theuseofcertainestablishedmarks(punctuationmarks)orsymbolswithinapieceofwritten text.Punctuationpreventsapieceof text frombeing justa stringofwordsbybreakingup thestringofwordsintomeaningfulunitsandbymakingthetextmorefluent.Basically,punctuationmarkscanbeseenassymbolswhichareusedtoseparateandjoinunitsoflanguageintoacohesivetext.

Modernwriterstendtopunctuatemuchmorelightlythantheiroldercounterpartsdid.Thisgoeshandin hand with the modern tendency to use less formal language and a plainer style. However, theimportance of punctuation, even in these less formal modern times, should not be underestimated.Appropriatepunctuationcreatesorderinwhatmightotherwisebeapieceoflinguisticconfusion.

The important punctuation marks are the full stop, question mark, exclamation mark, comma,brackets,dash,semicolon,colon,hyphen,quotationmarks,apostrophe, asterisk, three-dot ellipsisandtheoblique.

Fullstop

Thefullstop,alsocalledperiod,isapunctuationmarkconsistingofasmalldot(.).Itisoneofthemostimportant punctuationmarks and themost emphatic, because itsmain function is tomark the end of asentence and so separate one sentence from another. Only sentences that are either questions orexclamations(seeQuestionsandExclamations)donotendinafullstop.Instead,theyendrespectivelyinaquestionmarkoranexclamationmark.Thefollowingareexamplesofsentencesendinginafullstop:

Thechildrenbehavedverywell.Theyaregettingmarriednextweek.Wearemovinghousesoon.Thecarbrokedown.Youcanchoosetherestaurant.Iwentbybus.

NB:ThestopThefullstopisalsousedtomarktheendofagroupofwordswhichisnotactuallyasentence,butwhichiscompleteinitself,asinthefollowingunderlinedwords.

‘Whendoweleave?’‘Tomorrowmorning.’

ThefullstopandabbreviationsThe full stop has another function. It is usedwith certain types ofabbreviation, although themoderntendency,particularlyinBritishEnglish,istousefullstopswithabbreviationsfarlessthanwasformerlythe case. For example, abbreviations involving initial capital letters are generallywrittenwithout fullstops,especiallyinBritishEnglish,asTUC,BBC,USA.Insuchcasesfullstopsshoulddefinitelynotbeusedifoneorsomeoftheinitiallettersdonotbelongtoafullword,asTV.TV is theabbreviationfortelevisionandtheletterVissimplytheinitialletterofthesecondsyllableoftheword,notthatofanewword.

There are usually no full stops in abbreviations involving the first and last letters of a word(contractions),asDr,Rd,St, butwhether theyareusedornot canbeamatterof taste.The importantthing is tobeconsistent inwhetheryouuse fullstopsornot in suchcases.Abbreviations involving thefirst fewlettersofawordare themost likely tohave fullstops,as inFeb. forFebruaryandSept. forSeptember.

Thefullstopinemailandwebsiteaddresses

Thefullstopisalsousedinemailaddressessuchas

sample.name@sampleaddress.co.uk

andinwebsiteaddressessuchas

www.sample-url.com

In these cases the inclusion of the full stops and their correct placing are necessary to send the emailsuccessfullyoraccessthewebsite.

Questionmark

Thequestionmark(?)issometimesalsoknownasthequeryanditisusedtomarktheendofasentencewhichasksaquestion(see1).Thefollowingsentencesareallquestionsendinginaquestionmark:

Wherearewe?Isthattherighttime?Whoisthat?Whydidtheyleavesoearly?Doeshealwaysbehavesobadly?Wouldyoupassmethesalt,please?CanIhelpyou?Whosecoatisthis?

NB:WritingquestionsItisnotrecommendedtousemorethanonequestionmarkattheendofasentence.

When writing college essays or literary interpretations it may be tempting to interperse yourwritingwithquestions,asin:

‘SowhatdowelearnfromWordsworth’sviewofnature?’

Thisistooinformalforasuchacomposition.Itisbettertowrite:

‘WhatwelearnfromWordsworth’sviewofnatureis...’

Exclamationmark

Theexclamationmark(!)isusedtomarktheendofanexclamationorsometimesadirective(see1)).Thefollowingsentencesareallexclamationsordirectivesendinginanexclamationmark:

Run!Saveme!Whatabeautifulday!Howmarvellous!Welldone!Youmustbejoking!Ouch!Letmego!

NB:Watchout!Becarefulnottooverusetheexclamationmark.Itiseasytodoso,particularlyinapieceofinformalEnglish.Oneisenoughatthecloseofasentence.Overuseofsuchsentenceswithinapieceofwritingcandetractfromthepotentialdramaticeffectoftheoccasionaluseofthemark.

It is common forpeople tooveruse exclamationmarks in emails, because the communication isofteninformalandbecauseweareoftentryingtoconveypointsofviewandemotionsthatwewouldnotnormallybedoinginaformalpieceofwriting.

Capitalletter

Capitallettersarenottechnicallyspeakingpunctuationmarks,buttheiruseissocloselyassociatedwiththeuseofthefullstop,andwiththequestionmarkandexclamationmark that itmakessense to treattheir use here. Just as a sentence ends with a full stop or, occasionally, with a question mark orexclamationmark,soitalwaysbeginswithacapitalletter.Theoppositeofacapitalletterisalower-caseletter.Capitallettersareusedinanumberofsituations:

Acapital letter isusedas the initial letterof thefirstwordofa sentenceoradirectquotation,as inTheyleftearly.andHesaidweakly,‘Idon’tfeelverywell.’

Acapitalletterisalwaysusedastheinitialletterofanameorpropernoun,asinMaryBrown,SouthAmerica,Rome,speakItalian,BuddhismandMarxism.

Acapitalletterisalsousedastheinitialletterofthemainwordsinthetitlesofpeople,placesorworksofart,asinthefollowing:

UncleFred,ProfessorJones,ElyCathedral,EdinburghUniversity,GlasgowCaledonianUniversity,reading Wuthering Heights, watching a production of Guys and Dolls, listen to Beethoven’s ThirdSymphonyandbuyacopyof‘ThePotatoEaters’byvanGogh.

Theyarealsousedinthetitlesofwarsandhistorical,culturalandgeologicalperiods,asintheWarsof theRoses, theRenaissanceand the IceAge.Only themajorwordsof titles,etc,beginwithcapitalletters.Words,suchasthe,on,of,etc,areinlower-caseletters,asTheMillontheFloss.

Acapital letter is used as the initial letter of the days of theweek,months of the year, and religiousfestivals,asMonday,October,Easter,YomKippur. It isamatterofchoicewhether theseasonsof theyeararegivencapitallettersornot,asinspring/Spring,autumn/Autumn.

Acapital letter is used as the initial letter ofGod,Allah or JesusChrist, or similarwords.When apronounisusedtorefertoGodorChristthepronounbeginswithaninitialcapitalletter,asGodasksustotrustinHim.

AcapitalletterisalwaysusedastheinitialletterofanounthatisatradenameasinPeugeot,Xerox,Hoover.

Whenverbsareformedfromsuchnouns,theyareusuallyspeltwithaninitiallower-caseletter (seebelow),asinxeroxtheletterandhooverthecarpet.

Lower-caseletterTheoppositeofacapitalletterisalower-caseletter,alsoknowninformallyassmall letter.Lower-caselettersareusedformostwordsinthelanguage.Itiscapitallettersthatareexceptionalintheiruse.

EXERCISES7

1 Rewrite the following passages, inserting the appropriate punctuation mark at the end of eachsentence.

aOuchIslippedontheiceandhurtmyankleIcanhardlywalkDoyouthinkmyanklecouldbebrokenPerhapsI’dbettergetadoctortohavealookatitCouldyoupossiblytakemetothehospitalinyourcar ifyou’ve timeItshouldn’t takevery long,should it It’snot farIfyou’re inahurryyoucanjustdropmeoutsidethehospitalandleaveI’llphonemyparentsfromthehospitalandthey’llcomeandgetme

bIsthattherighttimeIt’smuchlaterthanIthoughtandwesimplymustn’tmissthenineo’clocktrainIt’sthelastonetonightIsn’tthatitstandingattheplatformComeonRunWemayjustcatchitifwe’reluckyWemadeitjustintimeThankgoodnessWe’dbetterphonehometosaywe’reonourwayorMumwillbeworriedYouknowwhatshe’slike

cIdon’tknowmanypeopleatthispartyThatmanovertherelooksfamiliar,thoughDoyouknowwhoheisIseemtorecognizethewomanhe’swithaswellWhocanshebeWhere’sourhostI’lljustgoandaskhimwhotheyareIdon’tseethemanymoreHavetheygoneHowannoyingNevermindIprobablydidn’tknowthemanywayTheyprobablyjustlookedlikesomeotherpeopleIknow

2Rewritethefollowingpassagesreplacingalower-caseletterwithacapitalletterwhereyouthinkthisisappropriate.

ait’ssaturdaytodayandwe’regoingshopping.christmasisonlytwoweeksawayandwe’vestillgotalotofgiftstobuy,althoughweboughtquiteafewinnovember.wewanttofindsomethingspecialformy sister anne. she’s beenworking in south africa andwe haven’t seen her since easter last year.anne’sarrivingatheathrownexttuesdayandmybrotherjohnandIaregoingtotheairporttomeether.weliveinlondonandsowedon’thavefartogo,althoughwe’llprobablygetcaughtupintrafficjams.

bTheyallteachenglishatamericanuniversitiesandthey’vecometobritaintoattendaconferenceinoxford.aftertheconferenceendsthey’replanningtogoonabrief tourofbritain.They’llstartwithstratford and they have tickets for performances of shakespeare’s king lear and twelfth night. Thenthey’regoingto londonandplantogoonarivercruiseonthethamesbeforegoingto the toweroflondonandwindsor castle. after that they’re going to go to canterbury and then to ely to visit thecathedralstherebeforetravellinguptoscotlandtoattendsomeoftheeventsattheedinburghfestivalinaugust.theyhopetohavetimetogotothevariousartexhibitions,particularlytheonefeaturingtheimpressionists.

ANSWERS7

1aOuch! I slipped on the ice and hurtmy ankle. I can hardly walk.Do you thinkmy ankle could bebroken?PerhapsI’dbettergetadoctortohavealookatit.Couldyoupossiblytakemetothehospitalinyourcarifyou’vetime?Itshouldn’ttakeverylong,shouldit?It’snotfar.Ifyou’reinahurryyoucan justdropmeoutside thehospitaland leave. I’llphonemyparents fromthehospitaland they’llcomeandgetme.

bIsthattherighttime?It’smuchlaterthanIthoughtandwesimplymustn’tmissthenineo’clocktrain.It’sthelastonetonight.Isn’tthatitstandingattheplatform?Comeon!Run!Wemayjustcatchitifwe’relucky.Wemadeitjustintime.Thankgoodness!We’dbetterphonehometosaywe’reonourwayorMumwillbeworried.Youknowwhatshe’slike.

cIdon’tknowmanypeopleatthisparty.Thatmanovertherelooksfamiliar,though.Doyouknowwhoheis?Iseemtorecognizethewomanhe’swithaswell.Whocanshebe?Where’sourhost?I’lljustgoandaskhimwhotheyare.Idon’tseethemanymore.Havetheygone?Howannoying!Nevermind!Iprobablydidn’tknowthemanyway.TheyprobablyjustlookedlikesomeotherpeopleIknow.

2aIt’sSaturdaytodayandwe’regoingshopping.Christmasisonlytwoweeksawayandwe’vestillgotalotofgiftstobuy,althoughweboughtquiteafewinNovember.Wewanttofindsomethingspecialformy sisterAnne. She’s beenworking in SouthAfricaandwehaven’t seenher sinceEaster last year.Anne’sarrivingatHeathrownextTuesdayandmybrotherJohnandIaregoingtotheairporttomeether.WeliveinLondonandsowedon’thavefartogo,althoughwe’llprobablygetcaughtupintrafficjams.

bTheyallteachEnglishatAmericanuniversitiesandthey’vecometoBritaintoattendaconferenceinOxford.Aftertheconferenceendsthey’replanningtogoonabrieftourofBritain.They’llstartwithStratfordandtheyhaveticketsforperformancesofShakespeare’sKingLearandTwelfthNight.Thenthey’regoingtoLondonandplantogoonarivercruiseontheThamesbeforegoingtotheTowerofLondonandWindsorCastle.Afterthatthey’regoingtogotoCanterburyandthentoElytovisitthecathedrals there before travelling up to Scotland to attend some of the events at the EdinburghFestival inAugust.Theyhope tohave time togo to thevariousartexhibitions,particularly theonefeaturingtheImpressionists.

Comma

Acomma(,)isanextremelycommonpunctuationmarkandyettheuseofcommascausesagreatdealofconcernandconfusioninmanypeople.Thisispartlybecausetheuseofcommashaschangedquiteabitinrecenttimes.

Inmodernusagethereisatendencytoadoptasystemofminimalpunctuationandoneofthecasualtiesof thischangehasbeen thecomma.Mostpeopleuse thecommaconsiderably less frequently thanwasformerlythecase.

Thecommahastwomajorfunctions,thatoflinkingandseparating.

ThecommaasseparatingdeviceinlistsOneof thecommonseparating functionsof thecomma concerns lists.The individual items in a list ofthree or more items are separated by commas.Whether a comma is put before the word and whichfollowsthesecond-lastitemisnowamatterofchoice.Somepeopledisliketheuseofthecommainthissituation,sometimescalledtheOxfordcommaorserialcomma,and,indeed,itwasformerlyconsideredwrong.However,ithasbecomeverycommoninBritishEnglishandisevenmorecommoninAmericanEnglish.Itisbesttoinsertsuchacommaifthereisanypossibilityofconfusionarisingfromitsomission.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsformlistscontainingcommas:

Atthesportsclubwecanplaytennis,squash,badmintonandtabletennis.Weneedtobuybread,milk,fruitandsugar.TheyarestudyingFrench,German,SpanishandRussian.Weopenedthedoor,letourselvesin,fedthecatandstartedtocookameal.

ThecommaasaseparatingdeviceinalistofadjectivesIncaseswherethereisalistofadjectivesbeforeanoun, theuseofcommasbetweentheadjectives isnowoptionalalthoughitwasformerlystandardpractice.Thusthesentences

Sheworealong,red,sequinneddress.andSheworealongredsequinneddress.

are both considered correct these days.When the adjective immediately before the noun has a closerrelationshipwithitthantheotheradjectives,andindeedoftenhelpstodefinethenoun,nocommashouldbeusedbeforethatadjective,asinthesentences

Wewanttobuysomelargejuicygreenpeppers.andTheyliveinabeautifuloldfishingvillage.

Itwouldbequitewrongtoplaceacommabeforethewordgreeninthefirstsentenceorbeforethewordfishinginthesecondsentence.

NB:LastiteminalistConfusionmay arise if the last item in the list contains theword and used in its own right as anessentialpartofthesentence,asin:

Inthepubtheyservedhamsalad,shepherd’spie,omelette,andpieandchips.

Insuchcasesitaswelltoputacommabeforethefinalconnectingandtoavoidconfusion.

Ifthelistofitemsisaverylongoneortheitemsinthelistconsistofseveralwordsasemi-colonissometimesusedinsteadofacomma(seesemicolon).

CommasandrelativeclausesCommasarenotnormallyusedtoseparatemainclausesandrelativeclauses(see2),wheretherelativeclauseisanessentialpartofthesentenceandnotanadditionalpieceofinformation,asin:

ThewomanwhomImetwasafriend’ssister.

Inotherwords,adefiningrelativeclauseisnotseparatedfromthemainclausebyacomma.However,commasareusedtoseparatethemainclausefromarelativeclausewhichisnotrequiredto

identifythepersonorthingthatyouaretalkingabout,butwhichissimplygivingadditionalinformation,asin:

Myfather,wholivedinLondon,diedearlylastyear.

Inotherwords,where anon-definingrelativeclause divides theparts of amain clause the clause isplacedwithincommas.

CommasandsubordinateclausesCommasarenotnowusuallyusedtoseparatemainclausesandsubordinateclauses(see3,4)asin:

HeleftwhenwearrivedandTheycametothepartyalthoughwedidn’texpectthemto.

However,ifthesubordinateclauseprecedesthemainclause,itissometimesfollowedbyacomma.Thisisespeciallytrueifitisareasonablylongclause,asin:

Althoughwestoppedandthoughtaboutitforquitealongtime,westillmadethewrongdecision.

Iftheclauseisquiteshort,acommaisnotusuallyinserted,asin:

Althoughitrainedwehadagoodholiday.and

Ifyougoyouwillregretit.

Thecommaisneverusedtoseparateamainclausefromaclausebeginningwiththat,asinIknewverywellthatIwasright.

However,asisthecasewithalllists,commasareusedtoseparateclausesbeginningwiththatifthereareseveralofthem,asin:

Policeknowthatthebankrobberswerearmed,thattheyworebalaclavastoconcealtheirfaces,thattheywereallofmediumheightandthattheyescapedinabluetransitvan.

NB:ToavoidconfusionIt is important to insert a comma between a subordinate clause and a main clause if doing sopreventsanypossibilityofconfusion.

For example, confusion can arise when a subordinate clause ends with a verb and the followingclausebeginswithanoun,asin:

Afterthepupilshadfinishedreading,thebookswerereturnedtotheschoollibrary.

Heretheuseofthecommaisanaidtoclarity.OtherwiseyoucouldreadthefirstpartofthesentenceasAfterthepupilshadfinishedreadingthebooks...

ThecommaasaseparatingdeviceinclausesjoinedbycoordinatingconjunctionsAcommamaybeusedtoseparatemainclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunction(see3)butthisisnotusualiftheclauseshavethesamesubjectandthecoordinatingconjunctionisand,asinSheswepttheflooranddustedthetable.

Incaseswherethesubjectsaredifferentandtheclausesarefairlylong,itisbesttoinsertacomma,asinThey tookwith themall the furnitureandappliancesandanythingofanyvalue,andshewas leftwithnothing.

Whenthecoordinatingconjunctionisbut, theuseofacommatomarkoff themainclauseismoreamatterofchoice,especiallywhenbothclausesarequitelong.

NB:ToavoidrepetitionAcommacanbeinsertedtoavoidrepeatingaverbinthesecondoftwoclauses,asin:

Heplaysgolfandtennis,hisbrotherrugby.

Thecommaasseparatingdevicewithinitialphrases

Acommaisoftenusedtoseparateanadverboranadverbialphraseatthebeginningofasentencefrom

therestofthesentence,aswithHoweverin:

Theweatherwasnotgreatanditrainedalot.However,wehadaninterestingandenjoyableholiday.

Nowadays, the use of a comma in such situations is sometimes considered optional. However, it isessentialtoinsertacommaifthereisanypossibilityofconfusion.

Forexample,inthesentence

Normally,intelligentstudentswillattendtheirlecturesonaregularbasis.

themeaning is changed slightly by the omission of the comma.The longer the expression is, themorelikelyitistoneedacommaafterit,asin:

Afteragreatdealofconsideration,Idecidedtoaccepttheinvitation.

ThecommawithtermsofaddressCommasarealwaysusedtoseparatetermsofaddressfromtherestofthesentence,asinthefollowingsentences:

Mary,I’mafraidIhavesomebadnewsforyouaboutyourproposedholiday.Pleasecomethisway,MrsBrown.Thanksalot,John.Now,ladies,whatcanIgetyou?Right,James,I’mreadytoleavenow.DoctorJones,Ihaveanimportantcallforyou.

ThecommawithtagquestionsThecommaisusedtoseparateatagquestionfromtherestofasentence,asinthefollowingsentences:

It’sabeautifulday,isn’tit?Youdolovehim,don’tyou?Hestillsmokes,doesn’the?She’snothappy,isshe?Wecanstillgo,can’twe?They’vewonagain,haven’tthey?Itisn’trainingagain,isit?

ThecommawithinterjectionsThecommaisusedtoseparateaninterjectionfromtherestofasentence,asinthefollowingsentences:

Look,there’sthetraincoming.Heavens,I’veneverseensuchheavyrain!Wait,she’sherenow!

Gosh,I’mgoingtobelate!

ThecommausedinpairsasameansofseparationorparenthesisThecommaisusedinpairstoseparatephrasesorwordsthatarenaturallycutofffromthemainsenseoftherestofthesentence,asiftheywereadditionalthoughtsorqualificationstowhatisbeingsaidintherestofthesentence,asin:

Theprojectwas,onthewhole,successful.

Insuchasentencetheclausewithinthecommascanberemovedwithoutalteringthebasicmeaning.Inthisrespecttheuseofapairofcommasresemblestheuseofbrackets.

Theunderlinedexpressionsinthefollowingsentencesillustratethisuseofthecomma:

Jim,sensibleasever,toldthembothtotalkthingsover.Myfirstimpressionofhim,tobehonest,wasnotveryfavourable.Werealized,nevertheless,thatwecouldstillfaceproblems.Iknew,ofcourse,thatsomethingmightstillgowrong.Iknewalltoowell,infact,thathewasnottellingthetruth.

NB:UsebothcommasCareshouldbetakentoincludebothcommas.Itiseasytoforgettoincludethesecondoneofthepair.

ThecommawithnounsorphrasesinappositionAnounornounphraseissaidtobeinappositionwhenitisplacednexttoanothernounornounphraseandprovidesfurtherinformationaboutit,especiallybysayingsomethingthatidentifiesordescribesthem.Insuchasituation,themainnounorphraseandtheamplifyingnounorphraserefertothesamepersonorthing.

When such a noun or noun phrase is placed after themain noun or noun phrase in the sentence, acommaisalmostalwaysplacedafterthemainnounornounphrasetoseparateitfromtheamplifyingnounornounphrase,asin:

DanJones,thewell-knownracingdriver,hasbeeninvolvedinaseriouscaraccident.

However,whentheamplifyingnounornounphraseisplacedbeforethemainnounornounphraseitisnowusualtoomitthecommabetweenthemwhenthenounphrasesinvolvedareveryshort,asin:

MysonMikeliveswithus.andThesingerJoanGreengaveashortrecital.

Whenthenounphrasesinvolvedarequitelong,itisbesttoincludethecomma,asin:

Thepersonwhosuggestedthescheme,JimBlunt,hasnowleftthecompany.

Inthefollowingsentencestheunderlinedwordsareinapposition:

JackBlair,ourmanagingdirector,hasresigned.SueBrown,leaderoftheprotestcampaign,hasgivenastatementtothepress.PeterShaw,mycousin’shusband,isrepresentingthefamily.MikeBlack,ourlocalLabourMP,hasstatedhisoppositiontothescheme.Theheadofthelocalprimaryschool,JaneLewis,isverymuchinfavourofimprovedsportsfacilities.Myelderbrother’slatestgirlfriend,LizGrant,isquiteafamousfashionmodel.ThewriterLouWilsonisgivingatalkatthelocalbookshoptonight.HerhusbandPeteisaveryniceman.

ThecommaandnumbersAcommaisusedwhenwritinganumberthatismadeupoffourormorefigures,asin:

£45,00012,000kilometres1,000.

