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Religious and Philosophical Questions
The Problem of Suffering
and Evil
National 5/HigherCastlebrae community high school
What is a philosophical question?
Philosophical questions are often referred to as the ‘big questions’ or ‘ultimate questions’. They are questions about meaning, value, and about purpose in life. Some people might say the ability to think about, ask, and consider these questions is the very thing that makes us uniquely human. Maybe humans are meaning-seeking creatures who want to know why things are the way they are, and what this means for each of us.
Philosophy is about thinking- about reason, logic, and about constructing and analysing arguments and viewpoints. Philosopher think about the big questions and how we might answer them, as well as what these questions might mean for us. Philosophy to use reason and argument to arrive at possible answers to the big questions- and where answers are impossible, to get as close to an answer as possible to do.
Examples of Philosophical questions are:
Does life have a purpose? Does God exist. What is real? Where do our beliefs come from? How did life on earth begin? Is there anything special about human beings? Are humans completely free? Why is there evil and suffering in the world?
The last of which is the context of this course.
What you need to learn:
What is suffering? What is Evil? Arguments that God is responsible:
Omnipotence, Omniscience, Omnibenevolence. Monotheistic (religions that believe in one God)non-monotheistic (religions that believe in many Gods or no God) non-religious responses and arguments. Irenaean Theodicy, responses. (Higher only)
Arguments that humans are responsible: The story of the fall, challenges. The importance of free will, challenges. Determinism. Augustinian Theodicy, responses. (Higher only)Buddhist perspective on free will.
Arguments that both God and humans are responsible: Does the existence of suffering and evil even matter? The challenge for religious people. The challenge for non-religious people. (Higher only)Suffering, The challenge for religious people. The challenge for non-religious people. Evil, The challenge for religious people. The challenge for non-religious people.
Is anyone or anything responsible? (higher only) Summery:
God is responsible God is not responsible Humans are responsible Humans are not responsible. Both Humans and God are responsible.
What is suffering?
You will be expected to answer questions on this topic in the exams.
Higher 20-mark essay.
National 5 series of questions ranging from, 3 marks to 8 marks.
Suffering in general is the real or imagined thing that causes harm. Sometimes we can experience the same level of suffering as someone else, for example if you break your arm, but other times suffering can be an individual experience that can be different for different people. For example, two people running a marathon; one could enjoy it, another could be suffering.
Perhaps we need to think of suffering on a sliding scale from severe to mild. It maybe useful to think of suffering in 4 ways:
Physical, mental, emotional, spiritual.
Physical
This can be anything from mild discomfort, to extreme pain. This could be a result from an illness, accident or disease. Physical suffering can be short and sharp or long and drawn out and may itself lead to other kinds of suffering.
Mental
This is where you experience negative mental states or moods. This can vary from feeling a bit down or long-term anxiety and depression. The causes of mental suffering can be physical, environmental, genetic or personality factors amongst other things.
Emotional
Emotional suffering can be similar to physical and menta land may have some of the same causes. This could be a result of a heart-break or bereavement, that we tend to think of emotional pain.
Spiritual
For some this is linked to deep mental and emotional suffering that can be caused by a loss of faith or doubts about you understanding of yourself or the meaning of life.
Exam style question
What might someone mean by ‘suffering’? 4 marks
What is Evil
The answer to this question could be ‘anything bad’, but what is bad for one person might not be bad for another. Some thing of evil as a ‘thing’, others as an idea. Some think evil and suffering are the same thing, others think that suffering comes from evil or that evil is what causes suffering.
A force
Some people think that evil is a force like the dark side. They think evil is something ‘out there’ but can get inside you and make you do evil things. Religious people have often called this evil force Satan, Lucifer, or the Devil and demons who are seen as responsible for evil. In contrast to this they would believe in a good force to that is equal to the evil. But that the good force; God is mostly in charge.
A concept
Some people think of evil as an idea or concept. They do not think of it as coming from outside of us. Evil is not a thing in itself but more of an absence of good.
Actions
For some, evil is an action, it is some thing that we do, or is done to us. This links to the intention or motivation of a person. Killing your best friend would be considered evil but killing them in a car accident would not. Also some would say thinking about doing something evil is not as bad as doing something evil. Others disagree.
Consequences, human and natural
Some people think that evil is what we experience and how we interpret it, therefore making evil morally neutral. For example, when it comes to natural evil such as earthquakes or hurricanes, some would maybe describe it as evil, others think that there is just a neutral event not linked with anything intrinsically evil. Similarly, human evil could also be seen in a neutral way from actions coming from ignorance or other factors out with their control, like mental illness, or environmental factors.
Explain what is meant by evil. 4 marks
Arguments supporting the idea that God is responsible for suffering and evil.
Suffering and evil clearly exist and there is no being on earth that has not experienced suffering and evil at some point in their lives. For religious people who believe in God or god’s they maintain that they have certain qualities that are constant and unchanging. The problem is that these qualities are inconsistent with the reality of suffering and evil.
So what are these qualities? There are three main qualities:
Omnipotent: All powerful. Omniscient: All knowing. Omni-benevolent: All loving.
The argument goes like this: If God is all powerful then he can prevent suffering and evil. If he is all knowing he knows we are suffering, and if he loves us he would not want us to suffer. But suffering and evil does exist, therefore God either causes it to exist or allows it to exist. But If this is true it is not consistent with his qualities of being all- powerful, all- knowing and all- loving which leads some people to conclude that he does not exist.
Monotheistic faiths
Religions such as Christianity, Islam and Judaism believe in one God and one God only. For them the idea of Gods qualities has been set in stone for many centuries and is seen as unchallengeable. The question is: can God be omnipotent, omniscient and omni-benevolent while suffering and evil exist?
Challenge to Omnipotence
Omnipotence means being all powerful, this means that God is without limits in his power. He can do anything he chooses to do with his power. The challenge presented by suffering and evil is therefore: If he is all powerful, he can do
anything he chooses, therefore why does he do nothing about suffering and evil? Either he chooses to do nothing, and we just have to suffer – which seems wrong – or he cannot do anything about it, which means he is not all powerful. This for some, calls into question his very existence.
