COLLEGE 9 : Cyberbullying

1. Traditionele kijk Algemene Definitie

Een sociale interactie:o Aanhoudend (min. 6 maanden)o Herhaaldelijk (min. wekelijks)o Negatief sociaal gedrag

Subjectief fenomeen Focus op slachtoffer:

o Kan zich niet verdedigen (machtsongelijkheid)o Ondervindt negatieve welzijnsgevolgen

Algemene definitie: Herhaaldelijke negatieve handelingen, die gedurende een langere tijd aanhouden en die gesteld worden door een individu of een groep ten aanzien van een of meerdere individuen die zich niet kunnen verdedigen (Einarsen, 2000)

Verschillende vormen (Notelaers & De Witte, 2003)

Persoon-gerelateerde pesterijen:o Roddeleno Opmerkingen over iemand zijn privéleveno Beledigingeno …

Werk-gerelateerde pesterijen:o Informatie achterhoudeno Werk niet naar waarde inschatteno Men geeft u werk onder uw niveauo …

2. Cyberpesten, een fenomeen op zich ? Gelijkenissen met traditioneel pesten• Negatief sociaal gedrag • Subjectief fenomeen• Slachtoffer:

o Kan zich niet verdedigen (machtsongelijkheid)o Ondervindt negatieve welzijnsgevolgen

MAAR…

Onze definitie

Alle negatieve gedragingen gericht tegen een individu via ICT. De betrokken personen kennen elkaar vanuit de werkcontext al kan de dader in sommige gevallen anoniem blijven. Om te spreken van cyberpesten moet het gedrag ofwel (a) herhaaldelijk en gedurende een langere tijd aanhouden of (b) éénmalig plaatsvinden wanneer het gaat om een intrusie in iemands persoonlijk leven dat op deze manier blootgesteld kan worden aan een groot online publiek. Hierdoor komt het gepeste individu in een zwakke positie terecht.

via ICTo gsm, smartphone, computer, internet, e-mail, …

vanuit de werkcontexto collega, leidinggevende, ondergeschikte of klant

soms anoniemmaar duidelijk dat dader uit werkcontext gekend is door:

o aard handelingen (bv. hacken werkmail)o context handelingen (bv. via intranet)o gedeelde informatie (bv. kritiek geleverd werk)

herhaaldelijk en langere tijdo ‘Klassiekere’ handelingen zoals: uitschelden, bedreigen, negeren, bekritiseren, geruchten

verspreiden, … (online)OF éénmalig

o Intrusie in persoonlijk leven: persoonlijke informatie hacken en online zetten, identiteit overnemen, …

o Kan voor groot online publiek zichtbaar wordenzwakke positie gecyberpest individu

o kan zich niet verdedigen, gevoel van hulpeloosheid

Verschillende vormen

Persoon-gerelateerde pesterijen:o roddelen via ICT, beledigingen via ICT, uitschelden via ICT, …

Werk-gerelateerde pesterijen:o werk bekritiseren via ICT, e-mails of bestanden achterhouden, negeren van werkmails, …

Intrusie:o hacken van persoonlijke info, identiteit overnemen, foto’s/video’s online plaatsen, …

Gerelateerde fenomenen :

3. Reeds geweten Tot nu toe vooral onderzoek bij scholieren

Prevalentie van ±15% (v.s. 35% traditioneel) (Modecki, Barber & Vernon, 2013) Komt meestal samen voor met traditioneel pesten

Wat kwam eerst? Online pesten is meer wederkerig Geen duidelijke relatie leeftijd/geslacht Negatieve gevolgen :

o Zelfmoordgedachteno Emotionele problemen (depressie, angst, woede, ⇩ zelfwaardering…)

o Verminderde schoolprestaties o Probleemgedrag

Beperkte kennis cyberpesten op het werkPrevalentie :

Baruch (2005)

Coyne et al (2017)

Gardner et al (2016)