However,thisisnotthecasewithadate,asin:

10661984.

EXERCISES8

Insertcommaswherethisisappropriateinthefollowingpassages.

1Mary’ssonMarkisabrilliantlinguistandworksasaninterpreter.HespeaksfluentFrenchGermanSpanishandRussianandhasagoodknowledgeofDanishNorwegianandSwedish.HiswifeMariawho is Spanish used to teach at the local senior school before the birth of the first of their fourchildren.JohnBrowntheheadteachertheresaysthatshewasanexcellentteacherandhewouldlikehertogobacktowork.Marialovesteachingandofcoursewouldliketogetheroldjobback.Sadlythecostofchildcarein

theareaisextremelyexpensive.InadditionMarkhastotravelalotinconnectionwithhisworkandcannothelpmuchwith lookingafter thechildren.Markcaringaseverwould like tohelpmoreandspendmoretimewiththechildrenbutthisissimplynotpossible.Maria’smotherwholiveswiththemistoofrailtotakecareoffouractivechildrenandsoMaria

will have to postpone going back to work for a while. She sometimes talks about taking on someprivatepupilswhoare inneedofspecial tutoring tohelp thempass theirexams.Thison thewholesoundslikeaverygoodidea.

2‘PleasesitdownhereMrSmith.DrBlackwillseeyounext.MrsWilsonDrJoneswillseeyounow.Canyoumanageallright?It’ssodifficulttowalkoncrutchesuntilyougetusedtothemisn’tit?Stillyour leg seems to be healing nicely doesn’t it? Ms Black Dr Martin is off ill. I’ve given you anappointmentwithDrBlairwho’sactingasalocumwhileDrMartinisoff.Ihopeyourcoldisabitbetter.Thiscoldweather’sdoesn’thelpdoesit?Lookit’sstartedsnowing.TakecareMrsWilson!Thepavementsmaybequiteslipperyandyoucertainlydon’twanttofallagaindoyou?’

3We’vejuststartedaliterarysocietyinthevillageandwe’vealreadygotquiteafewmembers.MyauntwhohasjustmovedhereisthepresidentofthesocietyandIamthesecretary.ItinvolvesmoreworkthanIthoughtitwouldbutneverthelessIamenjoyingit.Sometimesweinviteaspeakertoaddressthesocietysometimesoneofthesocietymembersgivesa

talkandsometimeswejusthaveaninformaldiscussion.Thereareseveralpeopleamongthememberswho haveworked in publishing andwe also have somememberswho are professionalwriters.Forexample Bill Jackson the society’s treasurer is quite a well-known travel writer and his wife JeanJacksonwhowritesunderthepseudonymJennyAdamsismakingquiteanameforherselfasacrimewriter.Alaswe have been unable to persuadeMarkHillwriter of several very successful novels about

espionagetojointhesociety.Hesaysthatheistoobusywithhiswritingandinadditionhetravelsalot.Stillwehavequiteenoughmemberstohaveasuccessfulsociety.

ANSWERS8

1Mary’ssonMarkisabrilliantlinguistandworksasaninterpreter.HespeaksfluentFrench,German,SpanishandRussianandhasagoodknowledgeofDanish,NorwegianandSwedish.HiswifeMaria,who is Spanish, used to teach at the local senior school before the birth of the first of their fourchildren.JohnBrown,theheadteacherthere,saysthatshewasanexcellentteacherandhewouldlikehertogobacktowork.Marialovesteachingand,ofcourse,wouldliketogetheroldjobback.Sadly,thecostofchildcare

intheareaisextremelyexpensive.Inaddition,Markhastotravelalot inconnectionwithhisworkandcannothelpmuchwithlookingafterthechildren.Mark,caringasever,wouldliketohelpmoreandspendmoretimewiththechildren,butthisissimplynotpossible.Maria’smother,wholiveswiththem,istoofrailtotakecareoffouractivechildrenandsoMaria

will have to postpone going back to work for a while. She sometimes talks about taking on someprivatepupilswhoareinneedofspecialtutoringtohelpthempasstheirexams.This,onthewhole,soundslikeaverygoodidea.

2‘Pleasesitdownhere,MrSmith.DrBlackwillseeyounext.MrsWilson,DrJoneswillseeyounow.Canyoumanageallright?It’ssodifficulttowalkoncrutchesuntilyougetusedtothem,isn’tit?Still,your leg seems to be healing nicely, doesn’t it?Ms Black, DrMartin is off ill. I’ve given you anappointmentwithDrBlairwho’sactingasalocumwhileDrMartinisoff.Ihopeyourcoldisabitbetter.Thiscoldweather’sdoesn’thelp,doesit?Look,it’sstartedsnowing.Takecare,MrsWilson!Thepavementsmaybequiteslipperyandyoucertainlydon’twanttofallagain,doyou?’

3We’ve just started a literary society in the village andwe’ve already got quite a fewmembers.Myaunt,whohasjustmovedhere,isthepresidentofthesocietyandIamthesecretary.ItinvolvesmoreworkthanIthoughtitwould,but,nevertheless,Iamenjoyingit.Sometimesweinviteaspeakertoaddressthesociety,sometimesoneofthesocietymembersgivesa

talkandsometimeswejusthaveaninformaldiscussion.Thereareseveralpeopleamongthememberswho haveworked in publishing andwe also have somememberswho are professionalwriters.Forexample,Bill Jackson, the society’s treasurer, is quiteawell-known travelwriterandhiswife JeanJackson,whowritesunderthepseudonymJennyAdams,ismakingquiteanameforherselfasacrimewriter.Alas,wehavebeenunable topersuadeMarkHill,writerof severalverysuccessfulnovelsabout

espionage,tojointhesociety.Hesaysthatheistoobusywithhiswritingand,inaddition,hetravelsalot.Still,wehavequiteenoughmemberstohaveasuccessfulsociety.

Brackets

Brackets,incommonwithapairofcommasorapairofdashes,areusedtoencloseinformationthatisinsomewayadditionaltoamainstatement.Theinformationsoenclosedissaidtobeinparenthesisandthepairofbracketsenclosing itcanbeknownasparentheses.The information that isenclosed in thebrackets is purely supplementary or explanatory in nature and could be removedwithout changing theoverallbasicmeaningorgrammaticalcompletenessofthestatement.

Brackets,likecommasanddashes,interrupttheflowofthemainstatementbutbrackets indicateamore definite or clear-cut interruption. The fact that they are more visually obvious emphasizes this.Materialwithinbracketscanbeoneword,asinthefollowingsentences:

Inalocalwinebarwehadsomedeliciouscrepes(pancakes)andTheydidn’thavethechutzpah(nerve)tochallengeher.

Materialwithinbracketscanalsotaketheformofdates,asinthefollowingsentences:

RobertLouisStevenson(1850–94)wroteTreasureIsland.andAnimalFarmwaswrittenbyGeorgeOrwell(1903–50).

Thematerialwithinbrackets(see1)canalsotaketheformofaphrase,asinthefollowingsentences:

Theyservedlasagne(akindofpasta)andsomedeliciousveal.andTheyweredrinkingCalvados(akindofbrandymadefromapples).

Thematerialwithinbracketscanalsotaketheformofaclause,asinthefollowingsentences:

Weweretohavesupper(orsotheycalledit)laterintheevening.andTheywentforawalkroundtheloch(asalakeiscalledinScotland)beforetakingtheirdeparture.

The material within brackets can also take the form of a complete sentence, as in the followingsentences:

Hewasdetermined(wedon’tknowwhy)totackletheproblemalone.andShemadeitclear(nothingcouldbemoreclear)thatshewasnotinterestedintheoffer.

Sentencesthatappearinbracketsinthemiddleofasentencearenotusuallygivenaninitialcapitalletterorafullstop,asinthefollowingsentence:

Theyverymuchdesired(shehadnoideawhy)topurchaseherhouse.

If thematerialwithinbrackets comes at the end of a sentence the full stop comes outside the secondbracket,asinthefollowingsentence:

Forsomereasonweagreedtovisitherathome(wehadnoideawhereshelived).

If thematerial inbrackets is a sentencewhichcomesbetween twoother sentences it is treated likeanormalsentencewithaninitialcapitalletterandaclosingfullstop,asinthefollowingsentences:

Heneverseemstodoanystudying.(Heisalwayseitherasleeporwatchingtelevision.)Still,hedoesbrilliantlyinhisexams.

Punctuation of the main statement is unaffected by the presence of the brackets and their enclosedmaterial,exceptthatanypunctuationthatwouldhavefollowedthewordbeforethefirstbracketfollowsthesecondbracket,asinthefollowingsentence:

HelivesinLondon(Iamnotsureexactlywhere),thoughhisfamilyliveinFrance.

Therearevariousshapesofbrackets.Roundbracketsarethemostcommontype.Squarebracketsaresometimesusedtoencloseinformationthatiscontainedinsideotherinformationalreadyinbrackets,asinthefollowingsentence:

(ChristopherMarlowe[1564–93]wasacontemporaryofShakespeare).

Squarebracketsarealsosometimesused toenclose information that iscontained inapieceofwritingwhere round brackets have already been used for some other purpose. Thus, in a dictionary if roundbracketsareusedtoseparateoffthepronunciation,squarebracketsaresometimesusedtoseparateofftheetymologies.

Squarebracketsarealsousedforeditorialcommentsinascholarlyworkwherethematerialwithinbracketsconsistsofaneditorialcommentorexpanationwithinaquotationbyanotherauthor.Theycanalsobeusedinscholarlywritingtoindicatewordsorphrasesthathavebeenalteredbytheauthorinaquotationbyanotherwriter.

Dash

Thedash(see1),writtenas—(emdash,usedcloseupto text)or–(endash,withaspaceoneitherside),takestheformofashortline,resemblinganextendedhyphen(-).Thedashindicatesashortbreakin the continuity of a sentence or it is used to extend a sentence. It often serves the same purpose asbracketsexceptthatitisusuallyconsideredtobemuchlessformal.Thedashfulfilsvariousfunctions,asexplainedbelow.

Thedashcanbeusedtoemphasizeawordorphrase,asin:

Theypartedcompanythen—forever.

Thedashcanalsobeusedtoaddaremarktotheendofasentence,asin:

Theyhadnomoneyattheendofthemonth—aregularstateofaffairswiththisextravagantcouple.

Thedashcanalsobeusedtointroduceastatementthataddstoorexplainswhathasbeensaid,asin:

Theburglartookeverythingofvalue—paintings,jewellery,silverwareandseveralthousandpoundsinmoney.

Thedashcanalsobeusedasalinkingdevicetosumupwhathasgonebefore,asin:

Famine,drought,disease—thesearetheseeminglyinsuperableproblemsthatthevillagersarefacing.

Thedashcanalsobeusedtointroduceanafterthought,asin:

Youcancomewithmeifyoulike—I’dappreciateyourcompany.

Thedashcanalsobeusedtointroduceasharpchangeofsubject,asin:

I’llbewithyouinaminute—whatwasthatnoise?

Thedashcanalsobeusedtointroducesomekindofbalanceinasentence,asin:

It’sgoingtotakeatleastthreeofyoutogetthisheavytableoutofhere—oneateachendtocarryitandonetoholdthedooropen.

Thedashissometimesfoundaspartofapair.Apairofdashescanactinasimilarwaytoapairofroundbrackets(see1).Theycanbeusedtoindicateabreakincontinuityinasentence,asin:

Weprayed—prayedaswehadneverdonebefore—thatthechildrenwouldbesafe.and(showingaspacedendash)Wecametotheconclusion–afterdueconsideration–thatwehaddonethewrongthing.

NB:Don’tforgetWhenusingapairofdashesasasubstituteforapairofbracketsdonotforgettoincludetheseconddash.Itsomissionisacommonfault.

Thedashisalsousedtoindicateahesitationinspeech,asin:

Idon’tthink—well—maybe—youcouldberight.

Thedashcanalsobeusedtoindicatetheomissionofpartofawordorname,asin:

Thewitness,whoisbeingreferredtobypolicesimplyasMrsD—,hasnotyetcomeforwardandIt’snoneofyourd—business.

Inthislastsentenced—isshortfordamnedasawayofnotwritingaswearwordinfull.Theasteriskisoftenusedinthisway.

Theendashcanalsobeusedasareplacementforthewordto,asaconnectionbetweenpointsintimeorplaces,asin:

1850–1900andLondon–Paris.

NB:Dashes—don’toveruseBecarefulnottooverusethedash,especiallyinmoreformalpiecesofwriting.Itistemptingtodosowhenanotherthoughtoccurstoyouasyouwrite,butyoucanendupwithratheranunattractivepagepepperedwiththese.

Semicolon

ThesemicolonasalinkThesemicolon(;)isaratherformalformofpunctuation.It ismainlyusedbetweenclausesthatarenotjoinedbyanyformofconjunction,asin:

Wehadawonderfulholiday;sadlytheydidnot.andHewasamarvellousfriend;heismuchmissed.

Thepartbeforethesemicolonandthepartaftercouldbothbesentencesintheirownright.Thesemicolonisusedtoshowacloserlinkbetweenthetwopartsofthesentence.Ithastheforceofastrongcomma.Adash(see1)issometimesusedinstead.

ThesemicolonasaseparationdeviceinlistsThesemicolonisalsousedtoseparatetheitemsinalonglistorseriesofthingssothatthesaidlistseemslesscomplexandeasiertounderstand,asin:

Theyoungmanwhowantstobeajournalisthasappliedeverywhere.HehasappliedtoTheTimesinLondon;TheGlobeandMailinToronto;TheAgeinMelbourne;TheTribuneinChicago.

Itisalsousedinlistsinwhichtheindividualitemsarequitelong,asin:

We tried various ways to raise money. We approached the local bank manger; we asked the localcouncil foragrant;weapproachedlocalbusinessmenforacontribution;andweorganizedvariouscharityevents.

Theuseof a semicolon in this situation resembles that of thecomma, especially a particularly strongcomma,exceptthatthesemicolonismoreformalanditismorecommoninmorecomplicatedlists.

ThesemicolonasseparationdeviceinlistsofwordgroupsalreadycontainingcommasThesemicolonisalsousedtoseparateitemsinalistwhichalreadycontainsanumberofcommasintheindividualitemsinthelist,asin:

ThoseguestspresentattheweddingincludedMrandMrsBrownandtheirdaughtersMary,JaneandSue;MrandMrsLewisandtheirsonsTom,FrankandJack;MissTaylorandherniecesLiz,CarolandMeg;Ken,MikeandMarkGreene.

Touseyetmorecommastoseparatethelistofitemswouldcauseconfusion.Thus,thesemicolonisusedinsuchacontextintheinterestsofclarity.

ThesemicolonasaseparationdevicebeforecertainadverbsThesemicolonisalsosometimesusedbeforesuchadverbsashowever,nevertheless,hence,moreoverand furthermore in such situationswhere aprecedingpause is requiredbut apause that is longer andstrongerthanthatwhichcanbeprovidedbyacomma,asin:

Wehaveextraseatsfortheconcert;howeveryoumustdeciderightnowwhetheryouwantthemornot.andYournoticetoquittakeseffectimmediately;furthermore,youwillbeescortedfromthebuildingandyourpersonalbelongingsfromyourdeskwillbesentontoyou.

Colon

Thecolonasaseparatingdeviceinatwo-partsentenceThecolon(:)isapunctuationmarkthatisusedtoseparatetwopartsofasentencewhenthefirstleadsontothesecond.Thecolonisusedtoexplain,interpret,clarifyoramplifywhathasgonebeforeit,asin:

Thestandardofschoolworkhereisextremelyhigh:itisalmostuniversitystandard.andThefuelbillsaregivingcauseforconcern:theyarealmostdoublelastyear’s.andWehavesomenewinformation:theallieshavelanded.

ThecolonasalinkingdeviceorintroductionThecolonisusedtointroducealist,asin:

Therecipesaysweneed:tomatoes,peppers,courgettes,garlic,oreganoandbasil.andThe boy has a huge list of things he needs for school: blazer, trousers, shirts, sweater, ties, shoes,tennisshoes,rugbyboots,sportsclothesandleisurewear.

Thecolonisalsousedtointroduceaquotationorapieceofdirectspeech,asin:

Oneofhisfavouritequotationswas:‘Ifmusicbethefoodoflove,playon’.andThe headmaster strode on to the platform, looking solemnly at the assembled students, and hisstatementwasconcise:‘Iwillnotallowthiskindofbehaviourinmyschool.’

Thecolonissometimesusedwithnumeralsinreferencestothetimeofday,thedateandratios,asin:

7:30a.m.and22:11:72and7:3.

Thecolonisoftenusedinthetitlesofbooks,forexamplewherethereisasubtitleorexplanatorytitle,asinTheDarkYears:theEconomyinthe1930s.

Ininformalwriting,thedashissometimesusedinsteadofthecolon.Indeedthedashtendstobeoverusedforthispurpose.

EXERCISES9

1Rewritethefollowingsentences,insertingbracketsorabracketwherethisisappropriate.

aIntheFrenchrestaurantwehadragout(actuallyjustastew,buttastingnicerthananystewI’veeverhad.

bWehadquitealotofwinewithdinnerandafterwardswehadArmagnacakindofFrenchbrandy).

cWearrangedtomeetinthelargesquare(theItalianscallitapiazzainthecentreofthetown.

dTheysaythattheyareplanningtovisitusinthefallastheAmericanscallautumn.

eHewentawayquitesuddenlynooneknowswhereorwhy)someyearsagoandhasnotbeenintouchwithhisfamilysince.

fBothOliverTwistandBleakHousewerewrittenbyCharlesDickens1812–70.

g(VincentVanGogh[1853–90isoneofHolland’smostwell-knownpainters.

2Rewritethefollowingsentences,insertingadashorapairofdasheswherethisisappropriate.

aYoucancometothedinnerasmypartnerI’dlikethatverymuch.

bI’mjustgoingnowwhatdidIdowithmycarkeys?

cThedrunkdriversaidtothepolicethatwherehewasgoingwasnoneoftheirdbusiness.

dWebeggedourcaptorsbeggedthemonbendedkneetoreleaseus.

eChristopherMarlowe(156493)wasacontemporaryofShakespeare.

fWealth,power,statusthesewerethethingswhichhecravedallhislifeandtotallyfailedtoachieve.

gWewereawokenatdawnbythenoisybarkingofthedognextdooraregularoccurrencethesedays.

hI’mjustabouttoservedinnerwasthatthedoorbell?

3Rewritethefollowingsentences,insertingasemi-colonwherethisisappropriate.

aTheirbestplayerhasmovedtoanotherteamhewillbegreatlymissed.

bWedidourverybesttosavetheoldbuildingfromdemolition.WesentaletterofprotesttothecouncilwesoughtthehelpofourlocalMPwelaunchedaprotestcampaignwecollectedhundredsofsignaturesfromfellowobjectorsandwehelddemonstrationsoutsidethetownhall.

cThemembersofthechoirhadallpractisedveryhardbeforethecompetitionsadlytheycamelast.

dWevisitedmanyhistoricalsitesinBritain.WewenttotheTowerofLondontheHousesofParliamentinLondonsomeofthecollegesatOxfordDurhamCathedralthehistoricalcitiesofChesterandYork.

4Rewritethefollowingsentences,insertingacolonwherethisisappropriate.

aEconomistsareworriedabouthousepricestheyarefallingrapidly.

bI’vepackedapicniclunchforusFrenchbread,cheese,tomatoes,salad,grapes,apples,chocolate,whitewineandmineralwater.Canyouthinkofanythingelse?

cTheyhavejustreleasedthenameofthenewheadteacherJamesHunt,presentlythedeputyhead.

dThetitleofthebookisTheYearsofConflictaReassessmentoftheTwoWorldWars.

ANSWERS9

1

aIntheFrenchrestaurantwehadragout(actuallyjustastew,buttastingnicerthananystewI’veeverhad).

bWehadquitealotofwinewithdinnerandafterwardswehadArmagnac(akindofFrenchbrandy).

cWearrangedtomeetinthelargesquare(theItalianscallitapiazza)inthecentreofthetown.

dTheysaythattheyareplanningtovisitusinthefall(astheAmericanscallautumn).

eHewentawayquitesuddenly(nooneknowswhereorwhy)someyearsagoandhasnotbeenintouchwithhisfamilysince.

fBothOliverTwistandBleakHousewerewrittenbyCharlesDickens(1812–70).

g(VincentvanGogh[1853–90]isoneofHolland’smostwell-knownpainters.)

2

aYoucancometothedinnerasmypartner—I’dlikethatverymuch.

bI’mjustgoingnow—whatdidIdowithmycarkeys?

cThedrunkdriversaidtothepolicethatwherehewasgoingwasnoneoftheird—business.

dWebeggedourcaptors—beggedthemonbendedknee—toreleaseus.

eChristopherMarlowe(1564–93)wasacontemporaryofShakespeare.

fWealth,power,status—thesewerethethingswhichhecravedallhislifeandtotallyfailedtoachieve.

gWewereawokenatdawnbythenoisybarkingofthedognextdoor—aregularoccurrencethesedays.

hI’mjustabouttoservedinner—wasthatthedoorbell?

3

aTheirbestplayerhasmovedtoanotherteam;hewillbegreatlymissed.

bWedidourverybesttosavetheoldbuildingfromdemolition.Wesentaletterofprotesttothecouncil;wesoughtthehelpofourlocalMP;welaunchedaprotestcampaign;wecollectedhundredsofsignaturesfromfellowobjectors;andwehelddemonstrationsoutsidethetownhall.

cThemembersofthechoirhadallpractisedveryhardbeforethecompetition;sadlytheycamelast.

dWevisitedmanyhistoricalsitesinBritain.WewenttotheTowerofLondon;theHousesofParliamentinLondon;someofthecollegesatOxford;DurhamCathedral;thehistoricalcitiesofChesterandYork.

4

aEconomistsareworriedabouthouseprices:theyarefallingrapidly.

bI’vepackedapicniclunchforus:Frenchbread,cheese,tomatoes,salad,grapes,apples,chocolate,whitewineandmineralwater.Canyouthinkofanythingelse?

cTheyhavejustreleasedthenameofthenewheadteacher:JamesHunt,presentlythedeputyhead.

dThetitleofthebookisTheYearsofConflict:aReassessmentoftheTwoWorldWars.

Hyphen

Ahyphen(-)isusedtojointwowordstogetherortoindicatethatawordhasbeenbrokenattheendofalinebecauseoflackofspace.Itisusedinavarietyofsituations.

Thehyphen is used as the prefixed element in a proper noun, as inpre-Christian, post-Renaissance,anti-British,anti-Semitic,pro-Frenchandpro-American.

Thehyphenisalsousedinthiswaybeforedatesornumbers,asinpre-1914,pre-1066,post-1920,post-1745.

Itisalsousedinthiswaybeforeabbreviationssuchaspro-BBC,anti-EUandanti-TUC.