Monotheistic responses
Free will
God gave humans free will and so they might act in evil ways which cause suffering. God cannot give free will and then take it away again. This is his gift to us but unfortunately it comes at a price – the existence of suffering and evil. God could take away suffering and evil, but he would have to take away our free will which would mean that we were like robots.
Suffering and evil are an unavoidable consequence of our freewill. God has the power to remove suffering and evil, but to do so would mean
removing our freedom and he chooses not to do so.
A non-religious person might question why freedom is more important than taking away suffering or ask why God doesn’t give us the illusion of freedom while preventing us from making decisions which could result in real suffering and evil.
God made the universe with certain properties and laws. He cannot change these laws as there would be no point making them in the first place. If these
Talking
Point:Why
might an all-power
ful God not
put an end to sufferi
ng?
natural laws sometimes led to harm or sometimes not, it is not a reason for God to change everything and make an unpredictable universe.
A non-religious person might question why an omnipotent God did not make a universe with predictable laws that would not result in suffering and evil.
The challenge to Omniscience
Omniscience is the idea that God is all-knowing. He knows past, present and future, and everything that has or will ever happen. The challenge here is: If he does know everything that has and will happen, how much are we truly free? If all our choices are already known, then are they really our choices to make?
Monotheistic responses.
Yes, God knows everything, but this does not affect our freedom. God might know what choices we are likely to make, but we are still free to choose. If he intervened every time someone was about to make a wrong decision, then this would challenge their free choice.
A non-religious person might call into question the religious belief in miracles. Where God seems to exercise his omnipotence and omniscience by saving someone’s life, in some cases but not in others? Why is this?
Some monotheists might get around this problem by saying that God knows what we might possibly do but not what we actually do. So that the fact that we may choose evil is not his responsibility.
A non-religious response might say that God could at least prevent natural disasters from happening without us knowing, this way he could prevent an awful lot of suffering in the world without having any impact on our freedom.
The challenge to Gods Omni-benevolence.
This means that God is incapable of doing anything bad or wrong at any time. He is all-loving. So then why does he allow suffering
and evil? If he chooses to allow them then he is, in part, responsible for them. He is therefore not perfectly good or does not exist.
Monotheistic responses.
Some monotheists might argue that sometimes we have to do things that may seem cruel but are for a good purpose. A parent may give their child a row for wandering off in the shopping centre, might not appear good but is for a good reason. Some argue that God allows things to happen that may not seem good, but they have a greater purpose of which we may not be aware. Perhaps there is a long-term benefit to what appears as suffering and evil.
A
non-religious person may see this as a weak argument as why should God want to do or allow bad things in order to safeguard us or prevent even worse things from happening? Also, history has seen some terrible events like the Holocaust and other great massacres of innocent people. It would be difficult to say that there have been long term benefits from these and no guarantee that they could not happen again. These events are not consistent with the idea that God is perfectly good.
Suffering and Evil are Punishment for Sins
The only people who really suffer are those who have sinned. Therefore, they are only paying the price for doing wrong. If you do bad things you deserve to suffer. We would all agree that someone who commits a crime deserves to be punished by going to prison. This is justice for wrong actions.
Strengths of the Punishment for Sins Argument.
Talking point:
Does the existence of suffering and evil challenge the existence of a perfectly good God?
If you do bad things you deserve to suffer. Justice for evil deeds is important in life, it makes the world fair. God allows evil and suffering to teach us a lesson.
Weaknesses of the Punishment for Sins Argument
A non-religious person might say that this is simply not true, people can suffer for lots of reasons that have nothing to do with sinful acts. Examples: Babies suffer, and they are not committing sins. Suffering Caused by natural disasters, earthquakes, hurricanes. This is just not consistent with an all-loving God.
Suffering educates us. The Irenaean Theodicy
We learn from our mistakes and we grow becoming in the likeness of God. We can develop courage and bravery. Suffering brings the best out in people. Many religious people believe there is great value in suffering. Life would be less rewarding without suffering. Love only has meaning if it is freely given and we can only freely give if we have the choice not to give.
Strengths of suffering educates us.
It is clearly part of God’s plan to have suffering and evil to educate us and make us better people. The reward of this is to become more like God. This gives humanity a clear purpose for living life. It infuses life with meaning.
Weaknesses of the idea that suffering educates us.
There must be a better way! Why should some people suffer and die just so that others learn things? Anyway, not everyone learns from suffering, some people become bitter and resentful. This doesn’t explain mass death and suffering through natural disasters.
We need to experience pain and suffering to appreciate good. Necessary Evil.
Evil is useful. Without it there would be no good. For example, we need suffering in our lives to help appreciate the good times. In this way we can learn from our mistakes. This idea was put forward Irenaeus in the 2nd Century who said that if people never suffered and had to make difficult choices between right and wrong then they would be like robots, programmed to act in a certain
way and unable to choose any different, or know any different. It is in knowing the difference between good and evil that gives our lives meaning.
Strengths of necessary evil.
It is true that without experiencing both good and evil we might not know the difference between the two. Imagine if winning 10.000 pounds was the same as losing 10.000 pounds. Meaningless!
The weaknesses of Necessary Evil.
Non-religious people would argue that the existence of good does not always outweigh the bad. Recent history gives us many examples of this. During the Holocaust many survivors like Primo Levi talked about the absence of anything good. And that no good action would save you in the camps.
In what way is this necessary to teach people about what good is?
Some would say that this is a harsh way for us to understand this point. Therefore, needing evil to understand good is no way to explain why evil exists.
Levi reflects that if he could wrap all the evils of the Holocaust into one single image, it would be the picture of “an emaciated man, head dropped, and shoulders curved, on whose face and in whose eyes not a trace of thought is to be seen.” He has seen thousands upon thousands of such men. “If an individual is not willing to fight and scheme for his life every day, he cannot possibly survive.”
Suffering and Evil is sharing pain and becoming like Jesus.
Christians believe that Jesus suffered in his life and prepared himself for it. He died to take away the sins of the world, he died for us. He is an example and a comfort to all Christians who suffer and gives meaning to their suffering.