Privitera & Campbell (2009)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

9.217

0.7

33.8

19.7

15

23.3

13.69.7

2.8

10.7

Prevalence rates of cyberbullying and traditional bul-lying victimisation (%)

Cyberbullying self-labelling Cyberbullying behavioural experience Traditional bullying behavioural experience

Relatie tot traditioneel pesten :

Twee visies: Hetzelfde fenomeen in een andere context Een nieuw fenomeen met eigen antecedenten en uitkomstenEmpirische evidentie : Online en offline pesten komen doorgaans samen voor (Privitera & Campbell, 2009) Gelijkaardige antecedenten en uitkomsten (Baruch, 2005; Gardner et al., 2016) Vier slachtoffer categorieën (bij jongeren): alleen traditioneel pesten, alleen cyberpesten, bede

vormen en geen pesten (Glüer & Lohaus, 2015; Przbylski & Bowes, 2017; Låftman, Modin & Östberg, 2013)

Conclusie : Meestal voortzetting pesterijen online Soms een nieuwe manier van pesten (anonimiteit draagt ertoe bij)

Gebruikte mediums Weinig onderzoek Evidentie gebruik e-mail en sociale media (D’Cruz & Noronha, 2013; West et al., 2014)

Typologie slachtoffers: eigen onderzoek Latente cluster analyse Drie soorten slachtoffers

o Niet gecyberpesto Werkgerelatereed negatief online gedrag (cyberincivility?)o Gecyberpest

Oorzaken Meer mannen en leidinggevenden slachtoffer (Forssell, 2016) Trait anger (Wang et al., 2017) Poor work environment (Gardner et al., 2016) ???

4. Eigen onderzoek

Eigenschappen computer-gemedieerde communicatie (CMC): Gereduceerde sociale aanwezigheid Beperkt contact tussen individuen Anonimiteit Gebrek aan sociale en non-verbale cues Minder kans op negatieve sancties door anderen Minder zichtbare machtsverschillen

Leidt tot minder inhibitie, meer vrije expressie/opinie uiting, meer intieme uitwisselingen, meer uiten van (negatieve) emoties

Model brengt bestaande kennis samen : Werkstressoren voorspellen pestgedrag (literatuur rond traditioneel pesten) Werkstressoren lokken negatieve emoties uit (literatuur rond affect op het werk) Ervaren van negatieve emoties hangt samen met cyberpestgedrag (literatuur rond cyberpesten

bij jongeren)

Antecedenten Volgt onderzoek traditioneel pesten op het werk Toepassen van Stressor-Strain Model (Fox et al., 2001; Jex and Beehr, 1991) en Work

Environement Hypothesis (Einarsen et al., 1994; Leymann, 1996) Werk stressoren als voorspellers cyberpesten op het werk

Mediatoren Emoties lijken een belangrijke rol te spelen bij cyberpesten In literatuur jongeren:

o Afleiden van gevoelens als motief cyberpesten (Varjas, Talley, Meyers, Parris & Cutts, 2010)

o Ervaren van woede door daders (Gradinger, Strohmeier & Spiel, 2009)

o Jongeren met emotionele problemen meer kans om gecyberpest te worden (Cross, Lester & Barnes, 2015)

o Daders kunnen emoties niet goed reguleren (Baroncelli & Cieucci, 2014)o Intense emoties sneller via computer gecommuniceerd (Derks, Fischer & Bos, 2008)

In literatuur werk:o Werkstressoren bron van emoties (e.g. Ohly & Schmitt, 2013)

Rolconflicten Jobonzekerheid Interpersoonlijke conflicten Gepercipieerde onrechtvaardigheid

Online disinhibitie effect (Suler, 2004) Negatieve emoties worden sneller gecommuniceerd via CMC (Derks et al., 2008) Voor daders geldt:

o Geen sancties, machtverschillen niet duidelijk, slachtoffer niet zichtbaar, anonimiteit sneller uiten (sterke) negatieve emoties i.v.v. cyberpesten

Voor slachtoffers geldt:o Communiceren van (zwakke) negatieve emoties gezien als makkelijke slachtoffer

Discrete emoties als drijvende kracht achter gedrag (Gross & Thompson, 2007) Discrete emoties: woede, angst, verdriet, blijdschap en liefde

INTERMEZZO : WAT IS HET VERSCHIL TSS EMOTIES EN STEMMINGEN ?