Thehyphen is sometimes used for clarification and to avoid confusion. Some words are ambiguouswithoutthepresenceofahyphen.Forexample,re-cover,asinre-coverachair,isspeltwithahyphentodifferentiate it fromrecover,as inTheaccidentvictim is likely torecover.Similarly, it isused inre-form,meaning‘toformagain’,asinTheyhavedecidedtore-formthesocietywhichclosedlastyeartodifferentiatethewordfromreform,meaning‘toimprove,tobecomebetterbehaved’,asinHewaswildasayoungmanbuthehasreformednow.

Thehyphenwasformerlyusedtoseparateaprefixfromthemainelementofawordifthemainelementbeginswith a vowel, as inpre-eminent, but there is a growing tendency inmodern usage to omit thehypheninsuchcases.Atthemomentbothpre-eminentandpreeminentarefound.

However,iftheomissionofthehyphenresultsindoublei,thehyphenisusuallyretained,asinanti-inflationaryandsemi-insulated.

Thehyphen was formerly used in words formed with the prefix non-, such as non-functional, non-political,non-flammableandnon-pollutant.

However, there is a growing tendency to omit the hyphen in such cases, as in nonfunctional andnonpollutant.Atthemomentbothformsofsuchwordsarecommon.

Thehyphenisusuallyusedwiththeprefixex-inthesenseof‘former’,asinex-wifeandex-president.

Thehyphenisusuallyusedwhenself-isprefixedtowords,suchasself-styled,self-starterandself-evident.

Use or non-use of thehyphen is often amatter of choice, house style of a particular organization, orfrequencyofusage,asindrawing-roomordrawingroom,anddining-roomordiningroom.

There isamodern tendency topunctuatemore lightly thanwas formerly thecaseandso, inmodernusage,useofthehypheninsuchexpressionsislessfrequent.

Thehyphenisalwaysusedinsomefixedcompoundsoftwoorthreewordsormore,suchasson-in-law,good-for-nothinganddevil-may-care.

NB:Toincludeoromit?Thelengthofcompoundsoftenaffectstheinclusionoromissionofthehyphen.

Compoundsoftwoshortelementsthatarewell-establishedwordstendnottobehyphenated,asin:

bedroomandtoothbrush.

Compoundwordswithlongerelementsaremorelikelytobehyphenated,asin:

engine-driverandcarpet-layer.

Thehyphen is sometimesused insomecompounds formedfromphrasalverbs (see2) and sometimesnot.Thusbothtake-overandtakeoverarecommon,andrun-upandrunuparebothcommon.Againtheuseofthehyphenisamatterofchoice.

However, some words formed from phrasal verbs are usually spelt without a hyphen, as inbreakthrough.Thehyphenisusuallyusedincompoundadjectivesconsistingoftwoelements,thesecondofwhichendsin-ed,suchasheavy-hearted,fair-haired,fair-mindedandlong-legged.

Thehyphenisusuallyusedincompoundadjectiveswhentheyareusedbeforenouns,suchasgas-firedcentralheating,oil-basedpaints,solar-heatedbuildingsandchocolate-coatedbiscuits.

Thehyphenisusuallyusedincompoundscontainingcertainadverbs,sometimestoavoidambiguity,asinhisbest-knownopera,anill-consideredventureandahalf-plannedscheme.

Thehyphenisgenerallynotusedinadjectivesandparticiplesprecededbyanadverbiftheadverbendsin-ly,asinahighlytalentedsinger,neatlypressedclothesandbeautifullydressedyoungwomen.

Thehyphenisusedincompoundnumeralsfrom21to99whentheyarewritteninfull,asinthirty-fivegallons,forty-fouryears,sixty-sevenmilesandtwohundredandforty-fivemiles.Compoundnumberssuchasthreehundredandtwothousandarenothyphenated.

Thehyphenisusedinfractions,suchasthree-quarters,two-thirdsandseven-eighths.

Thehyphenisalsousedinsuchnumberphrasesasaseventeenth-centuryplay,asixteenth-centurychurch,afive-gallonbucket,afive-yearcontractandathird-yearstudent.

NB:RepeatedhyphenatedelementsInthecaseoftwoormorecompoundhyphenatedadjectiveswiththesamesecondelementqualifyingthesamenoun,thecommonelementneednotberepeatedbutthehyphenshouldbe,as in two-andthree-bedroomhousesandlong-andshort-haireddogs.

Thehypheninword-breaksTheother useofhyphens is to breakwords at the endsof lines.Formerly, peopleweremore carefulaboutwheretheybrokewords.Previously,wordswerebrokenupaccordingtoetymologicalprinciples,but there isagrowing tendency tobreakwordsaccording tohowtheyarepronouncedor justwhere itseemsconvenient.

Somedictionariesorspellingdictionariesgivehelpwith thedivisionandhyphenationof individualwordsand,ifyouareindoubt,youshouldconsultoneofthese.

NB:WheretobreakGenerallyspeaking,one-syllablewordsshouldnotbedividedandwordsshouldnotbebrokenafterthefirstletterofawordorbeforethelastletter.

Also,careshouldbetakennottobreakupwords,forexamplebyformingelementsthatarewordsintheirownright,insuchawayastomisleadthereader.Thusdivisionssuchas‘the-rapist’and‘mans-laughter’shouldbeavoided.

EXERCISES10

Rewritethefollowingsentences,insertingahyphenwherethisisappropriate.

1ThecandidateisveryproBritishandincrediblyantiEuropean.2TheremainsareknowntobepreChristian.3Therewereagreatmanyelegantlydressedwomenatthewedding.4Heisanexcellentafterdinnerspeakerandisinmuchdemand.5Hewasthemosthighlyqualifiedandtalentedofallthecandidatesforthepost.6Weareseekingastrict,butfairminded,judgeforthetalentcompetition.7Thechildisusingwaterbasedpaints.8Wehaveagasfiredcentralheatingsystem.9Theglassistwothirdsfull.

10Itwasadistanceofthreehundredmiles.11Theywalkedfortyfivemilesacrossableakterrain.12Therearestilltwoandthreebedroomflatsforsaleinthecomplex.13Thevasecosttwohundredandfiftyfivepounds.14Thepreviousmanagerhadaveryheavyhandedapproachtodealingwithemployees’problems.15Itisaroughhairedbreedofdog.16Heisagoodfornothingwhohasneverdoneaday’sworkinhislife.17Redhairedgirlsoftenlookmarvellousingreen.18IthinkI’llhaveoneofthosecreamcoveredcakes.19Fairskinnedpeopleburneasilyinthesun.20Herfatherinlawhasjustdiedandsheishelpingwiththefuneralarrangements.21Hegavealecturetosecondyearstudents.22Thesixteenthcenturychurchinthevillageisbadlyinneedofrepair.23Themembersofthehotelstaffarealwaysimmaculatelydressed.24Wearecurrentlyputtingtogetherafiveyearplanforthecompany.25Sheistwothirdsofthewaythroughherartcourse.

ANSWERS10

1Thecandidateisverypro-Britishandincrediblyanti-European.2Theremainsareknowntobepre-Christian.3Therewereagreatmanyelegantlydressedwomenatthewedding.4Heisanexcellentafter-dinnerspeakerandisinmuchdemand.5Hewasthemosthighlyqualifiedandtalentedofallthecandidatesforthepost.6Weareseekingastrict,butfair-minded,judgeforthetalentcompetition.

7Thechildisusingwater-basedpaints.8Wehaveagas-firedcentralheatingsystem.9Theglassistwo-thirdsfull.

10Itwasadistanceofthreehundredmiles.11Theywalkedforty-fivemilesacrossableakterrain.12Therearestilltwo-andthree-bedroomflatsforsaleinthecomplex.13Thevasecosttwohundredandfifty-fivepounds.14Thepreviousmanagerhadaveryheavy-handedapproachtodealingwithemployees’problems.15Itisarough-hairedbreedofdog.16Heisagood-for-nothingwhohasneverdoneaday’sworkinhislife.17Red-hairedgirlsoftenlookmarvellousingreen.18IthinkI’llhaveoneofthosecream-coveredcakes.19Fair-skinnedpeopleburneasilyinthesun.20Herfather-in-lawhasjustdiedandsheishelpingwiththefuneralarrangements.21Hegavealecturetosecond-yearstudents.22Thesixteenth-centurychurchinthevillageisbadlyinneedofrepair.23Themembersofthehotelstaffarealwaysimmaculatelydressed.24Wearecurrentlyputtingtogetherafive-yearplanforthecompany.25Sheistwo-thirdsofthewaythroughherartcourse.

Quotationmarks

QuotationmarksanddirectspeechQuotationmarks(‘...’or“...”),alsoknownasinvertedcommas,areusedtoenclosematerialthatispartofdirectspeech.Directspeech isa termusedtodescribethereportingofspeechbyrepeatingexactlytheactualwordsusedbythespeaker,asinthefollowingexample:

Petersaid,‘Iamtiredofthis.’

‘Iamtiredofthis.’isapieceofdirectspeech.Similarlyinthefollowingexample:

Janeasked,‘Whereareyougoing?’

‘Whereareyougoing?’isapieceofdirectspeech.

Quotationmarksareusedatthebeginningandendofpiecesofdirectspeech.Onlythewordsactuallyspokenareplacedwithinthequotationmarks,asin‘IfIwereyou,’hesaid,‘Iwouldrefusetogo.’

Thequotationmarks involved can be either single ( ‘ . . .’ ) ordouble (“ . . . ” ) according topreferenceorhousestyle.Besuretobeconsistentinyouruseofeithersingleordoublequotationmarks.

Ifthereisastatementsuchashesaidfollowingthepieceofdirectspeech,acommaisplacedbeforethesecond invertedcomma,asin‘Comealong,’hesaid. If thepieceofdirectspeechisaquestionorexclamation,aquestionmarkorexclamationmarkisputinsteadofthecomma,asin:

‘Whatareyoudoing?’askedJohnand‘Getawayfromme!’shescreamed.

Ifastatementsuchashesaidisplacedwithinasentenceindirectspeech,acommaisplacedafterhesaidandthesecondpartofthepieceofdirectspeechdoesnotbeginwithacapitalletter,asin:

‘Iknowverywell,’hesaid,‘thatyoudonotlikeme.’

Ifthepieceofdirectspeechincludesacompletesentence,thesentencebeginswithacapitalletter,asin:

‘Iamgoingaway,’shesaid,‘andIamnotcomingback.Really,Idon’tfeelthatIbelonghereanymore.’

NB:Beforeorafter?The full stopat the endof apieceofdirect speech that is a sentence shouldgobefore the closinginvertedcomma.

Quotationmarksandparagraphs

Ifthepieceofdirectspeechquotedtakesupmorethanoneparagraph,quotationmarksareplacedatthe beginning of each newparagraph. However,quotationmarks are not placed at the end of eachparagraph,justattheendofthefinalone.

QuotationmarksanddialogueWhenwritingastory,etc,thatincludesdialogueorconversation,eachnewpieceofdirectspeechshouldbeginonanewlineorsometimesinanewparagraph.

OtherusesofquotationmarksQuotationmarksarenotusedonlytoindicatedirectspeech.Theyhaveotheruses.

Quotationmarksandtitles

Quotationmarksaresometimesusedtoindicatethetitleofabookornewspaper.Thequotationmarksusedin thiswaycanbeeithersingleordouble,according to individualpreferenceoraccording to thehousestyleofaparticularorganization.

Ifapieceofdirectspeechcontainsthetitleofabook,newspaper,poem,song,etc,itshouldbeputintheoppositetypeofquotationmarkstothoseusedtoenclosethepieceofdirectspeech.Thus,ifsinglequotationmarkshavebeenusedinthedirectspeech,thendoublequotationmarksshouldbeusedforthetitlewithinthedirectspeech,asin:

‘Haveyouread“AnimalFarm”byGeorgeOrwell?’theteacherasked.

Ifdoublequotationmarkshavebeenusedforthedirectspeech,singlequotationmarksshouldbeusedforthetitle,asin:

“Haveyouread‘AnimalFarm’byGeorgeOrwell?”theteacherasked.

Quotationmarksandadirectquotation

Whenapieceofwritingincludesadirectquotationfromanotherbook,pieceoftext,orspeaker,thewordswhicharequotedarecontainedwithinquotationmarks,eithersingleordouble,accordingtoindividualpreferenceorhousestyle,asin:

Inhisreportthemarketingdirectorreferstothenewproductas‘atechnologicalmiracle’.andInhisautobiographyBrianreferstothatpartofhislifeas‘aterriblelivingnightmare’andhissisterconfirmsthatthatwasthecase.

Ifthequotationfromanotherpieceoftextorspeakerisfairlylongitisoftensetoutbelowonthepageandindentedwithoutquotationmarks,asin:

Thevictimoftheattackgavethefollowingstatementtothepolice:

ItwaspitchdarkandIwasattackedfrombehind.Ihadnoopportunitytoseemyassailant

and,therefore,Icouldnotpossiblyidentifyhim,if, indeed,itwasaman.Isupposeitcouldhave been a woman. At any rate, I was hit over the head by something heavy and I knewnothingmoretillIwokeuplyingonthegroundwithaverysorehead.Mywalletandwatchhadgone.

Sometimeswritersusequotationmarksroundawordorwordstoindicatethatthisexpressionisnottheirownornotonethattheywouldhavechosentouse,asin:

The‘exclusivehotel’westayedinwasfarfromcomfortable.

Sometimesthewordso-calledisalsoincluded,asin:

Theso-called‘exclusivehotel’westayedinwasfarfromcomfortable.

However,eitherthequotationmarksorthewordso-calledwillsufficeontheirown.Youdonotneedtouseboth.

NB:TitlesOften, titlesareput in italic type insteadofquotationmarks.This avoids theclumsiness that canoccurwhenbothsetsofquotationmarksendonthesameword,asin

Thepupilreplied,‘No,IhavenotreadAnimalFarm.’

EXERCISES11

1Rewritethefollowingconversations,insertingquotationmarkswherethisisappropriate.

aWhattimeisit?askedMike.It’snearly11o’clock,repliedJohn.I’dbetterleavesoon,saidMike,becauseIdon’twanttobetoolatehome.Ifyouleavenow,saidBill,you’llbeintimetocatchthelastbus.Goodidea!exclaimedMike,gettinguptoleave.

bMarysaid,IknowthatIcan’treallyaffordanewdress,butIdon’thaveanythingsuitabletoweartoSally’swedding.Iboughtanewoutfitformycousin’sweddingearlierthisyear,saidLucy,andI’venotwornitsince.Youarewelcometoborrowitifyouwant.That’sverykindofyou,saidMary,andwe’remuchthesamesize.CouldIcomeovertoyourflatandtryiton?Sure!repliedLucy.Letmeknowwhenyouwanttocome.I’llbeinmosteveningsthisweek.

cI’mreadingBleakHouseatthemoment.Haveyoureadit?askedSue.No,repliedJack,Ihaven’t,butI’vereadquitealotofnovelsbyDickens.What’syourfavourite?askedSue.IthinkIlikeDavidCopperfieldandHardTimesbest,saidJack,butI’mfondofATaleofTwoCitiesaswell.Doyouhaveafavourite,Sue?Suereplied,Yes,Ido.It’sGreatExpectations,withoutadoubt.

2Rewritethefollowingsentences,insertingquotationmarkswherethisisappropriate.

aTheorganization’snewcomputersystemwashailedbythedesignersasatriumphformoderntechnology,butitbrokedownatleastthreetimesaweek,onaverage.

bThereleasedhostagedescribedtheconditionswhichheexperiencedasahostageashellonearth.

cTheso-calledhomefromhometurnedouttobeadamp,cold,run-downcottageinthemiddleofnowhere.

dTheaccommodationintheexclusiveluxuryhotelwasverybasicandthefoodthatwasservedwasappallingandvirtuallyinedible.

ANSWERS11

1a‘Whattimeisit?’askedMike.‘It’snearly11o’clock,’repliedJohn.‘I’dbetterleavesoon,’saidMike,‘becauseIdon’twanttobetoolatehome.’‘Ifyouleavenow,’saidBill,‘you’llbeintimetocatchthelastbus.’‘Goodidea!’exclaimedMike,gettinguptoleave.

bMarysaid,‘IknowthatIcan’treallyaffordanewdress,butIdon’thaveanythingsuitabletoweartoSally’swedding.’‘Iboughtanewoutfitformycousin’sweddingearlierthisyear,’saidLucy,‘andI’venotwornitsince.Youarewelcometoborrowitifyouwant.’‘That’sverykindofyou,’saidMary,‘andwe’remuchthesamesize.CouldIcomeovertoyourflatandtryiton?’‘Sure!’repliedLucy.‘Letmeknowwhenyouwanttocome.I’llbeinmosteveningsthisweek.’

c‘I’mreading“BleakHouse”atthemoment.Haveyoureadit?’askedSue.‘No,’repliedJack,‘Ihaven’t,butI’vereadquitealotofnovelsbyDickens.’‘What’syourfavourite?’askedSue.‘IthinkIlike“DavidCopperfield”and“HardTimes”best,’saidJack,‘butI’mfondof“ATaleofTwoCities”aswell.Doyouhaveafavourite,Sue?’Suereplied,‘Yes,Ido.It’s“GreatExpectations”,withoutadoubt.’

2aTheorganization’snewcomputersystemwashailedbythedesignersas‘atriumphofmoderntechnology’,butitbrokedownatleastthreetimesaweek,onaverage.

bThereleasedhostagedescribedtheconditionswhichheexperiencedasahostageas‘hellonearth’.

cTheso-calledhomefromhometurnedouttobeadamp,cold,run-downcottageinthemiddleofnowhere.

dTheaccommodationinthe‘exclusiveluxuryhotel’wasverybasicandthefoodthatwasservedwasappallingandvirtuallyinedible.

Otherpunctuationmarks

ApostropheAnapostrophe(’)isusedwiththeletterstoindicatethatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorsomething.Inotherwordsitisusedtoindicatepossession.

Manyerrorscentreonthepositionoftheapostropheinrelationtotheletters.

Asingularnounusuallyindicatespossessionbyadding’s(apostrophes)tothesingularformasin thegirl’smother,Peter’scar,thecompany’spolicy,thetown’sprideandjoy.

Apluralnounusuallyindicatespossessionbyaddings’(sapostrophe)tothepluralformendingins,asinalltheteachers’cars,manyparents’attitudetodiscipline,andbyadding’stoirregularpluralnounsthatdonotendins,asinwomen’sshoes.

Inthepossessiveformofanameorsingularnounthatendsins,xorz,theapostrophemayormaynotbefollowedbys.Inwordsofonesyllablethefinalsisusuallyadded,asinJames’shouse,thefox’slair,Roz’sdress.

Thefinalsismostfrequentlyomittedinnames,particularlyinnamesofthreeormoresyllables,asinEuripides’plays.Inmanycasesthepresenceorabsenceofthefinalsisamatterofconvention.

Theapostropheisalsousedtoindicateomittedlettersincontractedformsofwords,suchascan’tandyou’ve.Theyaresometimesusedtoindicatemissingcenturynumbersindates,asthe’60sand’70s,butarenotusedattheendofdecades,etc,asin1960s,not1960’s.

Generally,apostrophes areno longerused to indicateomitted letters in shortened forms thatare incommonusesuchas’phoneand’flu,nowusedsimplyasphoneandflu.

Apostrophesareoftenomittedwronglyinmodernusage,particularlyinthemediaandbyadvertisers,asinwomenshairdressers,childrenshelpings.Thisispartlybecausepeopleareunsureaboutwhentousethemandwhennottousethem,andpartlybecauseofamoderntendencytopunctuateaslittleaspossible.

Apostrophes,ontheotherhand,arealsofrequentlyusedwronglynowadaysasinpotato’sforsaleandBewareofthedog’s.Again,thisisbecausepeopleareunsureaboutwhen,andwhennot,tousethem.

NB:ItsandIt’sItsisanexceptiontothepossessionrulewhichsometimescausesconfusion.Whenusedtoindicatepossession(itsfault,itsengine,itsenvironment)itshasnoapostrophe.

It is onlywhenused as a contraction that an apostrophe is added (it’scold, it’s raining, it’s stillmorning). Similarly, possessive pronouns that end in an s never take an apostrophe (yours, hers,ours,theirs).

Asterisk

Theasterisk(*) iscommonlyusedtodirectthereader’sattentionfromaparticularwordorpieceoftexttoafootnoteortoanotherpartofthetext.Theasteriskisplacedaftertherelevantwordorpieceoftext.Theasteriskisoftenusedtoreplacealetter.Theasteriskisusuallyoneofaseriesandsuchaseriesisoftenfoundasasubstituteforlettersthatwouldmakeupawordthatwouldcauseoffenceinsomeway,oftenswearwords,asin:

Ican’topenthisb****ytin

Theasterisksreplacetheletterslood.Whenthelettersareusedinsteadoftheasteriskstheswearwordbloodyisformed.

Three-dotellipsisThethree-dotellipsis(...)isusedtoindicatemissingmaterial.Thismissingmaterialmaybeoneword,asinthesentence

Itoldyoutogetthe...outofhere

wherethemissingwordistheswearwordhell.

Themissingmaterialmaybeseveralwordsoralongerpieceoftext.Forexample,thethree-dotellipsismaybeusedtoreplacepartofaquotation,proverb,etc,asin:

Ahwellyouknow,themovingfingerwrites...(whereand,havingwrit,movesonisomitted)

and

Youknowwhattheysay.Astitchintime...(wheresavesnineisomitted).

Itcanalsobeusedtoindicateanunfinishedthoughtorstatement,asin:

Wemightwinhandsomely;ontheotherhand...

Sometimesadashisusedintheabovecases.

Oblique

Theoblique(/)isadiagonalmarkthathasvarioususes.Itsprincipaluseistoshowalternatives,asin:

he/sheDearSir/Madamtwo-/three-roomflat.

Theobliqueisalsousedinsomeabbreviations,asin:

c/oSmith(meaningcareofSmith)

Anobliqueissometimesusedinsteadofthewordper,asin:

60km/h(60kilometresperhour).

EXERCISES12

1Rewritethefollowingsentences,insertingapostropheswherethisisappropriate.

aIcantrememberhisphonenumberandIdontknowhisaddress.

bYoullsoonfindoutthatyouvemadethewrongdecision.

cWedmissedthetrainandtherewasntanotheroneforseveralhours.

dItsamazingtothinkthatthey’veknowneachothersincethe60s.

eItsaninterestingidea,butweneedtoconsideritsadvantagesanddisadvantages.

2Rewritethefollowingphrases,insertinganapostrophewherethisisappropriate.

mymothershouseadmiringhernewkitchensmodernfacilitiesthatstreetsconvenientlocationhistwoauntswiseadvicetheonlylocalschoolsroleinthecommunitythatsitesmostobviousdisadvantageJacksmainobjectionmensoutdoorclothesstylishwomenshairdressersalackofchildrensnurseriesintheareaJamessvictoryovertherestofthecompetitorsconsiderallthetravelagentsbestdealsthefoxsbushytailRozsbeautifulweddingdressthepotatoslong-lastingculinaryappealpotatoesforsaleherethelastcenturysmostsignificantcontributionstoindustryallvegetablesdrasticallyreduceditsuniversalappeal.