Strengths of the argument of sharing Jesus’s suffering
Like Jesus, some people believe that suffering must be endured to make us like Jesus and be rewarded by God in Heaven. The marks of a profound person are one who can endure pain and suffering without complaint. And forgive those who would hurt us.
Weaknesses of the argument of Sharing the Suffering of Jesus.
It may be a comfort to Christians but not everyone is Christian! Also, just because Jesus’s suffering had a higher purpose does not mean that our suffering does.
Argument that suffering and Evil allows you to Prove your faith in
God
About 2,500 years ago a story was written about a man called Job. Now everyone knew Job was a really good guy, but one day he found himself expectantly caught up in a sort of bet between God and Satan.
You see Satan was convinced that Job was only faithful to God because he had a great life, so God agreed to let Satan unleash horrible suffering on Job to prove that he would remain faithful, no matter what.
Poor old Job: his children were killed, he lost everything he owed, and he got a horrible disease which covered him in agonising sores. Even so he remained faithful to God.
Strengths of the argument that Suffering and Evil allows you to prove your faith in God.
A well as strengthening your own faith in God that whatever you experience is for a reason, it strengthens other people’s faith in God as they watch how we should endure what God puts us through. It is an opportunity for people to prove their faith and trust in God.
Weaknesses of the argument that Suffering and Evil allows you to prove your faith in God.
Non-religious people would be horrified that God would allow himself to enter into a point scoring exercise with the Devil in this way! This is not a good example of an all-loving being, or a very trustworthy one.
Gods plan for Suffering and Evil should not be questioned.
Some religious people would say that we should not even ask the question about why we suffer. They would explain that God works in mysterious ways and who are we as mere humans to question what God does or does not do?!
Strengths of not questioning God about Suffering and Evil
It stops the arguments against God. It proves his power is beyond what we are capable of understanding.
Weaknesses with not being able to question God’s plan.
We are meaning seeking creatures, we need to understand WHY things are the way they are. This argument is also a cop-out and is the sort of answer given when all other arguments have failed. It is a way for religious people to shut down the argument.
Other World ReligionsHow does Islam explain the problem of suffering and evil?‘Qada (divine destiny) is one of the six articles of faith for Muslims. It’s the belief the Allah is the creator, knower and controller of all things. Before anything was created, Allah knew its destiny and wrote it down. Nothing happens that isn’t his doing. This means that submitting to Allah’s will is really about accepting whatever happens to us, good or bad, because we know it is the will of Allah.’
Qudar is one explanation Muslims give for the existence of evil and suffering, and for some Muslims it’s all they need. They would argue that it is wrong to ask ‘why’ when we see suffering because that is questioning Allah’s will.
Other Muslims understand that Allah created us will ‘free will’ and that we are responsible for the suffering and evil in the worlds.
Check your understanding1. Explain what the benefits and drawbacks might there be if God removed all
suffering and evil?2. Describe God’s 3 qualities.3. Explain what is meant by omnipotence?4. Explain in what way the problem of evil is a challenge to the idea that God is
omnipotent.5. Explain how a monotheist respond to this challenge that evil and suffering
challenge his omnipotence.6. Explain what is meant by omniscience?7. Evaluate how suffering and evil might or might not be a challenge to Gods
omniscience. (Yes because, no because.)8. Explain why saying God is all-loving a challenge to the idea of suffering and evil.9. Read the full story of Job in the Bible and be ready to discuss you thinking.
Muslims believe that Allah created three kinds of being. Angels were created from pure light. The Qu’ran also speaks about beings who are made of fire, and they are known to Muslims as ‘jinn’ The most famous member of the jinn race is Iblis (sometimes called Satan) At first Iblis wanted to be with the angels and spent his time in worship and devotion to Allah. But when Allah formed human being out of clay, everything changed…
Non-religious people may question why if God is all-powerful he does not do something about Iblis or Jinn. Also, the concept of accepting suffering and evil is Gods will without any understanding it is problematic when some suffering seems so senseless.
Non-monotheistic faithsReligions such as Hinduism (polytheistic-many gods) have a way around this problem as they have many gods representing different qualities.
Brahma, the Creator. ...
Vishnu, the Preserver. ...
Shiva, the Destroyer. ...
In this way Hindus can accept the existence of suffering and evil in the world as part of the continual cycle of life. All things
are created, preserved and destroyed eventually. This helps to understand natural disasters in the world as well as our own mortality that inevitably will lead to suffering. Human actions are also believed to play a part in suffering and evil, in the form of Karmic actions and they’re consequences. Hindus like Buddhists believe in Karma as a reason for suffering and evil. It is the natural law of cause and effect that our actions will have consequences. A skilful action done with good intentions should have good consequences, and an unskilful action done from bad intentions will have negative consequences.
Non-religious people may say that karma is all well and good but does not always give us the sense of justice that we need for our actions in this life. For example, a murderer may kill someone and never get caught for it. The idea that there maybe consequences for that person in another life is not comfort to the victims in this one!
Buddhism and the problem of Suffering and EvilIn Buddhism they also have their own ways of understanding suffering an evil but without the belief in a God or gods. They believe that suffering and evil are just illusions. There is no such thing as evil; just cause and effect. What is considered evil is just one interpretation that we apply to something rather than another. Buddhism treats suffering and evil in this way. They are like all other experiences and emotion, illusions. Clinging onto the reality of these
illusions is the cause of harm. The key is to detach ourselves from this false reality, accept that nothing stays the same or lasts and not allow the experience to cause us harm.
Some non-religious people would disagree with this and say that suffering and evil are real and choosing to see it in a different way is easier said than done. If lots of people all experience an earthquake and lose their homes and loved ones, telling them that their suffering is just an illusion and they should not be attached to either their homes or their loved ones is asking someone to go against what we are and value as humans.
Irenaeus’ Theodicy (Higher only)Irenaeus (c.130-200) Bishop of Lyons. Major work ‘Adversus omnes Haereses’ detailed attack on Gnosticism. Hailed as the first great Catholic theologian. Through his writings he helped to establish the Canon of Scripture.