Twee manieren om affect te bestuderen1) Discrete emoties : woede,angst, verdriet, blijdshcap..

2) Affect dimensies (stemming) : Circumplex model van affect, Negative affect vs. Positive affect, …

Moderatoren

Dezelfde stressoren kunnen verschillende emoties uitlokken in individuen Perceptie van controle beïnvloedt ervaren emoties (Smith et al., 2008) Appraisal of individual control woede Appraisal of situational control angst of verdriet

Emotieregulatie beïnvloedt emotionele ervaring (Gross & Thompson, 2007) Gericht op antecedenten: bepaalt of emoties worden ervaren Gericht op responsen: bepaalt of ervaren emoties worden geuit

Gericht op antecedenten: herwaardering Gericht op responsen: suppressie

Herwaardering: geassocieerd met positieve uitkomsten voor welzijn (social, emotioneel, cognitief)

Suppressie: geassocieerd met negatieve uitkomsten voor welzijn (social, emotioneel, cognitief)

Herwaardering: buffert relatie voor daders én slachtoffers Suppressie: versterkt relatie voor daders én slachtoffers

oSlachtoffers: vergroot stress in communicatiepartners, vergroot sociale isolatieoDaders: minder empathie, accumulatie negatieve emoties waardoor meer aggresief

Dataverzamelingo N=1501voornamelijk overheidsinstanties

Meting cyberpesten o Eigen schaal daders én slachtoffers (11 items)

Werkstressoreno Werkdruko Rolconflicteno Jobonzekerheido Conflicten

Emotieso Angst, verdriet en woede

Emotieregulatieo Bv. Wanneer ik minder negatieve emoties wil ervaren, dan verander ik de wijze waarop ik

over de situatie denk (herwaardering) o Bv. Wanneer ik negatieve emoties ervaar, dan zorg ik ervoor dat ik deze niet toon

(suppressie)

Eerste resultaten

Alle hypotheses bevestigd behalve verstekende rol suppressie voor daders:

suppressie verzwakt relatie tussen negatieve emoties en dader zijn cyberpesteMogelijke verklaring: op korte termijn suppressie goed i.t.t. lange termijn

Voor daders geldt: Stressoren kunnen gevoelens van woede uitlokken bij WN’s die vervolgens geuit worden in vorm van cyberpesten. Dit kan tegengegaan worden door herwaarderen van stressoren en door onderdrukken van woede.

Voor slachtoffers geldt: Stressoren kunnen gevoelens van angst en verdriet uitlokken bij WN’s en zo ervoor zorgen dat deze mensen slachtoffer worden van cyberpesten. Dit kan tegengegaan worden door herwaarderen van stressoren en door niet onderdrukken van angst en verdriet.

5. Wat ertegen doen ?

Cyberpesten in de wetgeving?

Wet van 13 juni 2005 betreffende de elektronische communicatie : “…wordt gestraft de persoon, die een elektronische- communicatienetwerk of dienst of andere elektronische communicatiemiddelen gebruikt om overlast te veroorzaken aan zijn correspondent of schade te berokkenen…” (artikel 145§3bis)

Andere wetten:

Pesten op het werk (wet van 28 februari 2014 ) Belaging of stalking (artikel 442bis) Iemand beledigen met teksten of beelden (artikel 448 Sw.) Hacking (artikel 550bis Sw.), virussen versturen (artikel 550ter Sw.) of valsheid in informatica

(artikel 210bis §2 Sw.) Een foto van iemand anders posten of delen (artikel 5 van de Wet Verwerking Persoonsgegevens) Voyeurisme en wraakporno (artikel 8, boek II, titel VII, hoofdstuk V)