ANSWERS12

1aIcan’trememberhisphonenumberandIdon’tknowhisaddress.

bYou’llsoonfindoutthatyou’vemadethewrongdecision.

cWe’dmissedthetrainandtherewasn’tanotheroneforseveralhours.

dIt’samazingtothinkthatthey’veknowneachothersincethe’60s.

eIt’saninterestingidea,butweneedtoconsideritsadvantagesanddisadvantages.

2mymother’shouseadmiringhernewkitchen’smodernfacilitiesthatstreet’sconvenientlocationhistwoaunts’wiseadvicetheonlylocalschool’sroleinthecommunitythatsite’smostobviousdisadvantageJack’smainobjectionmen’soutdoorclothesstylishwomen’shairdressersalackofchildren’snurseriesintheareaJames’svictoryovertherestofthecompetitorsconsiderallthetravelagents’bestdealsthefox’sbushytailRoz’sbeautifulweddingdressthepotato’slong-lastingculinaryappealpotatoesforsaleherethelastcentury’smostsignificantcontributionstoindustryallvegetablesdrasticallyreduceditsuniversalappeal.

DEVELOPINGYOUROWNSTYLE

STYLE

Thereis,ofcourse,moretogoodEnglishthanaknowledgeofcorrectgrammarandcorrectusage.Styleisalsoanimportantissue.

Stylewithregardtolanguage,asisthecasewithstylewithregardtootherthingssuchasdress,referstoacharacteristic,personalwayofdoingthings.Mostfamouswritershaveadistinctivewayofwriting.Wecannotallbecomefamouswritersbutwecanallimprove,tosomeextent,ourpersonalwritingstyle.

In much of what we write in our day-to-day lives clarity and comprehensibility are extremelyimportantandgoodgrammarhasabigrole toplay in this.However, theyarenot theonly things tobeconsideredifyouwanttoimproveyourEnglishwriting.

Forexample,ifallyouwanttodoistogetyourmessageacrossthenyoucanwriteorspeakinsimplesentenceswithverysimplewords.(Ingrammaticaltermsasimplesentenceisasentencewhichconsistsofonemainclause(see2)).However,thisapproachcanbecomeverymonotonousandboring.

In this sectionwe consider some of theways you canmakewhat you arewriting or sayingmoreinterestingandmorestylish,fromthelengthandstructureofyoursentencestothevocabularyyouchoosetouse.

Sentencestyle

Sentencelength

Oneoftheeasiestwaysofintroducingvarietyinyourwritingistovarythelengthofyoursentences.Apiece of writing that contains sentences of varying length is more likely to capture and retain yourreader’sattention.Fromyourownpointofviewasthewriter,itismuchmoreinterestingandenjoyabletowriteapieceofprosethatcontainsavarietyoflengthsofsentence.

Theoccasional longsentence isquitepermissible,provided that it remainsclearandunambiguous.You should avoid using toomany of these, and you should avoid altogether long sentenceswhich areunnecessarilycomplicated.Theseareinclinedtoconfusereaders,oreventomakethemstopreadingthewritinginquestionaltogether,becausetheycannoteasilyfollowwhatisbeingsaid.Thus,sentenceslikethefollowingshouldbeavoidedandshouldbebrokenupintoshorterones:

Asitwasalongtripfromourhousetomyparents’farm,whereweweregoingtocelebratemyfather’ssixtiethbirthday,whichisonJune20,wedecidedtobreakourjourneyhalfwayatahotelwhichhadbeenrecommendedbymyAuntMary,whoregularlymakesthesamejourney,andwhosejudgementwetrustbecauseshe isanexperienced traveller,who isusuallyquitecriticalofhotelsandrestaurantsthatsheencounterswhensheistravelling.

Ithasbeenpointedoutabovethatapieceofwritingcomposedentirelyofveryshortsimplesentencescanbemonotonousandboring.Thisisthecaseinthefollowingpieceofprose:

IsatmyEnglishexamtoday.Itwasverydifficult.Ididbadly.IthinkIwillfail.Iamdreadinggettingtheresults.Myparentsaregoingtobeveryangry.They toldmetostudyharder. Ididnot. Iplayedfootballinstead.Igotintotheschoolteam.Myparentsdonotcareaboutthat.Theywantmetogotouniversity.Theybothdid.Idonotreallywanttogo.Idonotlikestudying.Iamnotclever.

However, the occasional very short sentence in a piece ofwritingwith longer sentences can be veryeffective,asinthepassagebelow.Theysignifytothereaderthatsomethingimportanthashappened,thusmaking the readerpaymoreattention,and theycanmakeasituationsoundmoredramaticandsomoreinteresting.Thetwoshortsentencesinthepassageareinboldtype.

Itwasabeautifuldaywhenwestartedoutonourwalk.Sincetherewasnotacloudinthesky,andthesunwasshiningverybrightly,wewereallwearinglightsummerclothes.Aswehaddecidedtotakeapicnic,westarted,aroundlunchtime,tolookforapicturesquespotfromwhichwecouldadmiretheviewasweate.Havingfoundtheidealspot,weunpackedallthefoodandmadeourselvescomfortable

onablanket,lookingforwardtobaskinginthesun.Howwrongwewere!Afewcloudshadgatheredwhenwewere concentrating on finding the right spot and the sky had darkened. Now the heavensopenedandtherainpoureddown.Wegotsoaked.

Themiddleway

Mostsentencesinapieceofprosearelikelytoliesomewherebetweentheverylongandtheveryshort.Theyarelikelytoconsistofseveralclauses.Extensiveinformationonthevariouskindsofclause(see2)isgivenearlierinthebook.

Sentencestructure

Youcanalsointroducevarietyintoyourwritingandformalspeechbyvaryingthenumberofclauses inyoursentences,byvaryingthetypesofclausewhichyouuse,andbyvaryingthepositionofclausesinyoursentences.Inordertoachievesuchvariationyoushouldmakeyourselffamiliarwiththeinformationonclausesandsentences givenearlier in thegrammar sectionof thebook.Thenexperimentwith thisinformationtoachievevarietyinyourwritingandformalspeech.

Compoundsentences

Writingorspeakingonlyincompoundsentencesconnectedbycoordinatingconjunctions(see4,5)canbejustasmonotonousassimplesentences.

Ifyouareaimingforvarietyandadegreeofstylishnessavoidapieceofproselikethefollowing:

Mydaughtersare twinsand theyusually like thesame things.Theywear thesameclothesand theyhavethesamehairstyles.Theybothlikemusic,butSuelikestosingandJanelikestodance.Theyarebothlearningtoplaymusicalinstruments,butJaneplaysthepianoandSueplaystheviolin.Theybothplay in theschoolorchestraandtheywillbothbeplayingin theend-of-termconcert. It takesplacenextmonthandmostofthemembersofourfamilywillbethere,butmyparentswillbeoverseasandsowillbeunabletoattend...

Complexsentences

Introducesomecomplexsentenceswithsubordinatingconjunctions (see1) to create somevariety inyourwork.Thereisawiderangeofconjunctionsforyoutochoosefromandawiderangeofinformationgivenasguidanceintherelevantsectionofthisbook.

Thus,insteadofwriting

Itwasrainingandweplayedindoors.

youcanwrite

Becauseitwasrainingweplayedindoors.

or

Sinceitwasrainingweplayedindoors.

Insteadofwriting

Sheworkedhardbutshefailedtheexam.

youcanwrite

Althoughsheworkedhard,shefailedtheexam

or

Eventhoughsheworkedhardshefailedtheexam.

Insteadofwriting

ImethimatJane’spartyanddislikedhiminstantly.

youcanwrite

WhenImethimatapartyIdislikedhiminstantly.

or

AssoonasImethimatJane’spartyIdislikedhim.

Alternatively,youcanuseaparticipialphrase(see1)insteadofaclause.

Thus,youcanwrite

Havingarrivedatourhotel,weunpackedandwentforawalk

insteadof

Whenwearrivedatourhotelweunpackedandwentforawalk.

Vocabulary

Yourchoiceofvocabularycanalsogreatlyinfluenceyourstyleofwritingandspeaking.Vocabularyreferstothestockofwordsthatalanguageismadeupof.TheEnglishlanguageismade

upofahugenumberofwords,althoughmosteducatednativespeakersofEnglishare likely tohave intheirownpersonalstockofwordsonlya fractionof thisnumber.Furthermore, theyare likely tousearelativelysmallnumberofthispersonalstockofwordsintheirday-to-daycommunication.

Activeandpassivevocabulary

Thewordsthatapersonislikelytouseconfidentlyandregularlyareknowncollectivelyasthatperson’sactive vocabulary. The opposite of this is passive vocabulary. This consists of the words whosemeanings a person knows, although they would not usually use them in the course of their ordinaryconversationandwriting.

Peoplewhoarekeen to improve theirEnglish should try to improve the rangeof theirvocabulary.Theymayneedrelativelyfewwordstomakethemselvesunderstood,but,althoughcomprehensibilityisextremelyimportantinspeakingandwriting,itisnottheonlyissue.Ifyouwishtomakeyourspeechorwritingmoreinterestingandmorestylishyouneedtointroduceadegreeofvariationintoyourvocabularyandsoimproveyourwordpower.

Increasingyourwordpower

Howisthistobeachieved?Thereisverylittlepointinsimplylearninglistsofwords,perhapsfromadictionary,becausethingslearnedinthiswaytendnottostickinthememoryverywell.Also,youneedtoseewordsinactualuseinordertoknowhowyouyourselfshouldusethem.

ReadingcanextendyourvocabularyquiteconsiderablyandthisshouldnotbeconfinedtotheworksoftheacknowledgedgreatwritersinEnglish.Thereisawiderangeofreadingmatteravailableandyoushouldtakefulladvantageofthis.Newspapers,forexample,canbeausefulsourceofwordsaswellasnews.Awordofwarning,however.Trynottobetoomuchinfluencedbythelevelofslangthatyoumayfindinsomearticlesinsomeofthetabloids.

ListeningtoEnglishradioprogrammescanalsobeuseful,especiallythosethatconcentratemoreontalk thanmusic.Television, too,especially ‘serious’programmessuchasdocumentariesand those thatareconcernedwithnews,currentaffairs,politics, theartsetc,canalsobeausefulcontributor toyourvocabularystock.Evenjusttalkingtoandlisteningtopeoplecanbeextremelyvaluableinyourattempttoincreaseyourvocabulary.

Dictionariesandthesauruses

To some extent, some language reference books can help improve your word power. In general athesaurusismorehelpfulthanadictionaryinthisrespect.Adictionaryisavaluabletoolwhenyouwanttoknowthemeaningofaword,orhowtopronounceit,orwhenyouwanttofindouttheoriginofaword.

Someofthemalsosupplynoteswhichprovideusefuladviceonusage.Evenmoreusefulguidanceonusage is provided by those dictionaries which provide example sentences and phrases showing thedefinedwordsinaction.ThedictionariesmostlikelytoprovidesuchexamplesentencesandphrasesarethosedesignedforusebylearnersofEnglishasaforeignorsecondlanguage.

Youarelikelytofindathesaurusmorehelpfulthanadictionaryinyourattempttoincreasetheextentofyourvocabulary.InEnglish,therearetwokindsofthesaurus.Onetypeisarrangedaccordingtothemeandtheotheris,moreorless,adictionaryofsynonyms.

Thefirstthesaurus,publishedinBritainin1852,isknownasRoget’sThesaurus,after itscompiler,PeterMarkRoget.Itisarrangedaccordingtotheme.Forexample,allthewords,whatevertheirpartofspeech, and all the phrases relating to fear are included in the same section and are followed by thewordsandphrasesrelatingtotheoppositeoffear,courage.Thuswefindsuchnounsasfright,terrorandpanic and alarmist, scaremonger and terrorist together with adjectives such as afraid, frightened,panic-strickenandverbssuchastakefright,bepetrified,alarm,intimidateinthesamesection.There,too,arephrasessuchasmakeone’sbloodruncoldandmakeone’shairstandonend.

Roget’sThesaurus isanextremelyvaluablereferencebookbut it isaverysophisticatedoneanditcanbequitedifficulttouseuntilyoubecomefamiliarwithit.Thereareotherthesauruses,alsoarrangedaccordingtothemeinthemannerofRoget’sThesaurus,butslightlyeasiertouse.LikeRoget,theytendtobemostusefulwhenyouwanttowriteaboutaparticulartopicandareseekingtherangeofvocabularyassociatedwiththattopic.

Ifyouwant, forexample, toavoid repeatingaparticularword,althoughyouwantawordwith thesamemeaning,youwillprobablyfinditeasiertousethekindofthesauruswhichis,ineffect,adictionaryofsynonyms.(Thewordsynonymmeansawordthathasmoreorlessthesamemeaningasaparticularword.)

If,forexample,youwanttoavoidusinganoverusedadjective,suchasniceorgood,asynonym-stylethesauruswillprovideyouwithaselectionofappropriatealternatives.Themorehelpfulof thesewillhavenumberedthevariousmeaningsofaparticularwordandwillhaveprovidedexamplesentencesorphrases.

Thus,insteadofwriting:

Itwasanicedayyesterdayandwedecidedtogoforadriveinthecountry.Wedrovethroughsomenicesceneryandstoppedforareallynicemealinarestaurantwhichwasrunbytwoverynicepeople.It’salongtimesinceIhadsuchanicedayout.

Withthehelpofathesaurusyoucouldavoidoverusingniceandwrite,forexample:

Itwasasunnydayyesterdayandwedecidedtogoforadriveinthecountry.Wedrovethroughsomeattractivesceneryandstoppedforareallydeliciousmealinarestaurantwhichwasrunbytwoveryagreeablepeople.It’salongtimesinceIhadsuchanenjoyabledayout.

Likewise,insteadofwriting:

MygoodfriendJimisplanningtovisitusattheendofthismonth.Itisagoodtimeforhimtocomeandseeusas Iamgoing tobeonholiday fromwork foragood twoweeksduringhis visitandweusuallyhavegoodweatheratthistimeofyear.It isnottheusualholidayseason,butIhaveagoodreason for takingabreakas Ihavebeenworkingagreatdealofovertime. Iamquiteglad that thechildrenarenotgoingtobeonholidaybecause,althoughtheyareusuallyverygood, theyprobablywould not sit quietly to listen to Jim’s stories. He is a good conversationalist and has led aninterestinglife.Averygoodengineer,hehashadseveralverygood jobs inmanypartsof theworldandlovestotalkabouthisexperiences.Icannotwaitforhimtogethereandtellmeaboutthem.

Withthehelpofathesaurusyoucouldavoidoverusinggoodandwrite,forexample:

MyclosefriendJimisplanningtovisitusattheendofthismonth.ItisaconvenienttimeforhimtocomeandseeusasIamgoingtobeonholidayfromworkforafulltwoweeksduringhisvisitandweusuallyhave fineweatherat this timeof year. It isnot theusualholiday seasonbut Ihaveavalidreason for takingabreakas Ihavebeenworkingagreatdealofovertime. Iamquiteglad that thechildrenarenotgoing tobeonholidaybecause,although theyareusually verywell-behaved, theyprobablywouldnotsitquietlytolistentoJim’sstories.Heisanexcellentconversationalistandhasledan interesting life.Averycompetentengineer,hehashadseveralvery interesting jobs inmanypartsoftheworldandlovestotalkabouthisexperiences.Icannotwaitforhimtogethereandtellmeaboutthem.

Theseareverysimpleexamples,buttheyillustratehowyoucanintroducevariationintoyourvocabulary,perhapswithalittlehelpfromareferencebook.

Register

Whendecidingonthevocabularyforyourpieceofwritingorspeechyoumustbecarefulthatyoudonotuse very informal words in a piece of very formal writing or speech, such as a company report.Conversely, youmust be careful not to use very formalwords in a piece of very informalwriting orspeech.

Theaspectoflanguagethatreferstoformalityandinformalityiscalledregister.Itreferstolanguageofa type that isused inaparticular social situation.Formal language shouldbeused in formal socialsituations and informal language in informal situations.Many dictionaries, particularly those specially

designedforusebylearnersofEnglishasaforeignorsecondlanguage,willoftenindicatewhichwordsareformalandwhichareinformal.

Languageformalitycanbeseenasakindofscale.Itstartswiththeveryformallanguageofformalinvitations and legal documents and ends with the slang of much of today’s speech.Much of today’swrittenlanguagecomesinthemiddleofthescale.Itisneitherveryformalnorveryinformal.

Peopleproducingwrittenmaterialhavemuchmoretimethanpeoplewhoareproducinginstantaneousspokenmaterial inwhich to choose theexactword theyare looking for.Ofcourse, theyalsohave theopportunitytoconsultthesaurusesanddictionaries.ThishastheresultthatwrittenEnglishoftencontainsmuch more innovative and formal vocabulary than the spoken version, unless, of course, the spokenEnglishtakestheformofapreparedspeechwhichistobereadaloud.

Keepitsimple

Thereisadangerinhavingagreatdealoftimeinwhichtoprepareapieceofwritingoraspeech.Youcanbe facedwith the temptation to try to impresspeoplebyselectingverydifficultwords, rather thanusing thosewords that come naturally.Although it is a good idea to introduce some variety into yourvocabulary,youshouldresistthetemptationtoseekoutverydifficultorpompous-soundingwords.Thiswillsimplyboreyourreadersorlisteners.Youwillnotkeeptheirattentionifyouareusingagreatmanyunnecessarilydifficultwordswhichtheydonotunderstand.

Youshouldalsoavoidusinga largenumberofwordswhereafewwouldbeperfectlyadequate. Ifyouaretoowordyorverboseyouare,again,likelytobore,orevenconfuse,yourreadersorlisteners.Again,youareunlikelytoholdtheirattention.

Addingvariety

Youcanaddvarietytothevocabularyofwritingandsoimproveyourpersonalstylebythecarefuluseoffiguresofspeechsuchassimiles.Afigureofspeechisisawordorphrasethatdepartsfromeverydayliterallanguageforthesakeofcomparison,emphasis,clarityorfreshness.

Asimileisafigureofspeechinwhichathingorpersonis,forthesakeofcomparison,saidtobelikeanotherandmostincludethewordslikeoras.Examplesofsimilesinclude:

ascalmasamillpondascoolasacucumberashelplessasababeinarmsaskeenasmustardasneatasanewpinaspoorasachurchmouseassilentasthegrave

AnotherfigureofspeechfoundinEnglishwritingisthemetaphor.Likeasimileitusescomparison

tocreateastrikingimagethatcanenlivenyourwritingbutitdoesnotusethewordslikeorasthathelptoidentifysimiles.Ihadbutterfliesinmytummyisagoodexampleofametaphor.Thewordsdonotmeanthat the person literally has butterflies in their tummy but the image the words present beautifullyillustratesthatfeelingofnervousnessthatmanyofusoftenexperience.

Sometimes correct English writing lacks the fluent use of an English idiom which can be usedinventively to increase theeffectofwhat isbeing said.An idiom isacommonwordorphrasewithaculturallyunderstoodmeaningthatdiffersfromwhatitscompositewordswouldsuggest.Inotherwordsitisaphrasewhosemeaningcannoteasilybeunderstoodjustfromthemeaningsof the individualwordsthatmakeupthephrase.Knowingwhatall the individualwordsmeaninan idiomwillnotnecessarilyhelpyoutoworkoutwhattheidiomisabout.

Take,forexample,thecommonEnglishidiomletthecatoutofthebag.Mostpeoplenewtoitwillknowall thewords in thisphrasebut theywillprobablynotbeable toguess that thephrasemeans tomakeknowntootherpeople,oftenaccidentallyorinappropriately,somethingthatisintendedtobekeptsecret or confidential. If you swallow something hook, line and sinker, it does notmean that you areliterallycopying theactionsofa fish in theprocessofbeingcaught. Instead, itmeans thatyoubelievesomethingcompletely(andoftennaïvely).

There are a greatmany idioms in the English language. They can add colour and interest to yourwritingbut you shouldnot use toomanyof themor the clarity of yourwritingmay suffer.You shouldespeciallyusesparinglythoseidiomswhichhavebeenusedsooftenthattheyhavebecomeclichés.

Clichésareexpressionswhichhavebecomesoover-usedthatnativespeakersofEnglishtendtousethem without thinking. They are an important part of the English language (especially so in spokenEnglish)andtheycanaddinterestandvarietytowhatyouwanttosayinyourwritingbutitisdifficultforlearnersofthelanguagetobecomefamiliarwiththemandlearnhowtousethemwell.Likeotheraspectsoflanguagethisrequiresoflotofpractice.

Therearesomewords(particularlyrelevanttospokenEnglishbutwhichyoumaywishtoincludeinyourwrittenEnglish)whichcancausesomeconfusionbecausetheyareverysimilarinsomewaytootherwords.Thesearehomophones,homonymsandhomographs.

Ahomophone isawordthatispronouncedinthesamewayasanotherbutisspelledinadifferentwayandhasadifferentmeaning.Forexample,aisleisanounmeaningapassagebetweenrowsofseatsinachurch,theatre,cinemaetc,asinThebridewalkeddowntheaisleonherfather’sarmwhileisleisanounmeaninganisland,ofteninusedinliteraryorpoeticcontexts,butoccasionallyusedinplacenames,asintheIsleofSkye.

Ahomonymisawordthathasthesamespellingandthesamepronunciationasanotherword,buthasadifferentmeaningfromit.Forexample,billisanounmeaningawrittenstatementofmoneyowed,asinYoumustpaythebillfortheconversionworkimmediately;awrittenorprintedadvertisement,asinWewereasked todeliverhandbillsadvertising theplay;andabird’sbeak,as inTheseagull injured itsbill.

Ahomograph is aword that is spelled the sameasanotherwordbuthasadifferentmeaning, andsometimes pronunciation (heteronym). For example, sow, pronounced to rhyme with low, is a verbmeaningtoscatterseedsintheearth,asinInthespringthegardenersowedsomeflowerseedsinthefrontgarden,whilesow,pronouncedtorhymewithhow,isanounmeaningafemalepig,asinThesowisinthepigstywithherpiglets.

(Seehomophonesformoreexamplesofhomophones,homonymsandhomographs.)

Exercises13

Rewritethefollowingpassageusingcomplexsentenceswithsubordinatingconjunctionsorparticipialphrasesinsteadofcoordinatingconjunctions.

Abadstarttotheday

Ididn’thearmyalarmgooffyesterdayandIoverslept.Idressedveryquicklybutwasstillverymuchbehindschedule.IwasverylateandIhadnotimeforbreakfast,notevenacupofcoffee.

IwaslateleavingthehouseandIhadtoruntothebusstop.Igotthereontimetocatchthebus,butIdidn’tgetonit.Therewasalongqueueinfrontofmewaitingforthesamebusanditwassoonfull.

WhatwasItodo?Icouldwaitforthenextbus,butIwouldbelateforwork.Ihadbeenlatetwicethismonthalreadyandmybosswouldnotbepleased.Infact,hewouldbefurious.

IwasstandingtherefeelingverydepressedandIheardacar’shornsounding.IlookedupandsawmyfriendJackwavingatmefromhiscar.Heisaverykindpersonandheofferedmealift.Iwouldnotbelateafterall!