Irenaean theodicy is ‘soul making’. His theodicy is more concerned with the development of humanity.
Irenaeus distinguished between the ‘image’ and the ‘likeness’ of God. Adam had the form of God but not the content of God. Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden because they were immature and needed to develop, i.e. they were to grow into the likeness (content) of God. They were the raw material for a further stage of God’s creative work.
Check your understanding1. How does Islam explain suffering and evil?2. Explain how the concept of Karma helps us to understand suffering
and evil.3. Explain whether you think Hinduism has a better way of
understanding suffering and evil.4. Does the Buddhist idea that all suffering and evil is an illusion
helpful?
The fall of humanity is seen as a failure within this second phase of becoming more like God in content.
Suffering is a necessary part of God’s created universe – it is through suffering that human souls are made noble. The world is a ‘vale of soul making’.
One of the ways in which this ‘test’ is carried out is through faith. God’s purpose cannot easily be discerned, but believers continue to believe despite the evidence. This faith becomes a virtue. John Hick calls this lack of understanding an ‘epistemic distance’.
To summarise Irenaeus' Theodicy:
Humans were created in the image and likeness of God. We are in an immature moral state, though we have the potential for
moral perfection. Throughout our lives we change from being human animals to ‘children of
God’. This is a choice made after struggle and experience, as we choose God
rather than our baser instinct. There are no angels or external forces at work here. God brings in suffering for the benefit of humanity. From it we learn positive values, and about the world around us.
Strengths of Suffering and evil are:
Useful as a means of knowledge. Hunger leads to pain and causes a desire to feed.
Knowledge of pain prompts humans to seek to help others in pain. Character building. Evil offers the opportunity to grow morally. If we
were programmed to ‘do the right thing’ there would be no moral value to our actions. ‘We would never learn the art of goodness in a world designed as a complete paradise’ (Swinburne.)
A predictable environment. The world runs to a series of natural laws. These laws are independent of our needs, and operate regardless of anything. Natural evil is when these laws come into conflict with our own perceived needs.
There is no moral dimension to this. However, we can be sure of things in a predictable world!
Heaven and hell are important within Irenaeus’s Theodicy as part of the process of deification, the lifting up of humanity to the divine. This process enables humans to achieve perfection.
Weaknesses of Irenaeus theodicy.
Irenaeus argued that everyone goes to heaven. This would appear unjust, in that evil goes unpunished. Morality becomes pointless. This is not orthodox Christianity. It denies the fall, and Jesus’ role is reduced to that of moral example.
Why should ‘soul making’ involve suffering? The ‘suffering is good for you’ argument seems unjust, especially in the suffering of innocents. David Hume (philosopher) was critical: ‘Could not our world be a little more hospitable and still teach us what we need to know? Could we not learn through pleasure as well as pain?’ Swinburne argues that our suffering is limited, by our own capacity to feel pain, and by our lifespan. Can suffering ever be justified on the grounds of motive? Suffering does not sit easily with the concept of a loving God. It seems difficult to justify something like the Holocaust with the concept of ‘soul making’.
For further understanding a chart is included in this booklet with moral implications of the argument (this covers the analysis part) which you will need
TaskCreate a
Chart with Irenaeus
points and the
strengths and
weaknesses of his
arguments.
to know for the exam. Use this information and the chart to make your own chart which works for you.
Irenaeus arguments
Strenghts Weaknesses Moral implications
The Irenaean Theodicy.Irenaean theodicy Strengths Weakness Evaluate the effectiveness of the
argument. Humans created in ‘God’s
image’ but not yet in ‘God’s likenesses.
To become like God requires struggle and effort but we must grow into this.
Being in God’s likeness involves showing love, compassion and forgiveness and living selflessly.
It’s something we have to choose to do.
Life is a learning curve learning to be like God.
This gives hope that one day humans can be perfect moral spiritual beings in heaven with God.
God doesn’t want us to be robots, God wants humans to be genuinely loving and therefore gives them free will.
“Morality developed through hard work is more valuable than pre-programmed robotic morality” says John Hicks.
Some people don’t learn from suffering and become worse. Leading to more moral problems. They can become bitter and resentful rather than better people.
If it is not acceptable for us to do something bad to achieve something good, then why is it ok for God to deliberately create an imperfect world for a higher goal?
In this theodicy Irenaeus is saying that God is deliberately places evil in the world to test us. For Augustine’s theodicy he imagines a perfect world where nothing bad ever happens until humans mess it up and bring Sin into it.
Why is being good like God more important than being good for our own sake or the sake of others?
The idea that something good will ALWAYS come from suffering is just not true.
Why do some people have to suffer (die in an earthquake) to provide the opportunity for others to respond compassionately? This is a strange way to get people to learn.
Suffering is a vital ingredient to be like God.
Irenaeus says we need evil in order to be able to appreciate and practice goodness.
Suffering gives us the choice
If God interfered or became too close, humans would be unable to make a free choice and thus would not benefit from the developmental process.
God allows suffering in order
The idea from the Bible that the world was created perfect goes against the idea that God created an imperfect world with the possibility of suffering and evil. Can’t have it both ways.
The idea that suffering always presents us with a choice is not true. Sometimes we have no choice. For example in an earthquake or if we are enslaved or a prisoner in Auschwitz, acting
to be brave, selfless, forgive our enemies, and go to others aid, show compassion and generosity.
Irenaeus portrays God as the author of evil and suffering. He created the world imperfect so that there was a possibility of suffering in it.
Humans ‘free will’ decides how to handle things.
Swinburne says “moral virtues are only possible in an imperfect world”
to lead to the higher goal of moral development.
A person could not understand what was good without the presence of the opposite; bad.
God created the possibility of suffering, but did not actually create suffering.
Some people don’t learn from suffering and become worse. Leading to more moral problems. They can become bitter and resentful rather than better people.
Does the presence of suffering and evil really make the world a better place? School shooting, terrorism, war?
Is suffering the only way to create moral growth? Other things like preparing for tests, learning new skills are moral virtues too.