10 tips om cyberpesten te voorkomen (Hinduja & Patchin, 2013)

1. Blijf up to date betreffende privacy instellingen2. Beperk toegang tot je privé informatie

3. Leer nettiquette 4. Stuur geen ongepaste foto’s of video's door naar anderen5. Google jezelf6. Aanvaard geen onbekende vriendschapsverzoeken7. Maak gebruik van door de site aangeboden privacy toepassingen8. Hou je info beschermd9. Wees voorzichtig met info die je deelt10. Behoed jezef voor mensen met slechte intenties

10 tips om cyberpesten te doen stoppen (Hinduja & Patchin, 2013)

1. Ga er niet op in2. Verzamel bewijs3. Praat met je werkgever4. Informeer je over de wetgeving5. Rapporteer ongewenst gedrag6. Neem contact op met een advocaat7. Praat erover8. Verbreek contact9. Block de dader10. Verander je contactinformatie

Artikel : Computers in Human Behavior

The dark side of working online : towards a definition and an emotion reaction model of workplace cyberbullying (Ivana Vranjes, Elfi Baillien)

1. Introduction Cyberbullying : aggressive behavior occurin thru the use of Information & Communication Technologies (ICTS) (Smith, 2008) Studied a lot on youngsters, but what with work environment ? Face-to-face contacts increasingly

replaced by computer-mediated communication (CMC). Gelinkt (in jeugdstudies) aan : anxiety, depression, stress, reduced wellbeing, job satisfaction,

performance Traditional bullying and online counterpart basicallly the same : a negative social interaction

between a bully and a victim who cannot easily defend him BUT specific characteristics as well.

We will: 1. Provide a comprehensive definition of workplace cyberbullying 2. Propose a theoretical model including antecedents, mediators and moderators :

o starting form the ‘Affective Events Theory’ (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) : ‘the proposition that certain affective work events evoke affective reactions that in turn may lead to affect driven behaviours’ + workplace bullying literature , youngsters cyberbullying literature + cyberpsychology + emotions

o construct an ‘Emotion Reaction Model of Workplace bullying’ => not only possible causal relationship, but some critical mechanisms !

Four contributions in this paper :1. Distinguish cyberbullying from ‘traditional’ bullying2. Focus also on the process of becoming a perpetrator and not only the victimization process3. Emotions proposed as as mediating and emotion regulation as moderating roles 4. Account for both environmental and personal factors (ie. The recent trend in traditional workplace

bullying research : the application of interactionists approach).

2. Conceptualizing workplace cyberbullying 2.1Traditional view on workplace bullying

Eerste onderzoeken 20 jaar geleden in Noordelijke landen en snel verspreid. Te situeren (zeker in Duits onderzoek) onder paraplu van ‘counterproductive workplace

behaviours’ (CWB): violational behaviours harming individual employees and the organisation.’

Differences with other CWB :o Dynamic (repetitive)o Interpersonalo Usually studied from the target’s perspectiveo Ambiguous with regard to intent (other CWB : intentionally) => underlines the subjective

nature of the phenomenon.

Workplace bullying scholars agree on 5 elements : o Victim’s experience of negative behaviouro Persistency of these behaviourso Victim’s experience of harm (psychological and/or physical)o Power imbamalnceo Actual perception of being bullied

Combined in generally accepted definition : ‘repeated negative acts carried on over a period of time by an individual or a group towards one or more individuals who cannot easily defend themselves’

2.2Defining workplace cyberbullying

Complication : it is more than a constriction of the traditional bullying concept within an online context ! => The electronic environment brings additional factors in ! Several theories about this distinctive nature :

Cues filterd out – theories : The lack of non-verbal cues in online communication, so not as ‘rich’ => perpetrators could be less aware of the effect of their behaviour on the victim, and might further reinforce bullying behaviour.