Iarrivedatworkontimeandwasabletorelaxforthefirsttimethatmorning.Betterstill,Icouldhaveacupofcoffee.Imustremembertogooutatlunchtimeandbuyanewalarmclock.

ANSWERS13

Thepassagebelowisjustforguidance.Thereareotherwaysofrewritingthepassage.

Abadstarttotheday

YesterdayIoversleptbecauseIdidn’thearmyalarmgoingoff.EventhoughIdressedveryquicklyIwasstillverymuchbehindschedule.Beingvery late, Ihadno time forbreakfast,notevenacupofcoffee.

IhadtoruntothebusstopbecauseIwassolateleavingthehouse.AlthoughIgotthereontimetocatchthebusIdidn’tgetonit.Astherewasalongqueueinfrontofmewaitingforthesamebus,itwassoonfull.

Whatwas I to do? Iwouldbe late forwork if Iwaited for thenext bus.Mybosswouldnot bepleasedsinceIhadbeenlatetwicethismonthalready.Infact,hewouldbefurious.

Isuddenlyheardacar’shornsoundingwhileIwasstandingtherefeelingverydepressed.WhenI

lookedupIsawmyfriendJackwavingfromhiscar.Beingaverykindperson,heofferedmealifttowork.Iwouldnotbelateafterall!

Havingarrivedatworkontime,Iwasabletorelaxforthefirsttimethatmorning.Better,still,Icouldhaveacupofcoffee. Imust remember togooutat lunch timeso that Icanbuyanewalarmclock.

EXERCISES14

Replacethewordhardineachofthesentencesbelow.Chooseasuitablewordforeachsentencefromthelistbelow.

arduous,difficult,complicated,firm,harsh,industrious,unkind,violent

1Ithadnotrainedforalongtimeandthegroundwasvery...........2Theywereall...........workersanddeservedapayincrease.3Hereceiveda...........blowtotheheadandpassedout.4Whethertogoorstaywasa...........decisionforhimtomake.5Thisjigsawistoo...........forachild.6Afteran...........climbupthemountaintheclimberswereexhausted.7Anexchangeof...........wordsbetweenthetwosistersledtoabitterfamilyfeud.8Poorfarmerslivedinvery...........conditionsinthosedays,especiallyinwinter.

ANSWERS14

1Ithadnotrainedforalongtimeandthegroundwasveryfirm.2Theywereallindustriousworkersanddeservedapayincrease.3Hereceivedaviolentblowtotheheadandpassedout.4Whethertogoorstaywasadifficultdecisionforhimtomake.5Thisjigsawistoocomplicatedforachild.6Afteranarduousclimbupthemountaintheclimberswereexhausted.7Anexchangeofunkindwordsbetweenthetwosistersledtoabitterfamilyfeud.8Poorfarmerslivedinveryharshconditionsinthosedays,especiallyinwinter.

WORDSTHATMAYCONFUSE

IDIOMS,CLICHÉSANDEVERYDAYPHRASES

Inthislastsectionofthebook,therearelistsofcommonEnglishidioms,clichésandeverydayphrases,andafewexamplesofhomophones,homonymsandhomographs,allofwhichcancausesomeconfusionto learners of English. To help you becomemore confident when it comes to including them in yourwrittenandspokenEnglish,wehaveprovidedexamplesentencesshowingtheminuse.

Commonidioms

Thelistthatfollowsgivesaselectionofcommonidiomswithanexplanationofthemeaning,theoriginoftheidiomwhereappropriateandashortpieceofdialogueshowinghowtheidiomisused.

Achilles’heelThis idiomindicates thatsomeonehasaweakspotofsomekind. (InGreek legend,Achilles issaid tohavebeendippedbyhismotherintheRiverStyxinordertomakehiminvulnerable,buthisheelwasleftvulnerablebecauseshewasholdinghimbyitandhewaskilledbyanarrowshotthroughhisheel.)Bill:I’msurprisedyoudecidedtofireLucy.Tony:Iwassorrytohavetodoitbutwehadtolosesomemembersofstaffandwewantedtokeepourbestpeople.Bill:IthoughtLucywasoneofthose.Tony:She’sverytalentedbutherlackofconcentrationisherAchilles’heel.acidtestThis idiomrefers toa test thatwillproveordisprovesomethingsothat there isnodoubt.(Nitricacidwasonceusedasatestforgold.Ifthemetaltestedwasnotgold,itdecomposedbecauseoftheactionoftheacidonit.)Sally:Doesn’tthenewrangeofcosmeticslookwonderful?Thepackagingisverystylish,isn’tit?Mary:Itisandmanypeoplehaveadmiredit,buttheacidtestwillbehowwellitsells.

haveanaxetogrindThisidiommeanstohaveapersonalorselfishreasontobeinvolvedinsomething.(FromastorytoldbytheAmericanpoliticianBenjaminFranklinabout an incident inhisboyhoodwhenamanaskedhim toshow him how well his grandfather’s grindstone worked. The man gave Franklin his own axe todemonstrateonandsogotitsharpenedfornothing.)Liz:Jennymustbeveryfondofherparents-in-law.She’stryingtopersuadethemtobuyahouseinthestreetwheresheandBoblive.Pat:Idon’tthinkthat’sbecauseshelikesthem.Shehasanaxetogrind.Liz:Whatdoyoumean?Pat:She’s finding itdifficult togeta reliablechildminderandshe thinks itwouldbehard for them to

refusetolookaftertheirgrandchildreniftheylivedcloseby.

thebackofbeyondThisidiomreferstoaremoteplacewhichisdifficulttogettoandprobablyhasveryfewpeoplelivingthere.Sam:You’veobviouslylivedinthecityalongtime.Wereyoubroughtuphere?Ken:No,Icametouniversityhereandstayedon.Iwasbroughtuponafarminthenorthofthecountryinthebackofbeyond.beataboutthebushThisidiommeanstoapproachasubjectinanindirectway,ratherthangettingstraighttothepoint.(Whenhuntersareshootinggamebirdspeopleareemployedtobeatthebushes,heather,etctomakethebirdsflyup.)Jane:Thenewassistant Ihired isnogood. I’mgoing tohave to lethergo,but she’s sokeenandshereallyneedsthemoney.Idon’tknowhowtotellher.Sue:There’snopointinbeatingaboutthebush.You’rejustgoingtohavetotellherstraight.

havingabeeinyourbonnetThis idiommeans thatyouareunable tostop thinkingor talkingaboutsomethingso that itbecomesanobsession.(Abeetrappedunderahatcannotescapeandgoesbuzzingaroundunderit.)Pat:What’swrong?Youlookveryannoyed.Kate:I’mannoyedwithBen.He’sjustspenthalf-an-hourcriticizingmeforbuyingacar.Pat:Ican’tsayI’msurprised.Hehasabeeinhisbonnetaboutprivatecars.Hethinkseveryoneshouldusepublictransportandsavetheenvironment.Kate:Icansympathizewiththat,buthehasnorighttobesonastytome.

abigfishinasmallpondAn importantor influentialpersonwhose importance is restricted toa smallgroup,organization, area,etc.Jim:DoyouthinkPete’swisetotakethenewjobhe’sbeenoffered?Ben:No,Idon’t.It’saveryseniorjobandI’mnotsurePetecouldcopewithit.Jim:Buthehasaveryseniorjobinhispresentcompany.Ben:Butit’sasmallfirmandPete’sabigfishinasmallpond.Thefirmthat’sofferedhimthejobisahugemulti-national.

burnyourbridges/boatsThisidiommeanstotakeanactionthatmeansthatyoucannotreturntoyouroriginalpositionorsituation.(Ifyou literallyburnyourbridges/boatafterarriving,youhavenomeansofgettingback towhereyoucamefrom.)Sam:DidBenreallyshoutattheboss?John:Yes,hedidandhewasveryrudetohim.Iwastherewhenithappened.Sam:Doyouthinkthebosswillforgivehim?John:Absolutelynot.Ben’sreallyburnthisbridges.Thebossfiredhimandwon’tgivehimareference.

thebuckstopshereThis idiom isused to indicate thepersonwho is finally responsible for something thathas tobedealtwith. (The expression refers to a card game such as poker, the buck being amarker passed around toindicatewhothedealer is.HarryS.Truman,USPresident[1945–53],hadasignonhisdeskwith this

inscription.)Will:Whyareyougoingtoresign?Themistakewasn’tyourfault.Mike:Iknowitwasn’t,butitwasthefaultofsomeoneinmydepartmentandI’mincharge.SoI’mafraidit’sacaseofthebuckstopshere.

carrythecanThis idiommeans to take theblameorresponsibilityforsomething thathasgonewrong,evenalthoughsomeoneelsemaybeatleastpartlyresponsible.Eve:Ican’tbelievethatJoe’sbeenfoundguiltyofcheatingintheexam.Anne:Neither can I, but some people say that he just carried the can and that a lot of peoplewereinvolvedinacheatingscam.Theygotawaywithit,butJoedidn’t.

catchsomeonered-handedThisidiommeanstofindsomeoneintheactualactofdoingsomethingwrong.(Thisisreferencetothebloodonthehandsofsomeonewhohasjustmurderedsomeone.)Alison:DoyouthinkyoungJoereallybrokeintotheBrown’shouse?Heseemssuchanicequietboy.Jenny:There’snodoubtaboutit,I’mafraid.Thepolicecaughthimred-handedwhenhewastryingtosellsomeofthestolenjewellery.

catchsomeonewiththeirhandinthetillThisidiom,meanstodiscoversomeoneintheactofstealingordoingsomethingdishonest.Paul:Ihearthecompanyaccountant’sbeenfired.Robbie:Yes.Theysayhe’sbeencaughtwithhishandinthetill.Theauditorshavefoundoutthathe’sbeenembezzlingmoneyformonths.

chalkandcheeseThisidiomisusedtoemphasizeameasureofhowcompletelydifferenttwothingsare.Mary:AmyandLilyaresisters,butthey’reasdifferentaschalkandcheese.Kate:Iagree.Theydon’tlooktheleastalikeandtheyhavecompletelydifferentpersonalities.

crossthatbridgewhenyoucometoitThisidiommeanstoworryaboutaproblemortrytocopewithitonlywhenitactuallyaffectsyou.Mary:It’salovelyflatandwecanjustaboutaffordtherentbetweenus,butwhatifthelandlordputstherentup?Alice:We’llcrossthatbridgewhenwecometoit.Let’sgoandtell thelandlordwe’ll takeitbeforesomeoneelsetakesit.

beatdaggersdrawnThisidiommeansthattwopeoplearebeingextremelyhostiletowardseachother.(Thisisareferencetopeoplepullingouttheirdaggerswhentheywerereadytofight.)Amy:Ididn’tknowthatDavewasTom’sbrother.Theyneverseemtospeakeachother.Pam:Theydon’t.They’vebeenatdaggersdrawnsincetheirfatherdiedmorethantenyearsago.Amy:Whatdidtheyquarrelabout?Pam:I’venoidea,butitwassomethingtodowiththemoneylefttothembytheirfather.

aroughdiamondThis idiom refers to a person who behaves in rather a rough manner but who has some very goodqualities.

Ken:WhatdoyouthinkofSue’snewboyfriend?Alice:ThefirsttimeImethimheseemedabitboorish,buthe’saroughdiamond.He’sreallyverykindandhelpful.Ken:Imuchpreferhimtoherpreviousboyfriend.Hewasverysmoothandpoliteonthesurface,buthehadareallynastysidetohim.

dogeatdogThisidiomisusedtorefertoasituationinwhichrivalsoropponentsarepreparedtodoanythingatalltogetwhattheywant.Dave:Myson’sjustgraduatedandhe’sjob-hunting.Bob:Unemployment’ssohighjustnow.It’snotagoodtimetobelookingforajob.Dave:No,it’snot.There’salotofcompetition.It’sacaseofdogeatdogoutthere.

get(all)yourducksinarowThisidiommeanstogeteverythingorganizedandundercontrol.Liz:Jillalwayslooksexhausted.She’sreallynotcopingwithherjobandthechildren.Mary:She’sinadifficultsituation,butshereallyneedstogetherducksinarow.Shecan’tdoherjobproperlyuntilshegetshelpwithchildcare.

DutchcourageThis idiom refers to a confidence or lack of nervousness that has been brought about by consumingalcohol. (This is perhaps a reference to a formerDutch custom of drinking alcohol before going intobattle.)Pete:It’sabitearlyforyoutobedrinking.Mark:IneedabitofDutchcourage.I’mgoingonadatewithSallyandI’mreallynervous.Pete:I’msureyou’llbefine.Don’tdrinktoomuch!

beattheendofyourtetherThisidiommeansthatyouarenolongerabletotolerateorputupwithsomething.(Atetherisliterallyaropethatisusedtotieupananimal,suchasagoat,andthatextendsacertaindistancetolettheanimalgraze.)Janet:Youlookverytired,Molly.Molly:I’mexhaustedandattheendofmytether.Janet:Why’sthat?Molly: I’mhardlygettingany sleepbecauseofmyupstairsneighbours.They’re students and theyplayloudmusicallnight.

flogadeadhorseThisidiommeanstogoontryingtorouseinterestorenthusiasminsomethingwhenthisisnolongerofinterest,makingyoureffortslikelytobeunsuccessful.Diane:JackkeepstryingtogetJennytoforgivehimforcheatingonher,buthe’sfloggingadeadhorse.Lily:Hecertainlyis.Jennyhasnointentionofforgivinghim.Herlastboyfriendcheatedonherandshewon’tputupwiththatsortoftreatmentagain.

withflyingcoloursWithgreatsuccess. (This isareference toaship leavingaplaceofbattlewith itscoloursorflagstillflying,ratherthanbeingloweredinsurrender.)Frank:Myson’sjustgothisexamresults.He’spassedwithflyingcolours!

Ben:That’sgreat,especiallyashewasnervousabouthisresults.Frank.HewasandIcanseehe’sveryrelieved!

gobytheboardThisidiomisusedtoindicatethatsomethingisbeingabandonedorisnolongerlikelytobepossibleorsuccessful. (This isanautical reference.Theexpressionoriginallymeant literally togooverboardandvanish.)Jill:Areyoustillthinkingofgoingbacktoworkfull-timeafterthesummer?Wendy:No,myworkplanshavegonebytheboard.I’mhavinganotherbaby.Jill:That’sgreatnews!Congratulations!

havegreenfingersThisidiommeanstobeveryskilfulatgrowingplants.Kate: I’m looking aftermymother’s houseplants and I’m scared they’regoing todie.Mymother hasgreenfingers,butI’mhopelesswithplants.Helen:Remembertowaterthem,butdon’twaterthemtoomuch.TheyshouldbeOK.

hitthegroundrunningThis idiommeans to begin some kind of new activity immediately and energetically. (A reference tosoldiersrunningswiftlyintobattleimmediatelyafterleavingahelicopterorbeingdroppedbyparachute.)Lucy:Imustsayourspringfashionrangelooksverygood.Emma: It does, but there’s a lot of competition around.We really need to find some excitingways topromoteourrangeandhitthegroundrunningwhenwelaunchit.

hitthesack/hitthehayThisidiommeanstogotobed.John:MarkandIaregoingclubbinglater.Wanttocome?Dan:Ican’t.I’veabusydaytomorrow.I’mgoingtohitthesack.

thejewelinthecrownThisidiomreferstothemostvaluableorsuccessfulthingassociatedwithsomeoneorsomething.Susan:Whatawonderfulpainting.Jennifer:Yes,itis,isn’tit?Thegalleryhasamarvellouscollection,butthisisdefinitelythejewel inthecrown.

jumponthebandwagonThis idiom means to become involved in something because it is fashionable or because it will beprofitable,althoughyoumaynotbereallyinterestedinit.(Fromthebrightlycolouredvehiclecarryingabandattheheadofaprocessionwhichoftenencouragespeopletofollowtheprocession.)Tom:IhearGeorgehasgoneintotherealestatebusiness.Ididn’tknowhewasinterestedinproperty.David:George’snottheleastbitinterestedinit.Thepropertymarket’sdoingverywelljustnowandhe’sjustjumpingonthebandwagon.

killtwobirdswithonestoneThisidiommeanstocarryouttwoaimsbymeansofoneaction.Sue:Whatareyouplanningtodointhecity?Rosemary:I’mgoingtokilltwobirdswithonestone.IhaveanappointmentwithmydentistandIneedtocollectsomebooksIorderedfromthecentrallibrary.

beleftholdingthebabyThisidiommeanstobelefttocopewithasituationonyourownwhichwasreallytheresponsibilityofotherpeople.Joe:What’swrongwithyou?Youlookreallycross.Mark:I’mfurious.Mybossisresponsiblefororganizingthesalesconference,buthe’ssuddenlydecidedtogoonholiday.I’vebeenleftholdingthebaby.

letoffsteamThisidiommeanstodosomethingactivethathelpsyougetridofyourexcessenergyorstrongfeelingsabout something. (This is a reference to steambeing released from a steam engine in order to reducepressure.)Harry:Idon’tthinkDadshouldwritesucharudelettertothestoremanager.Bob:Don’tworry.Hewon’tsendit.He’sjustlettingoffsteam.Hewassoannoyedwhenitwouldn’twork.

lock,stockandbarrelThis idiom is used to emphasize how complete something is, with everything included. (This is areferencetothemainpartsofagun.)Ben:HasSamreallyboughtahouse?James:Yes,hehas.Heboughtitwiththemoneyhisauntlefthim.Ben:He’llhavetobuyfurniturenow.James:No,hewon’t.Heboughtthecontentsandhouselock,stockandbarrel.

makeamountainoutofamolehillThisidiommeanstoexaggeratetheextentofadifficultsituationorproblemtomakeitseemmuchworsethanitreallyis.Lucy:WhatdidTonysaytoJane?Shesaysthatshe’llneverspeaktohimagain.Jill:EmmawastherewhenithappenedandshesaidthatTonywasjustteasingJane.Heapologizedwhenhesawshewasupset,butshewouldn’tlisten.Lucy:I’msureEmma’sright.Jane’salwaysmakingmountainsoutofmolehills.

themomentoftruthThisidiomreferstoacrucialtimewhenyoufindoutwhethersomethinghasprovedtobesuccessful,willworketc.(ThisisatranslationoftheSpanishexpressionelmomentodelaverdad,whichreferstothemomentinabullfightwhenthematadorisabouttokillthebull.)Mary:Yourbrother’sspentagesworkingonthatoldcar.Pat:Hecertainlyhasandhe’sspentquitealotofmoneyonit.Mary:Ihopeit’sworthallthattimeandmoney.Pat:SodoI.He’stakingitforatestdrivetomorrow.That’llbethemomentoftruth.

thefinalnailinsomeone’scoffinThisidiomreferstosomething,oftenthelatestinaseriesofevents,whichhelpstobringaboutsomeone’sruinordestruction.Bob:Joe’sjusttoldmethatMike’sbeenfired.Bill:Hashe?Ican’tsayI’msurprised.Quiteafewcustomershavecomplainedabouthimrecently.Bob:Apparentlythebossheardhimbeingveryrudetooneofourmostregularcustomersthismorning.Thatwasthefinalnailinhiscoffin.Thebosstoldhimtoleaveimmediately.

onceinabluemoonThisidiommeansalmostneverorveryrarely.(Abluemoonistheappearanceofthethirdfullmooninaseasonthathasfourfullmoons,insteadoftheusualthreeandasabluemoonoccursonlyeverytwoorthreeyears,thetermbluemoonisusedtomeanarareevent,asinthisphraseonceinabluemoon.)Joan:IrememberthatyouandPetewererealmoviebuffsatcollege.Doyougotothemoviesmuchthesedays?Alice:Onceinabluemoon.It’shardtogetoutwiththreeyoungchildren.WeusuallyhavetomakedowithDVDs.

beoverthemoonThisidiommeanstobeextremelyhappyorjoyful.Lucy:Amyseemsinaverygoodmoodtoday.Anne:She’soverthemoon.She’sjustgotengaged.She’sgettingmarriednextyear.

paddleyourowncanoeThis idiommeans to be independent enough tomanage your own affairswithout help or support fromanyoneelse.Jane:Jennyhasfinallydecidedtoleavehome.Sue:Andabouttimetoo!She’sfartoooldtobesodependentonherparents.Jane:Yes,itreallyistimeforhertopaddleherowncanoe.

paintthetownredThisidiommeanstogooutandcelebratesomething,usuallyinalively,extravagantway.Anne:Ican’tcometothemeetingtonight.I’mgoingout.Mary:Whatareyoudoing?Anne:We’regoingtopaintthetownred.We’recelebratingourdaughter’sgraduation.Mary:Haveagoodtime!

beparforthecourseThisidiomreferstowhatusuallyhappensorwhatmightbeexpectedtohappen,oftenusedwithreferencetosomethingundesirableorbad.(Thisisagolfingreferencetothenumberofstrokesthatwouldbemadeinaperfectroundonagolfcourse.)Jack:Dan’shadtoclosedownhiscomputerbusiness.Will:I’mafraidthat’sparforthecourseforsmallbusinessesthesedays.Jack:Yes.Therecession’shitalotofthemverybadly.

passthebuckThisidiommeanstotrytoshift theblameorresponsibilityforsomethingontosomeoneelseinsteadofacceptingityourself.(Theexpressionreferstoacardgamesuchaspoker,thebuckbeingamarkerpassedaroundtoindicatewhothedealeris.)Pete:Thesalesareverybadagainthismonth.It’sallthefaultofthenewsalesmanager.He’shopeless.Ken: You’re quite right, but he’s trying to pass the buck. He says the poor sales are down to themarketingdepartment.

pieintheskyThisidiomrefers toanidea,hopeorplan,relatingtosomethinggood, that isunlikelytohappen.(ThisphraseisfromthewordsofasongbyJoeHill,anAmericanwhowrotemanyradicalsongsforalabourorganisationknownastheIndustrialWorkersoftheWorld:‘You’llgetpieintheskywhenyoudie.’)