Swinburne attempted to justify the Holocaust by saying that it gave Jews a wonderful opportunity to be courageous and noble!!!!! Obviously highly offensive remark. But has any good come of it?
If suffering is so good for us, why do religious people tell us to reduce suffering by helping the homeless, starving and the sick? Isn’t it good for them to suffer in this way?
compassionately could have got you killed.
Not all people in the world have the opportunity to use their free will. Slaves, young children, women in some countries.
Suffering goes on after death-eventually all are perfected
Eventually all are perfected and join God in heaven.
Some people seem to develop a holy character
It is not clear how heaven or hell can be places where we
and go to heaven. Heaven is a place people
continue to learn and improve. Because not everyone learns in life.
If you don’t get to learn on earth you get another chance after death in heaven and hell.
Theory has important insights into moral development and a positive view of humans who are capable of raising themselves to perfection.
This theodicy does not clash with science or involve a belief in unprovable supernatural forces like fallen angels or Original Sin.
without much suffering. Why does it take so long
couldn’t God just speed it up and reduce the amount of suffering?
Why could God not given us a longer life span then us having to continue the lessons in heaven and hell?
What is the point of being moral now if I can do it all in the afterlife?
Am I really free to do what I want now if I will be forced to in heaven anyway?
continue to learn. It changes our understanding of what these places are for i.e. Punishment or peace.
It is unclear how free will functions in this theodicy as we clearly have to follow a prescribed path.
Practice exam question1. How successfully do Irenaeus’s views respond to the existence of suffering and
evil? 10(You must say what his ideas are then, argue for and against the question.)Marks are made up of 6 Knowledge and Understanding (Describe and Explain.) 4 Analyse and Evaluate.
Are Humans Responsible for Suffering and Evil?Human responsibility the key argument.
The argument is quite simple; humans make choices and sometimes these choices lead to suffering and evil. God is not responsible for our choices. If we choose to do something that leads to evil and suffering, we only have ourselves to blame. If God stopped us from doing certain things, that would take away our freedom and some would say, Gods relationship with humans. Remember that the free will argument only really works when we are talking about human evil, not natural evil like earthquakes or tsunamis, although there are some natural disasters that can be caused by humans like floods and famines or in our current times climate change.
The Judaeo-Christian story of the fall.
In the book of Genesis, the creation of the universe is quickly followed by the story of the breakdown in the relationship between good and humans. In this story God creates man and woman and places them in paradise where every need is met and suffering, and evil do not exist. These humans have complete freedom to do what they want, except one thing: eat from a particular tree. But sadly, eat from this tree is exactly what they do. As a result of this, they are banished from paradise and punished. Man is punished by having to work hard all his life and for the woman she was to have great pain in child birth.
The meaning of the story
Some religious consider this story to be literally true: There was a garden of Eden, two first humans (Adam and Eve) a real tree and a talking snake with a bad attitude. Others consider the story to be metaphorically or symbolically true. With each aspect of the story representing some broader concept or idea.
For example, the first humans represent all humanity, the tree and fruit represent awareness of themselves and the power to choose to go their own way rather then Gods way, and the snake either represents an evil force from outside or their own internal desires and wishes.
Whether literal or symbolic, the general meaning of the story is as follows:
God made a perfect universe and a perfect earth. God puts humanity in this perfect world and their life is perfect. Humans are given permission to behave as they want, accept for one rule,
which they break. The relationship between God and humans breaks down and human life
becomes a struggle.
Religious people will also add to this understanding three other important concepts.
The disobedience of the first humans brings sin into the world. So, in a sense, suffering and evil are our responsibility.
The sin suffering and evil affects all creation, not just humans. Throughout human history God tries to repair his relationships with
humans, like sending Jesus to bring people back to him.
Some challenges to the story.
Why did God give freedom then place restrictions on it? Telling someone not to do something often increases their desire to do it.
Why give freedom to choose and then punish the free choice? You were either free or you were not. If your going to be punished for your free choice, then perhaps you were not really free in the first place.
What’s with the snake, its all very well you trying to be good, but then you are tempted to do wrong.
What about forgiveness? Maybe he should have let them off with a warning. Isn’t his punishment a bit harsh?
Why should the mistakes of the first humans affect all people and all things after? It seems unfair that all animals and us must suffer for things done so long ago by Adam and Eve.
Isn’t God to blame if he is all-knowing and must have known what humans were likely to do? So, the whole giving a choice is a bit of a pantomime. Anyway, he created us, so he should have known we were likely to be disobedient.
Another argument by Monotheists to explain how God is not responsible is Deism.
Deism: Gods power is limited.
Deism is the belief in a God who created the world, but has since remained indifferent to it. Therefore, God’s power is limited. He created the world but wanted to let it develop through evolution rather by interfering with it.
Strengths of Deism: Gods power is limited
God only created the world, suffering and evil is nothing to do with him. He does not intervene in anything that goes on in the world.
Weaknesses with Deism: God’s power being Limited.
If God is indifferent to the world then he cannot be benevolent- All loving. If God’s power is limited, then he cannot be Omnipotence- All powerful. If he
Talking point:
If God sent Jesus to
suffer and take away
sin and suffering,
why is there still
suffering in the world?
Check your understanding1.Describe what happens in the Christian story of the Fall.2. Explain what religious people think the meaning of the story of the Fall is?3. Describe two challenges to the story of the Fall.4. Explain what Deism is? Give one strength and one weakness of the argument.
created the world and left it to develop then he cannot be Omniscience- All knowing.
AUGUSTINIAN THEODICY (Higher Only)
Based on the narratives (story) of Genesis 1-3, Augustine's theodicy argues that God created the world and it was perfect, without the existence of evil or suffering.
Genesis 1:31: “God saw all that he had made and saw that it was very good"
Augustine defined evil as the privation (lack) of goodness, just as blindness is a privation of sight. Since evil is not an entity in itself, just like blindness is not an entity in itself, God could not have created it.
The existence of evil originates from free will possessed by angels (fallen angels) and humans, who turned their back on God and settled for a lesser form of goodness therefore creating a lack of goodness as the story of 'the fall' in Genesis 3 tries to explain. As a result, the state of perfection was ruined by sin.