Many opportunities to stay anonymous : hinders the targets to take action against it, and limits his feeling of control over the situation => makes it very harmful !! Also because of this anonimity, there have to be some indications that the bullying arose in the work context,eg :

o in the nature of the neg acts (eg making victim’s work impossible)o in the context of acts (eg via work intranet)o in the information disclosed (eg bullier makes reference to work related issues)

Intrusive nature : you cannot escape at home ! anywhere- anytime Violaters have the opportunity to access private information . Pervasiveness and boundarylessness

were reoccuring themes in people’s experience of cyberbullying at work ! (also in study of Hetherington, 2014 : crossing of boundaries as important theme !)

Power imbalance : (social, psychological or physical) BUT In an online context stems from technological opportunities (eg anonimity) => thus, individuals low in power in a physical context can still be perpetrators in the online environment !!

Both can be aimed directly (eg insults) or indirectly (eg gossip) But : indirect cyberbullying can reach a much larger audience ! => The viral reach of a neg cyber-act: ‘the volume of message viewing, sharing & forwarding by internet users, carried out either online or offline’.

So, whereas ‘repetition’ is defining condition of traditional bullying, a single act of cyberbulling can suffice. Langos : repetition is necessary condition for cyberbullying in the private context, ie electronic

communication directed towards the victim (eg text messages, emails) but not in the public context ie distributed to individuals other than the victim (eg social media, bligs.....) because of repetitive exposure (eg publish naked photo).We do not follow this, because there are cyberbullying acts that do not meet this characteristics, :

o eg gossiping thru use of ICTs. Despite the public context, we argue (following traditional view) that still criterion of repetition needs to be met.

o Eg hacking of private information in private context, but we argue dat no repetition is necesary : very invasive AND is available for repeated consultation.

We argue that the nature of negative behaviour is what differentiates acts that do/don’t need repetition. In order to meet the one-time requirement, the negative behaviour has to pose an intrusion into one’s private life (hacking, identity theft, posting private photo’s online...) => invasion + constant threat of public exposure => make it very distressing !!!

A definition of cyberbullying applied to work context is still absent (or adapted from youth context). Our definition based on the above :‘all negative behaviour stemming from the work context and occuring thru the use of ICTs, which is either :

a) Carried out repeatedly over a period of time, orb) Conducted at least once but forms an intrustion in someone’s private life (potentially) exposing

it to a wide online audienceThis behavior leaves the target feeling helpless and unable to defend.

3. Developing the Emotion Reaction model of workplace cyberbullying

‘Affective Events Theory’ (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) explains how certain affective work events can lead to different work attitudes and affect driven behaviours thru the experience of emotions (eg anger or fear) Originally intended as theory of work satisfaction. Presents a ‘macrostructure’ of emotions in the workplace, needing further concretisation of the

different processes, depending on specific focus of the exact research. Following this model : emotions = fuel behind CB behaviour, work stressors elicit emotions =>

give rise to CB

Since comprehensive nature AET, use also other theories and empirical evidence to concretize the different building blocks of the CB mechanism => we made a seleciton of moderating constructs to better understand the condition under which emotions will lead to CB.We will focus on both roles, since demonstrated in school context, that high correlation exists between the two roles : same mechanisms might apply but in different manner => integrated modelNot exhaustive representation, and causality might go in different directions but here : only normal causation path.

3.1Stressor-strain view of workplace bullying Most widely applied framework in bullying research Exposure to stressful work conditions (eg role conflict) => physical, psychological, behavorial

strain (eg somatic complaints, anxiety, agression). Stressors : ‘The work-related environmental conditions with potential to decrease health & well-

beingof workers’ WPCB can be perceived as behavioral strain caused by workplace stressors. In other studies:

o job related factors as role conflicts, ambiguity and workloado team related factors as conflict, leadershipo organisational related factors as change and social climate

have been found to predict WP bullying victimization. Since traditional and cyberbullying essentially the same, we follow this stressor-strain view in

predicting WPCB. Also aligns with youth literature that both have same predictors, and with recent evidence that poor work enviroment predicts WPCB as well as offling B.