Sally:Joewasdesperatetobeadoctorwhenwewereatschoolbutitwasallpieinthesky.Althoughheworkedreallyhard,hewasnotatallacademic.Amy:Itwasarealshame,butIbelievehewentintohisfather’sbusinessandisdoingverywell.

theratraceThisidiomreferstoawayoflifeinwhichpeoplecompeteaggressivelyforsuccessinbusinessetc.Mark:I’mamazedthatSteve’sgivenuphisjobandgonetoliveinthecountry.Hewasdoingsowell.Goerge:Yes.Hewasmaking a lot ofmoney as a stockbroker, but he got really tired of the financialworldandhewasdoingnothingbutwork.Hehardlyeversawhiswifeandchildren.He’stiredoftheratrace.Mark:Ithinkhe’llbeback.Countrylife’llbetooquietforhim.

aredherringThis idiom refers to a piece of information, sometimes a false clue laid deliberately,whichmisleadssomeone.(Areferencetoastrong-smellingfishwhosescentcouldmisleadhuntingdogsanddistractthemfromtheirprey.)Molly:DothepolicethinkthatFrankwaskilledbyaburglar?Sue:Notanymore.Theydidatfirstbecausehisapartmentwasinsuchamess.Nowtheythinkthatwasdonebythemurdererasaredherring.TheythinkthatsomeonewenttoFrank’splaceintendingtokillhim,nottostealanything.

restonyourlaurelsThisidiomreferstothefactthatyouarenottryingveryhardforfurthersuccessbecauseyouarerelyingonthegoodreputationbroughtaboutbypastsuccesses.(ThisisareferencetotheancientGreekpracticeofcrowningsuccessfulpoetsandwinnerswithlaurelwreaths.)Jim:Bobdidn’tplayverywellinthematchtoday.Ifhedoesn’tstarttryingharderhe’llgetdroppedfromtheteam.Frank: I’msureyou’re right.Heused tobe thebestplayerby farbut therearenowquitea fewgoodyoungplayersintheteam.Bobreallycan’taffordtorestonhislaurels.

scoreanowngoalThis idiommeans todo something that isharmfulordisadvantageous toyourown interests. (This is areferencetokickingaballintoyourownteam’sgoal.)Mike:DidKategetthejob?Sam:No,shedidn’tandshescoredanowngoalatherinterview.Shetoldtheownerofthefirmthatoneoftheotherapplicantshadbeeninprison.Mike:Whathappened?Sam:Theygavethejobtothewomanwhohadbeeninprison.Apparentlythebosshadbeeninprisonhimselfwhenhewasyoungandsympathizedwithex-prisoners.

shootyourselfinthefootThisidiommeanstodosomethingwhichisdisadvantageousorharmfultoyourselfortoyoursituation.John:I’mnottakingmycarbacktothatgarageagain.Theguychargedmeafortuneforservicingit.Tom:I’vestoppedusingthem.Theykeptputtingtheirpricesup.John:They’reshootingthemselvesinthefoot.Everyone’sgoingtogosomewherecheaper.

singfromthesamehymnsheetThisidiommeanstoshowagreementwitheachotheraboutsomething,especiallyinpublic.

Chiefexecutive:Theremaybeminordifferencesofopinionamongmembersoftheboard,butitisvitalthatweallsingfromthesamehymnsheetattheannualgeneralmeeting.Companyaccountant:Iquiteagree.Wemustmakesurethatshareholderscontinuetohaveconfidenceinthecompany.

smellaratThisidiommeanstosuspectthatsomethingisnotrightornormal.(Thisisareferencetoadoghuntingratsbyscent.)Sally:HowdidAlicefindoutthatherhusbandwashavinganaffair?Lily:Shesmeltaratwhenhestartedsayinghehadtoworklateeverynight.Thenafriendtoldherthatshehadseenhimacoupleoftimesinaclubwithhissecretary.Sally:Whathappenedthen?Lily:Headmittedtotheaffairandmovedout.

stabsomeoneinthebackThis idiommeans to behave treacherously towards someone, often a friend or colleague, or to betraysomeone.Ben:IthoughtPetewasmyfriend,buthestabbedmeintheback.ItoldhimincompleteconfidencethatIhadpretendedtobeoffillforafewdayswhenIhadreallytakenmykidsonholiday.Harry:Sowhat?Ben:Petewentandtoldourboss.Itturnsoutthathewantsmyjob.Hewastryingtogetmesacked.Harry:Butyoustillhaveyourjob,don’tyou?Ben:Onlyjust.Igotanofficialwarning.

sticktoyourgunsThisidiommeanstorefusetochangeyourdecisionoropinionaboutsomething,nomatterwhathappens.(Thisisreferencetoasoldierwhokeepsfiringattheenemyevenwhenhislifeisingreatdanger.)Liz:IsPatstillthinkingofreportingherbossforbullyingher?Jane:Ithinkso,butsomeofhercolleaguesaretryingtopersuadehernotto.Theysaythatmanagementwillbeonthesideofthebossandwilltakenonoticeofhercomplaint.Liz:Ihopeshestickstoherguns.Herbosshasbeenhorribletoher.Hedeservestobepunished.

astorminateacupThisidiommeansagreatfussoversomethingnotatallimportant.TheAmericanversionofthisidiomisa‘tempestinateacup’.Lucy:WasAlicehurt?Somebodysaidshe’dbeenbittenbyadog.Jenny:No.Thewholethingwasastorminateacup.ThedogjustjumpeduponherbutitwasalargedogandAlicecausedabigfussaboutit.Lucy:Well,sheisterrifiedofdogs,soyoucan’tblameher.

takethebiscuitThisidiomreferstosomethingthatisparticularlysurprising,shocking,orannoying.Bob:Mybrother’salwaysborrowingmythingswithoutaskingme,butthistakesthebiscuit.He’sgoneawayforafewdaysandborrowedmycarandIneedittogettowork.Mark:Howdoyouknow?Bob:He’sleftmeanote!

atempestinateacupseeastorminateacup

throwsomeoneacurve/curvedballThis idiom, more common in American English, means to surprise someone by doing somethingunexpected and perhaps putting them at some kind of disadvantage. (The expression has its origins inbaseballwhenacurvedballsuddenlyandunexpectedlyswervesawayfromthepersontryingtohit theballjustasitreacheshisorherbat.)Mike:JohnandWillwereexpectingtheirgrandfathertoleavethemalotofmoney.Theywereplanningtouseittosetuptheirownbusiness.Jack:Whathappened?Mike:Theoldmanthrewthemacurveandchangedhiswilljustbeforehedied.Hehadlungcancerandheleftallhismoneytoacancercharity.JohnandWillwereshockedbuttherewasnothingtheycoulddoaboutit.

throwaspannerintheworksThisidiommeanstostop,preventordelayaplan,project,etcfromgoingahead.Phil:You’reholidaystartsnextweek,right?Harry:Notanymore.Mybosshasthrownaspannerintheworks.Hewantsmetogoonamanagementcoursethen.Phil:That’stoobad.

tightenyourbeltThisidiommeanstoreducetheamountofmoneywhichyouspendregularly.(Ifyouspendlessmoneyonfoodandsoloseweightyouwillhavetotightenyourbelttoholdupyourjeans.)Jackie:Pricesseemtokeepgoingupandup.Lorna:Butourpay’snotgoingup.Withthreechildrenwe’refindingitdifficulttomanage.Jackie:Soarewe.We’rereallyhavingtotightenourbelts.

toobigforyourbootsThisidiommeansthatyouhavebecomeveryconceitedandthinkthatyouaresuperiortoothers.Julie:AreyoustillfriendlywithAmy?Sarah:No,notanylonger.She’sbecomefartoobigforherbootssinceshemarriedMikeBrown.He’sveryrich.

turnoveranewleafThisidiommeanstostarttoactinabetter,moreacceptableway.Teacher:We’reverypleasedwithPaul’sworkthisterm.Itshowsagreatimprovementandhe’scertainlyworkingmuchharder.Paul’smother:Yes, thankgoodness.He’s spendinga lotmore timestudying.He really seems tohaveturnedoveranewleaf.

twistsomeone’sarmThisidiommeanstotrytopersuadeorforcesomeonetodosomethingthattheyreallydonotwanttodo.(Ifyouliterallytwistsomeone’sarmyouusephysicalforce.)Peter:Ithoughtyouweren’tcomingtoJill’sparty,Joe.You’vealwayssaidyouhateparties.Joe: Idohate them.I toldJillseveral timesthatIwasn’tcoming,butshetwistedmyarm.Youknowhowdeterminedsheis!

beupintheairThisidiommeanstobestillundecidedoruncertainaboutsomething.

Jill:WhereareyouandJimgoingonholidaythisyear?Trisha:Ourplansarestillupintheair.We’dliketogotoGreecewithmybrotherandsister-in-lawbutit’sverydifficultforusalltogetoffworkatthesametime.Jill:Ihopeyoucansortsomethingout.Trisha:SodoI.We’llhavetobooksoonifwe’regoingtogetareasonablypricedflight.

beupinarmsThisidiommeanstoprotestinaveryangryway.(‘Arms’inthissensemeans‘weapons’.)John:Apparentlythey’replanningtoextendtheairport.They’rethinkingofaddinganotherrunway.Thepeoplewholiveneartheairportareupinarms.Theyareplanningtoholdaprotest.Mary: I’mnotsurprised.Thenoisefromtheplanes is terribleat themoment.Goodnessknowswhat itwillbelikeiftherearemoreflights.

washyourhandsofsomeone/somethingToindicatethatyouarenolongergoingtoberesponsiblefor,orinvolvedwith,someoneorsomething.(FromareferenceintheBibletosuchanactionbyPontiusPilateafterthecrucifixionofJesus.)Wendy:Jill’steachingyoungTomtoplaythepiano,isn’tshe?Sue:Shewas,butnotanymore.ShesaysthatTomhasalotoftalent,buthejustrefusestopractise.She’swashedherhandsofhim.

Clichés

Clichésarise fromseveraldifferentareasofEnglish.Sometimesacliché is justaverycommonidiomwhichhasbecomeover-used.Itisveryeasyforsomeonetogetintothehabitofusinganidiomagainandagainwithoutbeingawareofthis.Suchclichésfromidiomsinclude:

betweenarockandahardplaceFacedwithtwoequallyunpleasantorunacceptablechoices.John:I’mgoingtostaywithmyparentsattheendoftheweekbutIcan’tdecidewhethertogobytrainorplane.I’mbetweenarockandahardplace.Theplaneisquickerbutit’sveryexpensivewhilethetrainismuchslowerbutit’salsomuchcheaper.Phil:Isupposeitdependswhichmattersmosttoyou—timeormoney.

fallonyourswordHistorically to commit suicide in this way, but themodern clichémeans to resign from a position ofpowerorimportance,oftenbecauseyouhavebeenfoundcommittingsomekindofcrimeorwrongdoingwhichwouldhaveresultedinyourbeingfiredanyway.Bill:DidyouhearaboutFrank’sfather?Sam:Yes.He’sbeenarrestedforfraud.Bill:He’safairlyseniorpolitician.Willhebefiredfromtheadministration?Sam:Ithinkhe’llfallonhissword.Politiciansusuallydowhensomethinglikethathappens.

flavourofthemonthApersonorthingthatisparticularlypopularataparticulartime,althoughthisislikelytolastonlyforashorttime.Trisha:This toywas flavourof themonthatChristmasand itwasalmost impossible to find it.Nownoneofthekidswillplaywithit.Rose:Iknow.They’veallmovedontosomenewtoy.

thejury’sstilloutNodecisionhasyetbeenreachedoranissuehasnotbeenresolved.Harry:Hasyourfamilydecidedwheretogoonholidayyet?Peter:Everymemberof the familyhasavoteand thejury’sstillout. Ifwe can’t agreeMumgets tochoose.

keepthewolffromthedoorToearnenoughmoneyforyourbasicneeds,suchasfood.Jack:Ireallyneedtolookforajobthatpaysmore.Ken:Me too. I needmoremoney just to keep the wolf from the door. I certainly can’t afford anyluxuries.

leavenostoneunturnedTotrybyeverymeanspossibletofindordosomething.Mary:Thepolicehaven’tfoundthechild’skilleryet.Everyoneissoupsetbyitall.Jane:Iknow,butthereportinthelocalpapersaysthatthey’releavingnostoneunturnedintheirefforts

tofindwhoeverisresponsible.Mary:They’recertainlyaskingalltheneighboursforinformation,buttheydon’tseemtohavemademuchprogress.

alevelplayingfieldAsituationwhichiscompletelyfairtoeveryoneinvolvedbecausenoneofthepeopletakingparthasanyadvantageovertheothers.Ben:Somepeoplesaythatthecollegegivespreferencetowealthierstudents.Sally:Thecollegeauthoritieshavedeniedthat.Theysaythatentrancetothecollegeisa levelplayingfield.

aloosecannonApersonwho isapt tobehave inaunpredictableor reckless fashionandcannotbe relieduponnot tocausetroubleordosomethingembarrassing.Jackie:ShouldweaskSuetocomeclubbingwithus?Alice:Idon’t thinkso.Shecanbesuchaloosecannon.Last timeshehadabit toomuch todrinkandstartedshoutingatpeople.Jackie:I’dforgottenaboutthat.We’lldefinitelynotaskher!

movethegoalpostsTochangetheaims,conditionsandrulesrelatingtoaprojectafteritisunderway.Roger:Whyhaven’tyoustartedbuildingtheextensiontoyourhouse?Harry:Wehaven’tgotplanningpermissionyet.Theofficialskeepmovingthegoalposts.

openthefloodgatesToremovesomeformofcontrolorrestrictionsothatitmakesitpossibleforahugenumberofpeopletodosomething.Ben:Thetennisclubisgettingabitshortofmembers.Iwonderifmorepeoplewouldjoinifwedroppedtheminimumagequalification?Joe:Thetrouble is thatmightopenthefloodgates.Wedon’twantawhole lotofveryyoungchildrenjoining.Ben:Well,asacompromise,howaboutwekeeptheagelimit,butlowerit?Joe:Goodidea.Let’sraiseitatthenextcommitteemeeting.

Ofcourse,notallclichésareidioms.Manyofthemaresimplyphrasesthathavebecomeover-used.Someexamplesofclichésfromover-usedphrasesareincludedinthepagesthatfollow.

anaccidentwaitingtohappenAsituationwhichhasalwayshadthepotentialtobedangerousandwhichmightresultininjuryortragedyatanytime.Will: That old burnt-out house is an accident waiting to happen. They should pull it down beforesomeonegetshurt.Sam:Theycertainlyshould.Theneighbourhoodkidsareallplayingthere.

theendofaneraWhenused correctly thewordera suggests something relatively important or a considerable length oftime.Itisusedofanimportantperiodofhistoryorperiodoftimecharacterizedbyaparticularfeature,

eventorperson,asintheVictorianera.Asamoderncliché,theendofaneraisoftenusedtorefertoafairlyunimportanteventorshort-livedperiod.June:It’stheendofanera.Ournext-doorneighboursaremovinghouse.We’velivednextdoortoeachotherforsixyears.Lucy:Youaregoingtomissthem.June:Icertainlywill.I’mfeelingreallydepressedaboutit.

ahiddenagendaAsecretorunrevealedmotivebehindsomeplanoraction.Jim:I’msurprisedthatMarkisinfavourofthenewofficeblock.We’reallprotestingagainstit.Jason:Ah,butMarkhasahiddenagenda.Hisfather-in-lawisthepropertydeveloperbehindtheofficescheme.Jim:Well,thatexplainsit.

itgoeswiththeterritoryUsedofaparticularkindofproblemordifficultythatoftenoccursinconnectionwithaparticularkindofsituation.Amy: Jim is somuchmore stressed since he got promoted at work. He used to be such a laid-backperson.Rose:Alotofseniormanagerssufferfromstress.Itgoeswiththeterritory.

it’sthethoughtthatcountsAcommentorresponsemadeonthegivingofagiftthathasnotcostverymuch.Sometimesthecommentismadeironicallytorefertoalow-costgiftwhenahigher-pricedgiftwouldhavebeenmoreappropriate.Jenny:Whatdidyoursongiveyouforyourbirthday?Meg:Hegavemethislittlebookofpoems.Jenny:Itcertainlyisverysmall.Meg:Butit’sbymyfavouritepoetandmysonspentageslookingforacopy.Besides,it’sthethoughtthatcounts.

Amy:Mybrotherhadobviouslyforgottenallaboutmybirthday.Hearrivedlatelastnightwithabunchofflowersthathemusthaveboughtfromthelocalpetrolstation.Still,it’sthethoughtthatcounts!Diane:You’relucky.Ican’trememberwhenmybrotherlastrememberedmybirthday.

lastbutnotleastUsedwhengivingalistofnamesoritemswhenthereisnoparticularorderofmerit.Jane:Iamsopleasedtohavewonthechampionship.Iwanttothankmyparents,mysisterandbrother,mycousinTomand,lastbutnotleast,myfriendsSueandLucyfortheircontinuingsupport.

amercifulreleaseUsedtosaythatyouthinkaperson’sdeathwasagoodthingforthatpersonbecauseitputanendtothesufferingcausedbyalong,painfulillness.Mary:Mygrandfatherdiedlastnight.Alice:I’msorrytohearthat.Youmustbeverysad.Mary:Iam,butactuallyitwasamercifulrelease.Hehadterminalcancerandwasinterriblepain.

needsnointroductionUsedbysomeonewhoisintroducingapersontoagroupofpeople.Inspiteofsayingthis,theyoftengo

ontogiveanintroduction,sometimesalongone.John:Ourlastspeaker,SallyBrown,needsnointroduction.She isoneofourmost talentedactressesandmanyof youwill recognize her fromherTVappearances.She is particularlywell known for hercharitableworkandhasraisedlotsofmoneyforchildren’scharitiesinparticular.

onehundredandtenpercentUsed to emphasize the great amount of effort used to do something. The maximum mathematicalpercentageis,infact,onehundredpercent.Bill:Whatqualificationsareyoulookingforinyournewassistant?Jack:Iwantsomeonewiththerightacademicqualificationsandwithbusinessexperiencebutmostofall,Iwantsomeonewhowillgiveonehundredandtenpercenttothejob.Someonewhowon’tcomplainabouthavingtoworklateorcomeinearly.

araceagainsttimeUsedtodescribeanextremelyurgentsituation.Mike:Theminehascollapsedandsomeoftheminersaretrappedunderground.It’sgoingtobearaceagainsttimetogetthemoutalive.Bob:It’scertainlyaverydangeroussituation.

andtherestishistoryUsedtoindicatethatnomoreneedbesaidaboutasubjectbecausethedetailsarealreadywellknowntothelisteners.Anne:Jackseemstogiveagreatdealofmoneytolocalcharities.Washeborninthisarea?Mary:Yes,hewasbornofverypoorparents in a slumdownby thedock.He startedworkat averyyoungagedoingjustaboutanything.Thenhesetuphisownclothingcompanyandtherestishistory.Anne:Well,he’snowamillionaireseveraltimesoverandaverygenerousman.

thesethingshappenUsedtoremindsomeonewhomayhaveexperiencedsomekindofmisfortunethatbadthingshappentopeopleallthetime.Dave:Sam’sbeenlaidoff.Thefirmheworksforisclosingdown.Bill:I’msorrytohearhe’slosthisjob,butthesethingshappen.Andweareinthemiddleofarecession.

timewilltellAclichésuggestingthattheoutcomeofsomethingwillnotbeknownforquitealongtime.Sally:IhearJoe’sstillinhospital.Ishegoingtobeallright?Meg:Onlytimewilltell.Hesufferedsometerribleinjuriesintheaccident.Sally:We’lljusthavetohopeforthebestbutitisaveryworryingsituation.

toonumeroustomentionUsed in more formal spoken contexts supposedly to mean that there are too many people or thingsinvolvedtomentionthemallbyname.Infact,thephraseisoftenusedasanintroductiontoalistofthenames.Jack:Iwouldalsoliketothankthevolunteerswhohelpedtomaketheeventsuchagreatsuccess.Theyaretoonumeroustomention,butmanythankstoSue,Amy,Anne,Diane,Lucy,Pat,Jim,Ben,Joe,John,Mark,andSteve.

theusualsuspects

Usedtodescribethepeoplewhoareusuallyinvolvedinsomething.(‘Rounduptheusualsuspects’fromCasablanca,WarnerBros,1942.)Joanna:WeretheremanypeopleatSally’sbarbecue?Shirley:Notreally.Itwasmostlyjusttheusualsuspects.

Someofthephrasesusedasclichéshavebeeninuseforalongtimeandsomeofthemaremoreformalorevenmorearchaicthanyouwouldexpecttofindinthecontextinwhichtheyarebeingused.Thesearchaicormoreformalclichésinclude:

bowtotheinevitableTohavetotolerateoracceptasituation,howeverunpleasant,becauseyoucannotavoidit.Sally:It’sdreadfulthatthelandlord’snotrenewingourlease.Jane:Itis,buthe’snotgoingtochangehismind.We’lljusthavetobowtotheinevitable.Sally:You’reright.Weneedtolookforsomewhereelsetolive.

bythesametokenInthesamewayorforthesame,orasimilar,reason.Ben:Thestudentsarefuriousthatthey’renotallowedtoleavetheschoolatlunchtimeanymore.Joshua:I’msuretheyare,but,bythesametoken,theparentsaremostlyverypleased.Itmeansthekidscan’tbuyjunkfoodatlunchtimeandtheycan’tgetintoanytrouble.

adauntingprospectSomethingverydifficultoralarmingthatyouhavetofaceordealwith.Emma:Welovethehouseandwe’dliketobuyit,but itneedsalotofworkdone.We’dhavetodoitourselves.That’sadauntingprospect.Jessica:Itcertainlyis.Neitherofyouhaseverdoneanyofthatkindofworkbefore.

dulcettonesSweetormusicaltones.Thisclichéismostlyusedironically.Rob:Weknewwewerehomewhenweheardourneighbour’sdulcettonesshoutingatherpoorhusband.Pete:Ibetyouwantedtogoawayagainimmediately.

amootpointSomethingthatisnotatallcertainbutisdoubtfulorneedstobedebated.[Amootcourtisamethodofteachinglawandlegalskillsthatrequiresstudentstoanalyzeandarguebothsidesofahypotheticallegalcase.]Lily:We’regoingforamealtotheGourmetScenetonight.We’dbettermakeareservation.It’sstillthebestrestaurantintown.Rose:That’samootpoint.Thereareoneortwoothersthatarejustaspopularnow.

paleintoinsignificanceUsedtoindicatethatsomethingwhichseemsverybad,orunfortunatedoesnotseemquitesobadwhencomparedwithsomethingwhichismuchworse.Jenny:Iwasfeelingverydepressedyesterday.I’vejustlostmyjobandnowI’vegottogetoutofmyflat.ButmyproblemspaleintoinsignificancecomparedwithSue’s.Sarah:What’swrongwithSue?Jenny:She’shavingtestsforbreastcancer.

speculationisrifeAclichépopularwithjournalistsindicatingthatalotofpeopleareformingopinionsaboutsomethingandspreadingthesearoundwithoutknowingthefactsofthesituation.Speculation isrife that policehave arrested amemberof themurdervictim’s family.Up till now, thepolicehaveneitherconfirmednordeniedthatthisisthecase.