Natural Evil: Occurred because of the loss of order in nature, defined by Augustine as the 'penal consequences of sin'Moral Evil: Derived from human free will and disobedience
Augustine reasoned that all humans are worthy of the punishment of evil and suffering because we are “seminally present in the loins of Adam"' deserving of the punishment for original sin.
God has the right not to intervene and put a stop to evil and suffering since he is a just God and we are worthy of punishment. It is by his grace and infinite love however, that we are able to accept his offer of salvation and eternal life in heaven.
Weaknesses of Augustine’s theodicy. One of the principal critics of the Augustinian Theodicy is F.D.E
Schleiermacher. He argued that it was a logical contradiction to make the claim that a perfectly created world went wrong since this implies that evil created itself, which is a logical contradiction. Either the world was not perfect to start with or God made it go wrong – if this is the case it is God and not humans who are to blame and the existence of evil is not justified.
If the world was perfect and there was no knowledge of good and evil, how could Adam and Eve have the freedom to disobey God if goodness and evil were as yet unknown? The disobedience of Adam and Eve and the angels implies that there already was knowledge of good and evil.
Augustine's view is also inconsistent with the theory of evolution which asserts that the universe began in chaos and is continually developing, not diminishing over time.
Augustine's view that every human in seminally present in the loins Adam is biologically inaccurate and the question can be raised; is God really
justified in allowing punishment of one human being for the sin of another human being?
TaskCreate a
Chart with Augustine’s points and the
strengths and
weaknesses of his
argument
TaskCreate a
Chart with Augustine’s points and the
strengths and
weaknesses of his
argument
Practice exam question2. How successfully do Augustines views respond to the existence of suffering and evil?
10
(You must say what his ideas are then, argue for and against the question.)Marks are made up of 6 Knowledge and Understanding (Describe and Explain.) 4 Analyse and Evaluate.
Augustinian TheodicyPoints Strengths Weaknesses Evaluate the effectiveness of the
Argument.1.Evil is the absence of God.Evil is not a force, but the absence of kindness, courage and wellbeing.God’s creatures have created this by falling short of what God wants for them.The world was created good, but humans do not live up to the standards God wants.
God is not to blame for evil.God created things good, but humans messed up and are responsible for suffering and evil.
Is the absence of good necessary result in evil?God takes no responsibility for our suffering.If God was omnibenevolent he would want to help us.
This argument is not effective because God still created us and needs to take responsibility for how we turned out.
This argument is effective because God is shown as not responsible for suffering and evil, therefore he is not to blame.
2.The world is imperfect because it has been corrupted by Humans and fallen angels.God is not responsible for evil.Natural evil is caused by fallen angels causing mischief.Angels abused free will given by God and turned against him.Humans have turned against him too.
God is not to blame for evil.God created things good, but humans messed up and are responsible for suffering and evil.Spirits explanation for natural evil.Spirits also not the fault of God.
God off the hook for suffering and evil!!!
Science cannot prove existence of spirits, but many thing Augustine says can now be explained by science (Storms, diseases, mental illness)Augustine over explains things by using spirits for natural evil. Occam’s Razor says ‘things should not be over explained beyond reason.
This argument is not effective because if God is all powerful he should be able to stop the humans and angels for doing stuff. So, he should have the ability to do so but doesn’t. No proof that angels exist.
This argument is effective because Augustine is using the ‘free will’ argument to explain humans suffering. He also has an explanation for natural evil which blames spirits rather than himself.
3.Corruption started with Adam and Eve book of Genesis.This passed on down the generations/Original sin.Whole human race is corrupted/not good as God had made them in the garden of Eden. Explains why cruelty and selfishness come so easy to humans and compassion and kindness is a struggle.God’s justice cannot ignore sin.His mercy will reward/pay back for their suffering in heaven if they accept Christian faith.Because God is a good God he insists that we are punished for our bad behaviour.
-God is not to blame for evil.Humans messed up, are responsible.-Original Sin explains human cruelty and selfishness.-Reward offered to those who follow God’s laws.-God’s justice means that he must punish us for our behaviour.
-Blaming humans for the crimes of their ancestors is not ethical anymore, modern ethics focus is on personal responsibility. -Problem of taking the Genesis story literally. And believing in spirits. Most people in the modern world see Genesis story as symbolic or as a mythical story. -Modern science can explain though the theory of evolution/natural selection that humans evolved from ape like creatures who were more primitive and irrational not more reasonable and good. -Original Sin cannot be explained scientifically, although some things like genetic diseases can be passed on, no evidence for spiritual state of Sin being passed on.
This argument is not effective because science can explain the origins of man which don’t match up to the Genesis story.The concept of Sin is problematic because we have other explanations for why humans behave the way they do such as nature/nurture theory, rather than inheriting Sin from Adam and Eve.
This argument is effective because it explains the origin of suffering and evil through the concept of Original Sin and shows how we have inherited this from our ancestors.
DeterminismThe determinist approach proposes that all behaviour has a cause and is thus predictable. Free will is an illusion, and our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control.
External Determinism
External (environmental) determinism see the cause of behaviour as being outside the individual, such as parental influence, the media, or school. Approaches which adopt this position include Behaviourism and social learning theory.
For example, Bandura (1961) showed that children become aggressive through observation and imitation of their violent parents.
Internal Determinism
The other main supporters of determinism are those who adopt a biological perspective. However, for them it is internal, not external, forces that are the determining factor. According to socio-biology evolution governs the behaviour of a species and genetic inheritance that of each individual within it. For example, Bowlby (1969) states a child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure (i.e. monotropy).
Personality traits like extraversion or neuroticism, and the behaviour associated with them, are triggered by neurological and hormonal processes within the body. There is no need for the concept of an autonomous human being. Ultimately this view sees us as no more than biological machines and even consciousness itself is interpreted as a level of arousal in the nervous system.
Freud also viewed behaviour being controlled from inside the individual, in the form of unconscious motivation or childhood events, known as psychic determinism.
There are different levels of determinism
Hard determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause.