We expect to be the case for both victim and perpetrator, because of considerable overlap in predictors of both experience and enactment of workplace agression.

Proposition 1 : Workplace stressors (job, team & organisational) will predict cyberbullying perpetration & victimization.

3.2Emotions at play Previously largerly discarded in organisational context, but recent increased interest but lacks

consistency in definitions of emotions, mood & affect :o Emotion : an internal reaction to a stimulus, with a range of possible behavorial

consequences, arises as a reaction to a situation perceived as relevant for our goals, and also drives us to react.

o Mood (depression, euphoria) : distinct from emotion by aspects of intensity, duration and diffuseness : a less intense state, longer duration, not specific with regard to particular object or response : vague feeling, do not drive to act in certain way.

o Affect : an overarching term, encompassing the above states => all different kinds of emotional states (specific discrete emotions, and more genearl vageue moods)

WP stressors evoke negative emotions. (eg evidence that interpersonal conflicts, unjust treatment, unjust procedures cause anger – Weiss & cropanzano).

Ohly & Schmidt (2013) identified 11 clusters of workrelated events relating to pos and neg affect. Noelle-Neumanns ‘spiral of silence’ theory (1974) : individuals are driven by fear of isolation. =>

is it safe or not to express my opinion ? but online dishibition effect (Suler, 2004) : Less so in CMC (anonimity, reduced social pressure), dissociation between offline and online persona.

Siegel (1986) : equalization effect : CMC reduces observable status differences, feel more comfortable in speakingout

Walther, 1996 : Hyperpersonal perspective of CMC : the absence of nonverbal and identity cues may prompt users to exchange more intimately online

Fewer standards online conduct (Kiesler) : contributes to acting out neg emotions youth cyberbullying literature suggests that emotions could play an important role. Most

commonly reported emotion was anger, and for victims : more youngsters that have emotional difficulties.

Baroncelli (2014) : found that not being able to use emotions properly in social interactions (component of trait ‘emotional intelligence’) was important factor in cyberbullying but NOT in tradtional bullying => seems to suggest that CB is related to emoitions.

Taking together : evidence suggests that a) WP stressors (argued to predict WPCB) are important source of emoitons at work and b) emotions ,being expressed more overt online, could play important role in CB process.Proposition 2 : Emotions will mediate the relation between WP stressors (job, team, org) and WPCB victim & perpetr.

3.3Discrete emotions in cyberybullying

In our model, we follow Weis & Cropanzano : a focus on discrete emotions rather than moods ! Mood impacts on cognition rather than action (very good indicator of mental health). Aligns with

the definition of discrete emotions as state that drives people to react We look at situational predictors (work stressors) of affect, which aligns with discrete emotions

being defined as a reaction to specific situation/object.

Still dispute on which basic emotions to be considered (vary from 5 tot 16): We will focus on the 3 negative emotions (‘arise when individuals are hindered in achieving their goals) : since the def is applicable in case of work stressors neg emotions have stronger power in predicting behavior than pos ones. The 3 neg emotions (ANGER, FEAR, SADNESS) are the most substantiated ones iro the specific

behavioral tendencies they evoke.

According to appraisal-tendency framework (Lerner & Keltner) emotions are related to certain appraisals of goal-relevant events (here : stressful experiences) : Anger: ‘threat’ appraisal and perception of dominance-control-otherblame =>risky behavior,

energy for confrontati Fear : ‘threat’ appraisal, not in control, insecurity, uncertain => avoidance beh and risk aversion,

energy for retreat Sadness : blaming the situation, withdrawal behavior => makes individuals come acrocc to others

as week, submissive, in need of help

3.3.1 Cyberbullying perpretration Anger results from stressful work experiences, outward focused emotion => other-blame and retaliation.Will potentially lead to act out against another individual. We expect it especially in online context (eg more inhibited self-expression) : Displaced agression : emotions guide subsequent behavior, sometimes to unrelated objects. Eg.