Someclichésaddverylittlemeaningtowhatisbeingsaid.Theycanbedescribedasfillers—phraseswhichfillupspaceratherthanaddingsignificantlytothemeaning.Fillersgiveyouthinkingtimeinaconversationandalthoughsuchclichéscanbeannoyingtheyhelptomakeaconversationflowalong.Withoutthemconversationwouldbemorestilted.Suchfillerclichésincludethefollowing:

attheendofthedayAnotheroftoday’smostirritatingandoverusedclichés,usedinmuchthesamewayaswhenallissaidanddoneandoftenusedalmostmeaninglessly.Kim:Myexcansaywhathelikesbutattheendofthedayit’smydecisionwhetherIgooutwithTimornot.Kirsty:Ithinkyouarequiteright.

atthismomentintimeOneoftoday’smostoverusedclichéswhichreallyjustmeansnoworjustnow.MrBrown:Atthismomentintime,wehavenoplanstogetridofanystaff.Jim:Whataboutinthefuture?MrBrown:Wecan’treallysay.Itdependsonthecompany’sfinancialsituationoverthenextfewmonths.

ifyouaskmeInmyopinion.Joan:Ifyouaskme,Harry’sthinkingofleaving.Trisha:Whatmakesyouthinkthat?Joan:Well,he’salwayssayinghowboredheisandhe’sbeenlookingatjobvacanciesinthelocalpaper.

inallhonestyTobefrank,tobehonest.Hayley:Shallwegoforadrinkafterwork?Julia:I’mtootired.Inallhonesty,Ijustwanttogohometobed.

inpointoffactArathermeaninglessphrase,ratherlikeinfact.Ken:Iwouldn’tknowJohnifImethiminthestreet.Inpointoffact,Idon’tthinkIknowhimatall.Ian:Imustintroduceyousometime.

markmywordsPayattentiontowhatI’mgoingtosay.Lottie:SallyandTomhavejustgotengaged.Mary:Markmywords.Itwon’tlast.Tom’sbeenengagedatleastthreetimesbeforebuthe’snevermadeittothealtar.Lottie:You’rejoking.Whyevernot?Mary:Hejustcan’tcommithimself.Hegetsengagedandthenhebreaksitoff.

thethingisAfillerusedtopre-emptanexplanationthatyouareabouttomake.Amy: I’mnotsurewhether I’llbeable toplay tenniswithyou tomorrow.Thething ismyparentsareawayandIhavetowalktheirdog.Rosemary:Let’sleaveittillnextweek,then.

whenallissaidanddoneThisphraseissometimesusedtorefertothemostimportantpointofasituation,butitisoftenusedalmostmeaninglessly.Ken:Hopefully,mysonwillrealizethatheneedstospendmoretimestudyingifhe’stopasstheexams.We’redoingallwecantoencouragehimbutwhenall issaidanddonehe is theonlyone thatcandoanythingaboutit.Mike:Aslongashedoesn’tleaveittoolate.Theexamsarequitesoon.

Everydayphrases

TherearemanyexpressionsusedineverydaycommunicationthatareanessentialpartofspokenEnglishandyoumaywish touse these inanywrittenwork involvingdialogue.Someof theseexpressionsareinterjections(oftenfollowedbyanexclamationmark)thatareusedtoexpressemotionorreaction,suchas excitement, surprise, annoyance, disgust, joy, pain, etc. Sometimes interjections consist of singlewords,sometimestheyconsistofshortphrasesorveryshortsentences,andsometimestheyconsistofjustasound.Inmanycasesinterjectionsprovidethelinksthathelpconversationtomovealongsmoothly.

Aspeakersimplycannotbeconsideredfluentwithouthavingtheabilitytousesomeoftheseeverydayphrases. Yet it can be difficult to acquire information about this feature of English. Dictionaries,especiallythesmallerones,donotprovidesuchinformationandeventhelargeronesdonotnecessarilycoverthissubjectinenoughdetail.

Ofcourse,listeningskillscomeinusefulhereandyoucanlearnagreatdealfromlisteningtoEnglish-language radio and televisionprogrammes.Whendoing so itwill behelpful tomakeyourown list ofeverydayphrases,memorize themand then try themout in a conversation.This is an excellentwayofincreasingyourknowledgeofthevocabularyofspokenEnglishbutsomeextrahelpwillprovevaluableandthisisprovidedinthelistthatfollows.

abouttimetoo!Youusethisratherrudeexpressiontoindicatethatsomeonehasarrivedlateorhastakenalongtimetodosomething.Locksmith:That’sallthelocksonyourdoorsandwindowschanged.MrsSmith:Abouttimetoo!Ididn’tthinkitwouldtakethatlong.Locksmith:IworkedasfastasIcould.Therearealotofwindowsinthishouse.

ah!Youusethisinterjectioninvariousways.Itcanbeusedtoexpressavarietyofemotionssuchaspleasure,surpriseordisagreement.Bill:Ah!Thatwasareallydeliciousmeal.Mary:Itcertainlywas.Thenewchefhasmadeahugedifference.

ahem!Asoundlikeashortcoughmadebysomeonewhoistryingtoattractattention,sometimesinadifficultorembarrassingsituation.Jill:Let’saskJohntoorganizethemeeting.He’snotworkingatthemomentandhasplentyoffreetime.John:Ahem!Iheardthatandit’snottrue.I’mworkingfreelanceandI’vegotplentytodo.Jill:Sorry,John!Ididn’tseeyouthere.

alasThisexpressioncanbeusedtoshowthatyouaresadorsorryaboutsomething,butitissometimesusedironicallyorhumorously.

Bob:Iwasgoingtooffertopayhalftherestaurantbill,but,alas,mybrotherpaiditbeforeIhadachancetooffer.Ken:That’sfairenough,isn’tit?He’sawealthylawyerandyou’restillastudent.

allrightYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwishtosayYestosomethingthatsomeonehasaskedyou.Sue:I’mgoingshopping.Doyouwanttocome?Katie:Allright.Ineedanewdress,anyway.

asamatteroffactYou can use this expression in two ways. You can use it to add a piece of interesting or surprisinginformationtowhathasjustbeensaid.Jack:Idon’tthinkthisfirmcanlastmuchlonger.Ithinkweshouldstartlookingforotherjobs.Will:You’reright.Asamatteroffact, I’vealreadystarted looking. I’vemadeanappointmentwitharecruitmentagency.

Youcanalsousethisexpressiontoindicatethatthetruthaboutasituationistheoppositeofwhathasjustbeenstated.Amy:Wastheairfareveryexpensive?Jill:No,asamatteroffact,itwassurprisinglycheap.Itcostalotmorelastyear.

believeitornotYouusethisexpressionwhenyouarementioningsomethingthatistruebutveryunlikelyorsurprising.Matthew:Haveyoufoundaflatyet?Ken:Yes.Believeitornot,we’vefoundquiteacheaponeinthecitycentre.Theowner’sabroadandjustwantssomeonetotakecareofit.Matthew:Thatwaslucky.

believeyoumeYouusethisexpressioninordertostressthetruthofwhatyouaregoingtosayorhavesaid.Jane:Believeyoume,Joewillregretnotgoingtouniversity.Mark:Ithinkyou’reright,buthe’sreallykeenonthisjobhe’sbeenoffered.Jane:That’sjustbecauseit’squitewellpaidandhewantstogetsomemoneyfast.Itdoesn’tofferverygoodpromotionprospects.

byallmeansYouusethisexpressionwhenyouaretellingsomeonethatyouarehappyforthemtodosomething.Jade:PleasecanIleaveworkabitearliertoday?It’smyfather’ssixtiethbirthdayandwe’regivinghimasurpriseparty.Boss:Byallmeanstakeusmuchtimeasyouneedandgiveyourfathermybestwishes.

bythewayYouusethisexpressionwhenyoumentionsomethingwhichisconnectedinsomewaywithwhathasjustbeensaid.Jack:IvisitedSamyesterday.Bytheway,he’smovingtoanewflat.Harry:Canyougivemehisnewaddress?Jack:Ofcourse.I’vegotitrighthere.

comeon!Yousaythisexpressiontosomeonewhenyouwantthemtohurryortodosomething.Joe:Comeon,Tom!We’llmisstheplane!Tom:We’llbethereinaminute.We’vestillgotplentyoftime.Joe:Nowehaven’t.It’stherushhour!

cometothinkofitYouusethisexpressionwhenyouhavejustthoughtoforrememberedsomething.Michael:Apparently,Ben’snotverywell.He’sgoingtothehospitalforsometests.George: I’msorrytohear that.Cometothinkof it,he’snotbeengoing to thegymrecentlybut I justthoughthewasbusy.Ididn’tknowhewasill.

don’tbankonitYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttoadvisesomeonenottorelyonsomethinghappening.Mary:Suesaidthatshe’dhelpmelookaftermysister’sbabytomorrow.Iwasfeelingabitnervousaboutit.Emma:Iwouldn’tbankonit.Suedoesn’talwayskeepherpromises.

don’tsaythat!Youusethisexpressionwhensomeonesayssomethingthatyoudon’twanttobetrue.Pete:I’vehadaquicklookatyourcarandIthinkitmightneedanewengine.Bill:Don’tsaythat!That’llcostafortune!Pete:Icouldbewrongbutyou’dbettergetamechanictolookatitrightaway.

dreamon!Youusethisexpressioninaninformalcontexttoindicatetosomeonethatsomethingisnotatallpracticalornotatalllikelytohappen.Tara:I’dlovetohaveaflatoverlookingthepark.Mark:Dreamon!Themonthlyrentwouldbemorethanyourannualsalary.

forgoodness’sakeYouusethisexpressionwhenyouareveryannoyedorsurprised.Mother:Forgoodness’sake,Lisa,getupandgetdressed.We’vegotguestscomingtolunch.Lisa:OK,I’mjustgettingup.There’splentyoftime.Mother:Nothereisn’t.Ineedyoutohelpmetidythehouse.

good!Youusethisexpressiontoshowthatyouapproveofsomethingorarepleasedaboutsomething.Rory:Thebuildersaidtheworkonthehouseisnearlyfinished.Wecanmoveinnextweek.Gillian:Good!I’mtiredoflivinginthissmallflat.

goodgrief!Youusethisexpressiontoshowgreatsurpriseorshock.Sally:Goodgrief!It’sbeensnowing!I’veneverknownittosnowherebefore.Meg:Andlookhowdeepitis!

goodheavens!Youusethisexpressionwhenyouaresurprisedaboutsomething.YoucanalsouseHeavens!inthesame

way.Jane:Goodheavens!There’sourneighbouroverthere.Jim:Soitis.Imaginecominghalfwayacrosstheworldandmeetingsomeoneweknow.

goodquestion!Youusethisexpressioninreplytoaquestiontowhichitisdifficulttofindananswer.Dan:Ihearyou’regoingtoJim’sweddinginNewZealandnextyear.How’reyougoingtoaffordit?Ken:Goodquestion! I’mhoping togetanevening job toearnsomeextramoney. Ifnot, Imightgetaloan.

great!Youusethisexpressiontoindicatethatyouareverypleasedaboutsomething.Tom:I’vefoundusaflatnearthetowncentre.Karen:Great!Whendowemovein?Ican’twaittogetoutofhere.

Youcanalsousetheexpressionironicallytoindicatethatyouarenotatallpleasedaboutsomething,butaredisappointed,upset,etc.Harry:Thelandlord’sputtingtherentup.Joe:Great!WhereamIgoingtofindtheextramoney?I’vejusttakenoutaloanonacar.

hangon!Youusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttoasksomeonetowaitforyou.Hannah:I’mjustgoingtothelibrary.I’llseeyoulater.Rose:Hangon!I’llcomewithyou.I’vegotsomebookstoreturn.

Youcanalsousethisexpressiontoasksomeonetostopwhattheyaredoingorthinking.Ben:ItmusthavebeenMattwhosetfiretomygarage.Hewantedrevenge.I’mgoingtocallthepolice.John:Hangon,Ben.You’venoproofitwasMatt.

hardly!Youusethisexpressionwhensomethingseemsveryunlikelyinyouropinion.Kate:IsTomtakingyoutothatnewFrenchrestaurant?Liz:Hardly!Hecouldn’tpossiblyaffordit.It’sveryexpensive.

havingsaidthatYouusethisexpressionbeforeyouaddsomethingthatmakeswhatyouhavesaidlessstrong.Bob:Davedoesn’tseemtotreathiswifeverywell.Havingsaidthat,Idon’tthinkshe’saneasypersontogetalongwith.Mike:No,sheisn’t.Ithinktheydeserveeachother.

heavens!seegoodheavens!

heavenknows!Usethisexpressiontoemphasizethatyoudonotknowsomethingorthatitisdifficulttofindananswertosomething.Jackie:The landlord’s givenus amonth’s notice onour flat. It is such a blow.We’vebeen sohappythere.Mary:Wherewillyoulive?

Jackie:Heavenknows!Flatsaredifficulttofindaroundhere.

how’sitgoing?Youcanusethisinformalphrasewhenaskingsomeonehowtheyare.Ken:Hi,George,how’sitgoing?George:OK.I’mabittiredbecauseI’vebeenworkinglateeverynightthisweek.

Ican’ttellyouYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwishtoemphasizewhatstrongfeelingsyouhaveaboutsomething.Diane:Ican’ttellyouhowmuchIappreciateyourhelp.Isimplycouldn’thavecopedwithoutit.Jane:I’mjustgladIwasabletohelp.

Ican’tthinkwhyAneverydayexpressionusedtoemphasizethatyoudonotunderstandsomethingatall.Ben:Jim’sdecidedtoleavehisjob.Joe:Yes,Iheardthat,butIcan’tthinkwhy.It’sawellpaidjobandhe’sbeensohappythere.Ben:Hesayshecan’tstandhisnewboss.

IcoulddowithoutYou use this expression when you want to emphasize that you do not want to do something or havesomeoneorsomething.Sue:Icoulddowithoutworkinglatetonight.Ihaveguestscomingfordinner.Lucy: I’ve got to work too andmy parents-in-law are coming round to see the kids. They won’t bepleased.

IdaresayYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisprobableorlikely.Alicia:IdaresayJennythinksthatshe’sdoingtherightthingmovinginwithherparents,butIthinkshe’llregretit.Shedoesn’tgetonwiththemverywell.Diana:Well,shedoesn’tthinkshe’sgotachoice.Bothherparentshavegothealthproblems.

IhatetothinkYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttostresshowbadyouconsiderasituationisormightbe.Ken:MywifewantsustogoonaworldcruisewhenIretire.Bill:That’llbenice,butIhatetothinkwhatit’llcostyou.

I’mafraidThisexpressiondoesnotmeanthatyouarefeelingfear.Youuseitwhenyouareapologizingorwhenyouarepolitelytellingsomeonesomethingthatmayupsetorannoythem.Ken:Doyouhavetwosingleroomsforonenight?Hotel receptionist: I’mafraidwedon’t have anyvacancies. It’s themiddleof the tourist season andwe’reverybusy.

Anne:ThisTVsetkeepsswitchingitselfonandoff.Canyouhavealookatit?Repairman:I’vehadalookandI’mafraidIcan’trepairit.You’regoingtohavetogetanewone.

ImustsayYouuse this expressionwhenyouwant to emphasizehowyou feel about somethingorwhatyou think

aboutsomething.Fiona:Imustsaythatmealwasabsolutelydelicious.Bob:Yes,itwas.Anditwasn’tveryexpensive.

IsupposesoYouusethisexpressionwhenyousaythatyouagreewithsomeonebutratherreluctantly.Mark:It’sgettinglateandwe’retired.Ithinkweshouldleavetherestofthisjobuntiltomorrow.Tom:Isupposeso,butIwishwecouldhavefinishedittonight.

IthoughtasmuchYouusethisexpressionwhenyoufindoutthatsomethingyoususpectedturnsouttobetrue.Derek:It’sthecatnextdoorthat’sbeendigginguptheplantsinourfrontgarden.I’vejustseenitdoingit.Lisa:IthoughtasmuchbutwhenIspoketoitsownershesaiditwasneveroutatthefrontofthehouse.

IthoughtI’dUsethisexpressionwhenyouwanttotellsomeonewhatyouareplanningtodo.Janet:Whatareyougoingtodoonyourdayoff?Wendy:IthoughtI’dgoandlookforapresentforSally.Janet:That’sagoodidea.I’vegottofindsomethingaswell.

ItoldyousoYouusethisexpressionwhenyouareremindingsomeonethatyouhadwarnedthemthatsomethingbadorunfortunatewouldhappenbeforeitdid.Jim:IwishIhadn’tboughtthischeapTV.Thequalityofthepicture’sterrible.George:Itoldyouso.Isaidthatyouonlygetwhatyoupayfor.

ifyoudon’tmindmysayingsoYouusethisexpressionwhenyouaregoingtosaysomethingthatcriticizessomeoneinsomewayorislikelytoannoyorupsetthem.MrsBrown:Ifyoudon’tmindmysayingso,thatchildshouldbeinbedbynow.MrsSmith:It’sgotnothingtodowithyou,andanywaysheusuallygoestobedmuchearlierthanthisbutwewerevisitingmymotherandwemissedthelastbus.

I’venoideaYouusethisexpressiontoemphasizethatyoudonotknowanythingaboutsomething.Debbie:We’verunoutofpetrol.Howfarisittothenexttown?Lyn:I’venoidea,butI’mprettysureit’stoofartowalk,especiallyintheseshoes.Debbie:We’lljusthavetohopethatsomeonecomesalongtohelp.

Iwaswonderingif/whether...?Youusethisexpressionasapolitewayofaskingsomebodysomething.Sophie: I was wondering if I could borrow your laptop this evening for a couple of hours? Mycomputer’sbeingrepaired.Dorothy:Sure!It’sonthedeskinmystudy.

it’sbeyondmeYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttostressthatyoudonotunderstandsomething.Will:Mydaughter’sonthephoneagain—andtoherbestfriend.It’sbeyondmewhattheyfindtosayto

eachother.They’reatschooltogetherallday.Ron:Mydaughter’sjustthesame.She’salwaysonhermobilephone,eithertalkingortexting.

it’sjustthatYouusethisexpressionwhenyouaregivingareasonorexplanationforsomething.Lucy:It’sapityyoucan’tgoonholidaywithus.Amy:Yes,I’msosorrybutitcan’tbehelped.It’sjustthatIcan’tgetawayfromtheofficeatthattimeofyear.

it’snobigdealYouusethisexpressiontoindicatethatsomethingisnotatallimportant.Mary:Thanksverymuchforofferingtohelpmemoveallthesebooks.Bob:It’snobigdeal!Iwasn’tdoinganythingelseanyway.

letmesee/let’sseeYouusethisexpressionwhenyouarethinkingaboutsomething.Tourist:Excuseme,doyouknowofagoodseafoodrestaurantinthisarea?Peter:Letmesee.Therearetwoorthree,buttheoneIlikebestistheonedownontheshore.It’scalledtheCrabShell.It’sverygood.

Tourist:Excuse,me.Canyoutellmewherethenearestbankis,please?Bill:Let’ssee.Someof themhave closeddown recently.Thenearest one’s inGeorgeStreet, just offMainStreet.Doyouknowwherethatis?Tourist:Yes,Ido.Manythanks.

listenYou often use this interjection when you want someone to pay attention or if you want to interruptsomeone.It’susuallynotmeantrudelyandisoftenfollowedbysorry.Salesman:Hello,sir.CanIask ifyou’veever thoughtabout thedoorsandwindowsinyourhomeandwhether...?Tim:Listen.Sorrytostopyouthere,butIamnotatallinterestedindoubleglazingandIdon’twanttowasteyourtime.

look!Youusethisinterjectionwhenyouwantsomeonetopayattentiontowhatyouaregoingtosay,oftenwhenyouareannoyed.Martin:Look! I forgot Iwas supposed tobemeetingyouand I’ve said I’msorry.Whatmoredoyouexpectmetodo?Tina:Youcouldsaysorryasthoughyoumeantit.

lookout!Youusethisinterjectiontowarnsomeoneofpossibledanger.Neil:Lookout!Thispavement’sveryicy.Caroline:Thanksforthewarning.I’llbecareful.

metooYou use this expression when you wish to agree with someone or when you wish to be included insomething.

Liz:I’mfuriousthatthey’repullingdownthatlovelyoldbuilding.Helen:Metoo.It’sdisgraceful.I’mgoingtoorganizeaprotest!

nevermindYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttotellsomeonethatsomethingisnotimportant.Tara:IbrokeoneofyourmugswhenIwasstackingthedishwasher.Sorry.I’llreplaceit.Nancy:Nevermind!Itwasn’tanexpensiveoneandI’vegotplentyofothermugs.

Nathalie:I’msorryIcan’tcometothemeetingtonight.Ipromisedtohavedinnerwithmyparents.Jim:Nevermind.I’llletyouknowwhathappensandyoucancometothenextone.

nochance!Usethisexpressionwhenyouthinkthatitisextremelyunlikelythatsomethingwillhappen.Jill:DoyouthinkTomandSallywillgetbacktogether?Lucy:No chance! She said it’s definitely over. Shediscoveredhewas cheatingonherwith her bestfriend.

nofear!Youusethisexpressionininformalcontextstostressthatyouaredefinitelynotgoingtodosomethingorthatsomethingisnotgoingtohappen.Sarah:Areyougoingonholidaywithyourparents?Tom:Nofear!Theyliketowanderroundmuseumsandoldchurches.Ijustwanttogoandlieonabeachsomewhere.

Donald:WillJimreallyleavehisjobdoyouthink?He’salwayssayinghewill.William:Nofear!He’sfartoowellpaidtodothat.

noway!Youusethisexpressiontoemphasizethatyouarenotgoingtodosomethingorthatsomethingisnotlikelytohappen.Tom:AreyougoingtoapologizetoAnne?Ryan:Noway!Ididn’tdoanythingwrong.

nowonderYou use this expression when you consider that something is not at all surprising or that it is to beexpected.Harry:Jack’sreallyfuriouswithme.Charles:Nowonder.Youborrowedhisbikewithoutaskinghimandthendamagedit.

Sue:NowonderJane’sfeelingmiserable.Herdog’sjustdied.Elizabeth:Andsheadoredit.She’dhaditsinceitwasapuppy.

notonyourlife!Youusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttostressthatyouaredefinitelynotgoingtodosomething.Bill:AreyougoingtohelpBobmovehousetomorrow?Sam:Not on your life! I’m exhausted after aweek’s hardwork. I need a rest. AndBob never doesanythingtohelpotherpeople.Bill:That’strue.Idon’tthinkI’llhelphimeither.

nottoworry/don’tworryYouusethisexpressiontoshowthatyoudonotthinkthatsomethingisimportant.Martha:I’msosorrybutIcan’tcometothecinematonight.Theboss’saskedmetoworklate.Joe:Nottoworry.Wecangosomeothertime.I’llgiveyouaring.

ohdear!Usethisexpressionwhenyouaredisappointed,upsetorworried.Kate:Ohdear!We’vejustmissedabus.We’llhavetowaitanhourforthenextone.Diana:Wemightaswellgoandhavesomecoffee.Where’sthenearestcafé?

oops!You use this expression when you drop something or nearly drop something, when you have made amistake,oraccidentallyrevealedasecret.Jessica:Oops!I’vedroppedacontactlens.Cananyoneseeit?Paula:Thereitis,overthere.I’llgetit.

ouch!Youusethisinterjectionwhenyoufeelasuddenpain.Simon:Ouch!I’vebeenstungbyawasp.Tanya:I’mgoinginside.Ihatewasps.

Youmightalsouseouchifsomeonehashurtyourfeelings.

Janice:Thatdressdoesnothingforyou.Jenny:Ouch!Atleastyou’rehonest,Isuppose.

ow!Youcanalsousethisinterjectionwhenyoufeelasuddenpain.Malcolm:Ow!Thathurtmyarm.Don’tthrowtheballsohard.James:Sorry!Butyouweresupposedtocatchit.

phew!Thisinterjectioncanbeusedinseveralsituations.Youcanuseittoindicatethatyouarefeelingtired.Pete:Phew!ThatclimbwasmuchharderthanIthought.