Soft determinism represents a middle ground, people do have a choice, but that choice is constrained by external or internal factors
Problems with Determinism
However, a problem with determinism is that it is inconsistent with society's ideas of responsibility and self-control that form the basis of our moral and legal obligations.
An additional limitation concerns the facts that psychologists cannot predict a person's behaviour with 100% accuracy due to the complex
interaction of variables which can influence behaviour.
The Tragedy of Oedipus
After their marriage, King Laius of Thebes and his wife Jocasta were warned by the Delphic Oracle that should they have a son that son would kill Laius and marry Jocasta. It was not long after this warning that Jocasta gave birth to a son. Fearing the prophecy Laius pierced and bound the infant's feet and left him to die on a mountain side. A shepherd found the child and brought him to his king, King Polybius of Corinth. Polybus raised the child as his own, naming him Oedipus, which means "swollen-foot".
Oedipus had a happy childhood, and when he came to adulthood he decided to consult the Oracle of Delphi to find out about his future. The Oracle told him the dreadful prophecy that had been told to his father. Still believing that Polybus was his real father, Oedipus decided to go to Thebes so he would not be near Polybius, effectively escaping the prophecy. On his way he met up with pilgrims on their way to Delphi. Oedipus asked them to move out of his way, but they would not yield. He killed all of them, not knowing that their leader was his real father, Laius. Thinking nothing of killing the pilgrims, he continued his way.
Now, Thebes had troubles of its own: the Sphinx had stationed herself outside the gates and was asking everyone who tried to enter a riddle: "What has four legs in the morning, two in the afternoon, and three in the evening?" If they guessed correctly she would leave. If they guessed incorrectly she got to eat the unfortunate person. So far no one had solved her riddle. Having nothing to lose Oedipus took a stab at the riddle and guessed the correct answer: a man. The sphinx left, and the people were so overjoyed that they made Oedipus their king, and he married Jocasta, the queen.
Oedipus and Jocasta lived happily for many years, and had four children: Etocles, Polynices, Ismene, and Antigone. Then, a plague hit the city, which would not end until Lauis murder had been avenged. Oedipus swore to kill those responsible, not knowing that he was the guilty party. They could not solve the puzzle until the great seer Tiresias came to tell them the truth. In horror of what had happened, Jocasta hung herself, and Oedipus blinded and
banished himself, with only Antigone as company. Oedipus died in Attica, because king Theseus of Athens was the only one who would take in the cursed man. This brought great prosperity to the city, as the land that Oedipus was buried on would be blessed by the gods
forever.
Other Non-Religious Responses to Suffering and EvilDeterminism is the usual response for the free will argument from non-religious people. They question how free we truly are, and in turn, proving that the monotheistic free will argument does not work.
For non-religious people answering the question of why there is suffering, and evil is still important. But they come at the question from the viewpoint the God does not exit. Therefore, they have other ways to understand this question which we will look at now.
Non-religious people use various approaches to understanding suffering and evil, these are:
• Evolution
• Physics
• Biology
• Psychology
• Earth Science
Freewill: genetics.
Some people would argue that evil is something you can be born with. It is a genetic disposition. Science can defiantly identify certain conditions you can be born with that could explain evil actions such and psychopathy or paranoid schizophrenia. In the famous book ‘We need to talk about Kevin.’ The story is told through the perspective of Eve, Kevin's mother, in the form of letters she writes after the series of brutal murders that Kevin commits. As a child, Kevin has classic signs of a psychopath and shows little to no affection to his family but appears to reserve special loathing for his mother despite all she does for him…
Strengths of freewill: genetics
There are many of these sorts of people who the media and general public would probably consider ‘evil’ – such as murderers and other violent offenders who lack remorse and given the chance would commit more crimes.
If we can recognise this genetic disposition from an early age, we can limit the damage they are likely to do.
Weaknesses of freewill: genetics
Most scientists would argue that genetic disposition is only one factor, and that upbringing and experiences can also shape a person’s actions.
Identifying ‘Evil’ genetics sounds easier said then done. Most people that are identified as dangerous have usually committed a crime before they are caught.
This does not explain experiments like the Milgram experiment, which suggests anyone is capable of great evil. We are conditioned to follow orders and fulfil expectations of those in authority.
Freewill: Limitations
Talking point:
Do we do evil
because we are
brought
The idea that we are free to do whatever we want is ridiculous. We are limited by all sorts of things physically and environmentally. We cannot fly or walk through walls. Therefore, out ideas of ‘freewill’ are flawed as we are limited in what we can do.
Strengths of the freewill: limitations argument.
This is true from a physical perspective as we cannot defy the laws of physics we are bound to by suddenly flying or walking through solid matter.
Weaknesses of the freewill: limitations argument.
Some people can defiantly surpass their supposed physical limitations. For example: Free divers holding their breath for more than 10 minutes, Paralympian’s competing in sports and the Shaolin monks doing things that are considered almost super human.
Evolutionary arguments. Richard
Dawkins
Pitiless indifference of nature.
• “The universe that we observe has precisely the properties we should expect if there is, at bottom, no design, no purpose, no evil, no good, nothing but pitiless indifference.”
Pro Richard Dawkins
Strengths of evolutionary arguments.
Talking point:
Do we do evil
because we are
brought
It is true of nature that there is not always any sense in who lives or dies. There is no good or evil, no design and no purpose as animals and plants are driven by instinct. Many species have come and gone in this world. (dinosaurs) Maybe our time will come one day.
Weaknesses of evolutionary arguments.
Although bound by the laws of nature, humans think and create meaning and purpose. We create concepts like good and evil and cannot therefore behave with pitiless indifference. If we can survive by which ever means, humans will try to do so. We will fight to survive.
Human Evil.
Human evil is…
Unpredictable.
Accidental.
Passive.
Deliberate.
Sometimes there is no sense in who is harmed.
Strengths of Human Evil argument.
This shows human evil is complex, it could be the result of mental illness, and not always intentional. Because our environment and conditioning shapes our actions and us, these kinds of human evil can be explained and can be understood for the most part.
Weaknesses of Human Evil argument.