When experiencing anger but cannot act against stimulus because of fear for neg consequences. In work context : anger becaus high job demands, anger displaced towards co-worker. DA has been found to have robust effect in many different context !

Online environment provides opportunity to ‘even the score’ where one would normally fear retaliation. Eg. In case of superior, the anonimity might elevate the fear for retaliation. Eg. Forsell (2016) : found that supervisors are more often exposed to cyberbullying at work <=> in offline context, bullying often identified as a top-down phenomenon.

Anger has already been empirically related to cyberbullying within youngsters !Proposition 3a : Discrete neg emotion ‘anger’ will mediate the relation between WP stressors and CB perpetration.

3.3.2 Cyberbullying victimization We expect the experience of fear or sadness to have important role, since both related to lack of power and withdrawal behavior. Can make individuals easy target of displaced agression : In line with Biological model of approach/avoidance : individual motivated to approach beneficiary

situationas and avoid sits with neg consequences => angry individuals may be more motivated to act against sad/frightful individuals as they do not expect retribution.

Aligns with EASI-model (emotions as social information – Van Kleef, 2009) : emotions regulate social life in that the expression of emotions informs the observer on how to react. Iro cyberbullying, we argu that observing fear/sadness will make angry individuals more inclined to act out against these individuals :

o Could observe weakness in face-to-face work context but choose to act in ‘safe’ online environment

o Absence of nonverbal cues online stimulate to exchange more openly, intimitely => people may overshare neg emotions online, leading to others seeing them as victims.

Also, cooper (2000) found that neg emotions stimulate to engage in risky behavior to escape from it => sad/frightful individuals might commit risky online behaviors (eg sharing personal information) providing others to misuse this info. In support, Peluchette (2015) found that CB victimization is assoicated with risky online behavior such as posting indiscrete or negative content online.

Anxiousness has already been shown to emerge as a conequence of work stressors and to be related to (C)B victimizatoin. This also holds for the emotion of sadness.

Proposition 3b : Discrete neg emotions ‘sadness’ & ‘fear’ mediate the relation between WP stressors and CB victimization

3.4Moderatiors of the stressor-emotion-cyberbullying relationship

AET states that certain personal factor can alter the emotional experience of individuals following affective work events. In line, Bullying scholars have stressed importance of the interaction between personal factors and WP factors in predicting WP bullying.

However, mixed findings in studies. Little consistency in involved pers traites and their precise relation with (C)B.

BUT Since emotions have such important role in CB, we select/propse below personal factors particularly relevant fo the experience of emotions as moderators of the stressor-emotions-cuberbullying relation.

3.4.1 Control appraisal

According to the appraisal theory of emotions (Frijda, 1986) specific emotions are triggered during 2-step appraisal process : 1) primary appraisal : favoring/harming individual goals 2) evaluation of coping resources : All 3 neg emotions appraised as harmful, but anger : individual control (eg due to

underperforming colleague) <-> fear and sadness : situational control (eg due to restructuring) Therefore, we propose individuas experience anger when perceiving work stressors to be under

individual control and sadness/fear when perceiving work stressors under situational control

Proposition 4 : Control appraisal will moderate the relation between WP stressor and experienc of discrete emotions. Individuals a) who appraise workplace stressors to be under individual control, will experience anger, and individuals b) who appraise WP stressors to be under situational control, will experience sadness and/or fear.

3.4.2 Emotion regulation

Emotional regulation : a dynamic process by which either the experience or the expression of emotions is increased, decreased or systained. By applying adaptive emotion regulation strategies, experienced emotions can be readjusted approprately. However, emotion regulation is not necessarily adaptive (Gross & Thompson, 2007)

Process model by Gross (1998) distinguishes between 2 emotion regulation strategies : Antecedent focussed : applied before the emotion response tendencies are fully activated : by

regulating the precursors of emotion (ie the situation or the appraisal) Response focused : applied once the emotion is already evoked.