Youcanuseittoindicatethatyouarefeelinghot.Alice:Phew!Ifindthisheatunbearable.I’mgoinginside.

Youcanalsouseittoindicatethatyouarefeelingveryrelievedbecausesomethingdidnothappen.Luke:Phew!I’mgladtheteacherdidn’taskmeanyquestionsabouttheplay.Ihaven’treadityet!

quiterighttoo!Youusethisexpressiontoemphasizehowmuchyouagreewithsomething.Joan:I’mthinkingofmovingtoabiggerflat.Thisplaceisjustnotbigenough.Catherine:Quiterighttoo!Youneedalotmorespace.

ratheryouthanme!You use this expression to stress that you would certainly not want to be involved in something that

someoneelseisgoingtodo.Tim: Are you really going to swim in the sea at this time of year?Rather you thanme! It will befreezing.Jack:Iknow,buttheothersaregoingtodoitandIdon’twanttolooklikeacoward.

really?Yousaythisinresponsetosomethingthatyouhearthatsurprisesyouorinterestsyouverymuch.Sarah:I’vejustmetWendy.She’sjustgotmarried.Kate:Really?Ididn’tevenknowthatshewasseeingsomeone.

rightyouareThisisquiteanold-fashionedexpressionthatisusedwhenyouagreetodoassomeonehassuggested.John:I’mgoingtobeabitlatesoIwon’thavetimetocomeforadrinkbeforethemeal.I’llmeetyouattherestaurant.Martin:Rightyouare,John.Seeyouthere.

rollon...!Youuse thisexpressionwhenyouwantsomethingthatyouknowyouwill findpleasant tohappenverysoon.Craig:I’msotired.I’vebeenworkinglateandcominginearlyeverydaythisweek.Ian:SohaveI.Rollontheweekendsowecangetarest!

samehereYouusethisexpressiontoindicatethatyousharesomeoneelse’sopinionorfeelingsorthatyouareinasimilarsituationtotheirs.Annette:Itseemstotakememuchlongertogettoworkthesedays.Joanne:Samehere.Thetraffic’sgotmuchworseinthemorningforsomereason.

searchme!Youusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttostressthatyoudonotknowtheanswertoaquestion.Joe:Why’sthebosslookingsoangry?Thomas:Searchme!He’sbeeninaterriblemoodallmorningbutIcan’tthinkwhy.Joe:Maybehe’shadarowwithhiswife.

shh!Youusethisexpressiontoasksomeonetobequietormakelessnoise.Molly:Shh!I’vejustgotthebabytosleep.Mark:Sorry.IhopeIdidn’twakeher.

shoo!Youusethisinterjectiontotellananimalorsomeonewhoisannoyingyoutogoaway.Donald:There’sthatcatagainfromacrosstheroad.I’mgoingtotryandgetridofit.Shoo!Robbie:It’lljustcomebackagain.Itseemstolikeyourgardenmorethanitsown!

sowhat?Thisexpressionisratherrude.Youuseitwhenyouthinkthatsomethingsomeonehassaidisnotrelevantorimportant.Sally:Youwereabitlategettingtothestudents’meeting.

Pamela:Sowhat?Thesemeetingsareacompletewasteoftime.IwishIhadn’tbotheredtogoatall.

sowhat’snew?You use this expression in an informal context to stress that you do not think that something is at allsurprisingorunexpected.Craig:Mycomputer’scrashedagain.Ken:Sowhat’snew?It’salwaysbreakingdown.Youneedtogetanewone.Thatone’sancient!

somehope!Youuse thisexpression toemphasize thatyou think that there isvery little,orno,chanceofsomethinghappening.Jackie:Doyouthinkthere’sanychancewe’llgetapayraisethisyear?Monica:Somehope!Salesaredownandprofitsareatanall-timelow.We’llbeluckyifwegettokeepourjobs.

speakingofYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttosaysomethingmoreaboutapersonorthingthathasjustbeenmentioned.Debbie:Suewon’tbeatworkthisweek.She’sonholiday.Mary:Speakingofholidays,areyoustillthinkingofgoingtoAustraliathisyear?Debbie:Yes.I’mgoingtovisitmysister.

suityourself!Youusethisexpressionratherrudelytotellsomeonethattheycandowhattheywanttodowhenyouareannoyedwiththemfornotdoingwhatyouwantthemtodo.Helen:Jill’shavingapartytonight.Doyouwanttocomewithme?Rose:Sorry,Ican’t.I’veanEnglishessaytofinish.Helen:Suityourself!I’llgetAnnetocomebutitwoulddoyougoodtohavesomefunforachange.

sure!Youusethisexpressionwhenyoumeanyesoryes,certainly.Jim:Areyougoingtoworkbycartoday?Adam:Yes.I’mjustabouttoleave.Jim:Couldyoupossiblygivemearide?Mycarwon’tstartandIneedtobeatworkforanimportantmeeting.Adam:Sure!Comeroundrightaway.

talkabout...!Yousaytalkabout...whenyouwanttoemphasizesomething.Carole:Talkaboutstinginess!Joe’sjustaskedmeforthemoneyforthecoffeeheboughtmeyesterday.Laura:That’stypicalofhim!

that’sallIneed!Youusethisexpressionwhenaproblemordifficultyariseswhenyouarealreadyhavingseveralotherproblemsordifficultiestocopewith.

Jerry:That’sallIneed!Bill:What’swrong?

Jerry:Mycarwon’tstartandthebosshasjustrungtosayheneedsmeintheofficerightaway.BeforethatIspilledcoffeeonmyshirtandhadtochangeitandthenIslippedonthestairsandhurtmyankle.Bill:Calmdown!Youcancomeinmycar.Iworkquitenearyou.Jerry:Thanks!

that’sfinebymeYouusethisexpressionwhenyouareindicatingthatyouagreetodosomethingwhichhasbeensuggested.Peter:Thefilmstartsveryearly.Wecouldgotothecinemafirstandeatlater.Alicia:That’sfinebyme.I’mnotveryhungry,anyway.

that’snewstomeYouusethisexpressionwhenyouhearaboutsomethingthatyoudidnotknow,oftenwhenyoufeelthatyoushouldhaveknownaboutitearlier.Ben:Apparentlythey’regoingtorenovateourofficeandweneedtomovewhiletheworkgetsdone.Garth:That’snewstome.Whotoldyou?Ben:Theofficemanager.Garth:Well,sheshouldhavetoldmeaswell.I’vegotalotofstufftomove.

that’sOKwithmeYouusethisexpressionwhenyouareindicatingthatyouagreetosomethingwhichhasbeensuggested.Lisa:We’regoingtohavetogobytrain.Mycar’sbrokendownandtheycan’trepairittilltomorrow.Maria:That’sOKwithme.IlovegoingbytrainandIsometimesgetsickinacar.

that’stoobadYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisunfortunate.Hugh:Thepicnic’sbeencancelledbecauseoftherain.Lisa:That’stoobad.Thekidswillbeupset.Theywerereallylookingforwardtoit.Hugh:We’reorganizingsomeindoorgamesforthem.Thatshouldcheerthemup!

there’snodoubtaboutitYouusethisexpressiontoemphasizethatsomethingisdefinitelytrueorcertain.Frank:Ican’tbelievethatBobwouldstealmoneyfromthecompany.Heseemssuchanhonestguy.Mike: It does seem amazing, but there’s no doubt about it. The police have proof and Bob hasconfessed.Apparently,hehashugegamblingdebtsandstolethemoneytopaythemoff.

thereyougo/areYouusethisexpressionwhenyouaregivingsomethingtosomeoneorhavedonesomethingforthem.Customer:Akiloofredapples,please.Shopkeeper:Thereyougo.Akiloofmyverybestapples.Enjoy.Customer:Thankyou.

thoughYouusethiswordattheendofasentencewhenyouwanttomakethepreviousstatementlessstrongorlessimportant.Ken:I’vegottoworkonSaturday.It’sannoyingbecauseI’dmadeplans.I’vegotanextratwodaysoffnextweek,though.John:That’snottoobad.It’sgoodtogetsometimeoffduringtheweeksometimes.

tootrue!Youusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttostresshowtrueyouconsiderastatementtobeorhowmuchyouagreewithit.Trisha:It’stimethatwomenfactoryworkersgotthesamepayasthemen.Patsy:Tootrue!Afterall,they’redoingthesamekindofwork.

Jane:It’ssocoldinthisoffice.Theyshouldreallyputtheheatingon.Betty:Tootrue!Myhandsarefreezing.Icanscarcelyworkmykeyboard.

tut!/tut,tut!Youusethissoundtoshowthatyoudisapproveofsomething.Itisoftenusedhumorously.MrsBrown:Tut!Lookatwhatthosechildrenaredoing.They’redisturbingeveryone.You’dthinktheirparentswouldstopthem.MrsSmith:They’renotpayinganyattentiontothem.Someparentsjustdon’tcare.

Bob:Tut,tut!Whatareyoudoinghere,Jennifer?Aren’tyoumeanttobeatwork?Jennifer:No,Itookthedayofftocometothefair.Howaboutyou,Bob?Bob:I’vejustcomeforanhour.It’smylunchbreak.

ugh!Youusethisexpressiontoshowthatyoudislikesomethingverymuchorthatitdisgustsyou.Alison:Ugh!Thissaucehasmushroomsinit.Ihatethem!Barbara:Ithinkit’sdelicious.

uh-huhYoumakethissoundwhenyouareagreeingwithsomeoneorsayingyes.Barry:AreyougoingtoPam’spartytonight?Mostofourfriendsaregoing.Susan:Uh-huh,butImightbeabitlate.

whatabout?Youusethisexpressionwhenyouaremakingasuggestiontosomeoneaboutsomething.Alex:I’vehadaharddayattheoffice.Iquitefancygoingout.Meg:Me,too.Whataboutgoingtothecinema?Alex:Goodidea!I’llseewhat’son.

whataboutit?/howaboutit?You use this expression in an informal context when you are asking someone if they agree with asuggestionthatyouhavemade.Lucy:Youcanhavemyspareroomforamonthifyougivemesomehelpwithchildcare.Whataboutit?Alice:Yes,thanks.ItwillbegreattohavesomewheretostayuntilIcanmoveintomynewflat.

whatdidItellyou?Youusethisexpressionafteryouhavewarnedsomeonethatsomethingbadorunfortunatemighthappenanditdoeshappen.Patrick:Sally’sjustfoundoutthathernewboyfriendismarriedwithtwochildren.Luke:WhatdidItellyou?Isaidtherewassomethingdeceitfulabouthim.

whatif?

Youusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttomentionsomethingthatmighthappen,especiallysomethingbadorunhelpful.Tom:WehavetochangeplanesinLondonandwedon’thavemuchtimebetweentheflights.Pete:Whatifwemissourconnection?Tom:We’lljusthavetohopethatwedon’t.

what’smoreYouusethisexpressionwhenyouwishtoaddsomethingtowhatyouhavejustsaid,oftensomethingveryimportantorrelevant.Pam:I’mnottakingaholidaythisyear.I’mverybusyatworkand,what’smore,Ican’treallyaffordtogoaway.Tessa:NeithercanI.I’vejustspentalotofmoneyonthehouse.

what’stheuse?Youusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttostressthatdoingorsayingsomethingwillhavenoeffect.Harry:IshouldtrytowarnSuethatBill’snottobetrusted.Wendy:What’stheuse?Shewouldn’tbelieveyou.She’smadlyinlovewithhim.Harry:She’sgoingtogethurt.Wendy:Well,there’snothingwecando.

what’sup?Youusethisexpressiontofindoutifsomethingbadorunfortunatehashappened.Youcanaddwithtofindoutwhysomeoneisupset.Jack:Thelocalshop’snotopen.What’sup?Sally:Therewasabreak-inlastnightandtheownergothurt.Jack:Poorman.Ishegoingtobeallright?Sally:He’sfine,buthe’sinshock.Theshop’llbeclosedfortherestoftheweekatleast.

whydon’t...?Usethisexpressiontomakesuggestions.Larry:It’sagloriousday.Whydon’twegotothebeach?Peggy:Goodidea.I’llgoandputapicnictogether.Larry:AndI’lltakethecartogetmorepetrol.

wonderswillnevercease!Youusethisexpressionwhenyouwanttoexpressgreatsurprise.Itisoftenusedironically.Myra:Wonderswillnevercease!Iactuallyfoundaparkingplaceinthetowncentre.Jane:Youwerelucky!Parkingthere’sgettingmoreandmoreimpossible.

wouldn’tyouknowit?Youusethisexpressionwhensomethingunexpectedhashappenedandcausedproblemsordifficultiesforyou.Sometimestheexpressioniswouldn’tyoujustknowit?Mark:Wouldn’tyouknowit?Iusuallyarriveearlyatthestationandthetrainisusuallylate.TodayIwasslightlylaterandthetrainwasearly.Joe:Didyoumissit?Mark:Yes,thetrainwasjustleavingtheplatformasIgotthere.

youcouldalways

Youusethisexpressionwhenyouaremakingasuggestiontosomeone.Otherpersonalpronouns,suchasI,he,she,oranouncanbeusedinsteadofyou.Will:Thelasttrainleavesquiteearlyintheeveningbutyoucouldalwaysstaytonightwithmeandgetthefirsttraininthemorning.Itleavesveryearly.Sam:Thanksfortheinvitation.IthinkImightjustdothat.

you’llneverguess!Youusethisexpressionwhenyouareabouttotellsomeonesomethingverysurprisingorexciting.Sally:You’llneverguesswhoI’vejustseen!Anne:Ican’tthinkwho.Whydon’tyoutellme?Sally:ItwasRobBrown.Anne:Ithoughthewasinprisonforfraud.Sally:Hewasbuthe’sout.Itseemshewasinnocentallalong.

youneverknowYouusethisexpressionwhenyouthinkthatitisjustpossiblethatsomethingmighthappen,althoughitisveryunlikely.Alan:Youneverknow.Mikemightpass theEnglishexam,althoughhe’snotverygoodatEnglishandsomeofthequestionswereverydifficult.Dave:Iwouldbeverysurprisedifhepassed.Hedidn’tdomuchstudyingforit.

yuck!Youusethisexpressiontoindicatethatsomethingtastesunpleasantordisgusting.Mary:Yuck!Thissouphasfartoomuchsaltinit.Jade:Soitdoes.Ittasteshorrible.

Homophones

Ahomophoneisawordthatispronouncedthesameasanotherwordbutitdiffersinmeaningorspellingorboth.Afewexamplesarelistedbelow.

ail,aratherold-fashionedverbmeaningtobeill,asinTheoldwomanisailing;ortobethematter,tobewrong,asinWhatailsyou?ale,anounmeaningakindofbeer,asinapintoffoamingale.

alteraverbmeaningtochange,asinTheyhavehadtoaltertheirplans.altaranounmeaning,intheChristianchurch,thetableonwhichthebreadandwineareconsecratedforcommunionandwhichservesasthecentreofworship,asinThepriestmovedtothealtar,fromwherehedispensedcommunion.Thewordcanalsorefertoaraisedstructureonwhichsacrificesaremade,asinTheDruidsmadesacrificesonthealtaroftheirgods.

blewaverb,thepasttenseoftheverbtoblow,asinTheyblewthetrumpetsloudly.blueanounandadjectivemeaningacolouroftheshadeofaclearsky,asinSheworeabluedress.

boaranounmeaningamalepig,asinadishmadewithwildboar.boreaverbmeaningtoproduceaholeinsomethingwithadrillasinHeboredaholeinthewall.bore a verbmeaning tomake tired and uninterested, as inThe audiencewas obviously bored by theratheracademiclecture.boreaverb,thepasttenseoftheverbtobear,asinTheyboretheirtroubleslightly.

cerealanounmeaningaplantyieldinggrainsuitableforfood,asinCountrieswhichgrowcerealcropsandQuitealotofcerealcropsaregrownintheUKandapreparedfoodmadewithgrain,asinWeoftenhavecerealforbreakfast.serialanounmeaningastoryortelevisionplaywhichispublishedorappearsinregularparts,asinthefinalinstalmentofthemagazineserialwhichshewasfollowing.

citeaverbmeaningtoquoteormentionbywayofexampleorproof,asinThelawyercitedapreviouscasetotryandgethisclientoffachargeofmanslaughter.sightanounmeaningtheactofseeing,asinTheyrecognizedhimatfirstsight.siteanounmeaningalocation,place,asinTheyhavefoundasiteforthenewfactory.

featanounmeaninganotableactordeed,asinTheoldmanreceivedanawardforhiscourageousfeat.feetanoun,thepluralformoffoot,asinThechildgotherfeetwetfromwalkingthroughapuddle.

knowaverbmeaningtohaveunderstandingorknowledgeof,as inHeis theonlyonewhoknowsthetruefactsofthesituation,andtobeacquaintedwith,asinImetheroncebutIdon’treallyknowher.noanadjectivemeaningnotany,asinWehavenofoodleftandThere isnorightofway through thelargeestate.

noneapronounmeaningnotany,asinTheyaredemandingmoneybutwehavenone.nun a noun meaning a woman who joins a religious order and takes vows of poverty, chastity and

obedience,asinShegaveuptheworldtobecomeanun.

rite a noun meaning a ceremonial act or words, as in She has been taking part in rites involvingwitchcraft.rightanadjectivemeaningcorrect,asinVeryfewpeoplegavetherightanswertothequestion.writeaverbmeaningtoformreadablecharacters,asinHewritesregularlyforthenewspapers.

stareaverbandnounmeaningtolookfixedlyandafixedgaze,asinShestaredathimindisbeliefwhenhetoldherthenewsandHegavemeanangrystare.stairanounmeaningaseriesofflightsofsteps,asinTheoldladycaughtherfootonthestair.

Homonyms

Ahomonymisoneofagroupofwordsthatsharethesamespellingandthesamepronunciationbuthavedifferentmeanings.Afewexamplesarelistedbelow.

bank a nounmeaning an institution offering financial services, such as the safekeeping ofmoney andlendingofmoney,asinI haveopenedasavingsaccountatthebank.bankanounmeaningalongraisedmass,ahilloraslopeandespeciallytheslopingsidesofariver,asinWewalkedformilesalongthebanksoftheriver.

bill a noun meaning a written statement of money owed, as in You must pay the telephone billimmediately.billanounmeaningabird’sbeak,asinTheseagullhasinjureditsbill.

fairanadjectivemeaningattractive,asinfairyoungwomen;lightincolour,asinShehasfairhair;fine,notraining,asinIhopeitkeepsfair;just,freefromprejudice,asinWefeltthattherefereecametoafairdecision.fair a noun which formerly meant a market held regularly in the same place, often with stalls,entertainments and rides but now referringmore to an eventwith entertainments and rideswithout themarket,asinHewonacoconutatthefair;atradeexhibition,asintheFrankfurtBookFair.

pulseanounmeaningthethrobbingcausedbythecontractionsoftheheart,asinThepatienthasaweakpulse.pulseanounmeaningtheedibleseedsofanyofvariouscropsofthepeafamily,suchaslentils,peasandbeans,asinVegetarianseatalotoffoodmadewithpulses.

rowaverb,pronouncedtorhymewithlow,meaningtopropelaboatbymeansofoars,asinHeplanstorowacrosstheAtlanticsingle-handed.rowanoun,pronouncedtorhymewithlow,meaninganumberofpeopleorthingsarrangedinaline,asinWetriedtogetintothefrontrowtowatchtheprocession.

tripanounmeaningatour,journeyoravoyage,asinIhadawonderfultimeduringmytriptoSpain.tripaverbmeaningtostumbleorfalloversomething,asinItrippedoverafallenbranchinthewoodandtwistedmyankle.

Homographsandheteronyms

Ahomographisoneofagroupofwordsthatarespelledthesamewaybuthavedifferentmeanings.Ahomograph that isalsopronounceddifferently isaheteronym.Someexamplesofheteronymsare

givenbelow.

bowpronouncedtorhymewithhow,averbmeaningtobendtheheadorbodyasasignofrespectoringreetingasinThevisitorsbowedtotheemperorandThemournersbowedtheirheadsasthecoffinwasloweredintothegrave.bowpronouncedtorhymewithlow,anounmeaningaloopedknotoraribbontiedinthisway,asinShewearsbluebowsinherhair;orawoodentoolusedtopropelanarrow,asinHeshotthearrowfromthebow.

deliberatepronouncedtorhymewithdeliber-at,anadjectivemeaningcarefullythoughtoutorplanned,intentional,asinItwasadeliberateinsult.deliberate pronounced to rhyme with deliber-ate, a verb meaning to consider something deeply, toponderorthinksomethingover,asinThejurydeliberatedforsometimebeforereachingaverdict.

lead pronounced leed, a verb meaning to show the way, as in The guide will lead you down themountain.leadpronouncedled,anounmeaningatypeofgreyishmetal,asinTheyaregoingtoremovewaterpipesmadefromlead.

rowpronouncedtorhymewithlow,anounmeaninganumberofpeopleorthingsarrangedinaline,asinTheprincesssatinthefrontrow.rowpronouncedtorhymewithhow,anounmeaningaquarrel,adisagreement,asinHehashadarowwithhisneighbouroverrepairstothegardenwall.

sowpronouncedtorhymewithlow,averbmeaningtoscatterseedsintheearth,asinShesowedsomeflowerseedsinthegarden.sowpronouncedtorhymewithhow,anounmeaningafemalepig,asinThesowisinherpigstywithherpiglets.

Inconclusion

ImprovingyourwrittenandspokenEnglishisnotasdifficultorboringasyoumightthinknowthatyouhaveabetterunderstandingofEnglishgrammar.Improvingyourpersonalwritingstyleandwordpowerisevenlessdifficult.WritinginEnglish, inparticular,givesyoutheopportunitytopractiseyourlanguageskillsandmakegooduseofyourknowledgeofEnglishgrammaranditcanbefunaswellasrewarding.Tryitandsee!

Published2014byGeddes&Grosset,animprintofTheGreshamPublishingCompanyLtd.,

AcademyPark,Building4000,GowerStreet,Glasgow,G511PR,Scotland,UK

Copyright©2014TheGreshamPublishingCompanyLtd.

TextbyBettyKirkpatrick

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyany

means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorpermissionofthecopyrightholder.

ConditionsofSaleThisbookissoldwiththeconditionthatitwillnot,bywayoftradeor

otherwise,beresold,hiredout,lent,orotherwisedistributedorcirculatedinanyformorstyleofbindingorcoverotherthanthatinwhichitispublishedandwithoutthesameconditionsbeingimposed

onthesubsequentpurchaser.

ISBNsPrint:978-1-84205-758-2epub:978-1-84205-785-8mobi:978-1-84205-815-2

ThisbookisnotpublishedbytheoriginalpublishersofWebster’sDictionaryorbytheirsuccessors.

DevelopedwiththefinancialassistanceoftheCreativeScotlandInnovationFund.

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