When emotions arise, these strategies modify the observable or physiological signs of emtion (the ‘emotion expression’) Reappraisal : cognitive change in how one thinks about a situation, in order to decrease its

emotional impact => will alter the whole traject of emotional response (experiential, behavioral and physiological)

Suppression : inhibition of ongoing emotion-expressive behavior => will decrease emotional expression but wil fail to decrease emotional experience and even increase physiological responses in an individual due to the amount of effort required.

Both strategies have a lot of empirical evidence : Neurophysiological perspecive : different brain structrual basis Psychological perspective : related to different outcomes iro individual functioning : reappraisal

incr pos and decr neg emotions experience (+ more liked by others, more close relations, greater self-esteem), suppression omgekeerd (+ lower wellbeing, cognitive & social functioning + avoidance of others, lower self-esteem etc).

Following proposition 3, work stressors are expected to increase experience of neg emotions (stressor-emotions relationship) and experience of neg emotions can cause CB (emotions –CB relationship). We believe that emotion regulation strategies will moderate this relationship in 2 ways : Reappraisal weakens neg emo exp => expected to buffer effect of stressors on emotions (for

victim + perpetrator) Suppression increases neg emo exp => expect increase in CB (for both victim + perpetrator).

Because the accumulation of neg emo exp may lead an individual to convey these emotions in alternative way

o Victim : Evidence exists that suppression evokes stress reaction in in both suppressors and people they interact with and that it limits formation of new relations as well as maintenance and growth of existing ones.. Stress reaction => increased acitvity in AZS + social isolation => makes individual vulnerable and easy target.

o Perpetrator : evidence suggests that suppresion results in less empathy, and that it makes individuals more prone to agression (also supported in neurological studies)

Proposition 5 : Reappraisal will moderate the Stressor-emotions relation, in that applying this strategy will buffer the experience of neg emotions (ie anger, fear, sadness) as a consequence of workplace stressors.

Proposition 6 : Suppression will moderate the Emotions-cyberbullying in that applying this strategy will boost the relation between a) anger and CB perpetration and b) fear/sadness and CB victimization.

4 Discussion Fenomeen zal groeien in belang : work place evolves from physical to virtual one. Future research can further expand the model by proposing additional variables (eg demographic

variables as age, gender, personality variables like narcisicm, other situational variables such as moral disengagement andother situational variables like anonimity) or expand it with outcomes of the behavior, and the dynamics (what will CB do with environmental and personal factors in return)

Different theoretical implications of this paper : o First, We include a specific set of one-time behaviors in our definition of CB. Difference

from cybercrime and cyberincivility : not directed at individual and mild, non-intrusive => w see the one-time intrusive behaviors as an important part of the cyberbullying phenomenon and therefore encourage researchers to consider these acts when constructing and validating CB questionnaires

o Second, it would be interesting to explore the most important workplace stressors and whether these will differ depending on the role one takes in the CB process or depending on the type of bullying (cyber or not). Also important to recognize the specific context (lack

of nonverbal cues, anonimity, intrusiveness and viral reach) which creates its own dynamics. A call for more research on discrete emotions in the organisational context ! Different theoretical models have already incorportated some form of emotional constructs when trying to predict CB : 1) 3-way model of WP Bullying : experience of frustation due to individual, tasks, team and organisational characteristics can lead to WP bullying thru inefficient coping (De Witte, De Cuyper), 2) moral emotions as predictor (Singh).BUT emotions are even even more key in CB because online context enables even more uninhibited and explicit communication of emotions. This is partly responsible for the success of online help groups.

o Third, few efforts so far to focus on dader. We propose similar situational predictors. In accordance with evidence of Balducci ea, who found that role conflictss predicted both aspects, while personal predictors for both differed. Stronlgy advise for more research on both pats, in viewo f paths.

o Finally, hope to contribute to practical guide to prevent and eliminate CB on the workplace. We suggest obth environmental factors (eg work characteristiscs) and personal factors (emotion regulation strategies) .