It is not always easy to understand why people behave as they do. Some humans have been responsible for great evil and we never get an explanation on why they do it. Maybe they are possessed by demons. Something non-religious people would fail to understand or be able to deal with.
Evil is a survival instinct.
This is nature’s way of weeding out the weak. Keeping the population regulated. Anthropomorphising- what we think of as evil depends on our point of view. Would we say a cat is evil for killing a mouse? No, it’s a survival instinct. Therefore, what we do to survive is neither good or evil, just survival.
Strengths of the Evil is a survival instinct argument.
It is true that we are at the mercy of nature. There is not always any sense in who lives and dies. We will do what we must do to survive if it comes to it. Whether that means us living while others die.
• Last toilet rolls in the shop during Corona.
• War
• Prison
• Limited food supply’s
Weaknesses of the Evil is a survival instinct argument.
This reduces us to our animal instincts which does not take into account our intelligence and adaptability. Sometimes are instincts can be help others over ourselves and as humans we pride ourselves on our ability to do this.
Natural evil: The power of nature
Natural evil is random. Natural evil is unpredictable. How prepared are we for it?
Earthquakes
Hurricanes
Floods
Volcanoes
Strengths of Natural Evil, the power of nature argument.
We have sciences dedicated to understanding these natural forces and their causes. Most times we can predict and be prepared for these things i.e.
• Buildings in Japan.
• Weather predictions.
• Underground bunkers
Weaknesses of natural evil, the power of nature argument.
Natural evil is still unpredictable and could be ultimately devastating for the planet. If a meteor hits the planet or the sun explodes, it’s not like we are going to find ways to survive it. It can leave us feeling that any meaning there may be to our lives is a waste of time.
Natural evil: the bugs are coming
This Includes bacteria and viruses, cancer, diseases. Things that are still not completely understood by science. Viruses mutate. Super bugs outsmarting antibiotics. Diseases coming back, bubonic plague, small pox, Corvid 19. These are challenges for all life on earth.
Strengths of the natural evil the bugs are coming argument.
We are trying and progressing in our understanding of these things. Finding cures, vaccinations. We recognise that we still have a long way to go. We take responsibility for these problems. Great strides have been made to find
cures for many diseases.
Weaknesses of the natural evil the bugs are coming argument.
There is no sense in who suffers and dies, young or old, rich or poor. As humans we still need to understand why sometimes. Evil and suffering appears random and meaningless.
Buddhism Perspective on Freewill.For Buddhists all people are free to make choices about moral behaviour or anything else. Therefore, for Buddhists, freewill explains, in part, the existence of suffering and evil, but not in the same way as it does for monotheistic faiths as they do not believe that God has given us this freewill. Buddhist believe that we are constantly shifting and changing in all aspects of our being. (5 Skandhas) All our choices have karmic consequences which can b far reaching and unpredictable. Human evil can be both the result of karmic consequences and the cause of further karmic consequences. This for Buddhists is what maintains the endless cycle of Samsara. Remember the hub of the wheel is governed by greed hatred and ignorance which will always make our actions unskilful and therefore bring suffering to ourselves and others.
Does the Problem of Evil and Suffering matter?Suffering
A Challenge for Religious people.
The challenge for religious people can be so great that they can lose their faith in God.
Some religious people see it as a challenge to overcome and accept and therefore it can make their faith stronger.
Some religious people would say that dealing with suffering is about maintaining your faith in God and therefore it is not a challenge to them.
A Challenge to non-religious people.
Suffering can be a challenge to non-religious people because it randomness and pointlessness can make them question what it’s all about.
Some would argue that suffering may be challenging but it is unavoidable. It is an inevitable part of the universe and the creatures that inhabit it.
Evil
A Challenge for religious people.
Some religious people’s faith will be challenged by evil, as God must be fully, or partly to blame for its existence. If all creation is God’s work, then evil must be part of his plan.
If evil is part of the natural forces of the earth, then God is still responsible for making it that way.
The challenge of evil for some is understanding what it is for? Many religious people take the view that all life is ordered and structured by God for a purpose. It is part of God’s plan. But it is not clear how evil contributes to this plan.
Talking
point:
Do you
think that it
is possible to benefit from suffer
For some, holding on to faith in the face of great evil is the challenge. During the Holocaust many lost their faith as they could not understand why God would allow such horrific things to happen. Other kept their faith, but it was a challenge.
For those religions such as Buddhism with out a belief in God. Evil still presents a challenge in how karmic consequences do not always catch up with people who do evil things.
The Challenge for Non-religious people.
Evil seems to be random, so what is the point of trying to live a good life if there is no link with being a good person and having a good life?
Some people might argue that the apparent lack of order and structure in the universe leads to the conclusion that you can live your life anyway you like. There is no point trying to do the ‘right’ thing if evil can come and destroy everything you work hard for.
Some might conclude that if evil is all around, then the best way to deal with it is to become eviller then others to survive.
Talking
point:
Do you
think that it
is possible to benefit from suffer
Talking point:
What do you conside
r the greates
t proble
m presented by the
problem of evil?
Can the Responsibility for Suffering and Evil lie with both God and Humans?
God
God is not Responsible.
Buddhist, Humanists and atheists do not believe in a god, therefore, not God no responsibility.
Those who do believe in a God may still feel he is not responsible for evil and suffering caused by humans as they have freewill to choose what they do.
In relation to natural evil. God is not responsible as he has to let the laws of physics work naturally.
For some religious people, Gods responsibility is lessened because of the existence of the Devil, or demons who are seen as mostly responsible for suffering and evil.
God is Responsible.
God is meant to be the most powerful being there is. The idea that he either created the Devil or allows him to wreak havoc on earth is ridiculous. Surly God can bring an end to this evil being, or at least control him. This means God must be responsible for the Devil, therefore responsible for evil and suffering.
If God giving us freewill is the reason for suffering and evil, then God should take it away from us, without us knowing. The fat that he can’t or won’t, makes him responsible for it.
Humans
Humans are not responsible
Talking point:
What do you conside
r the greates
t proble
m presented by the
problem of evil?
suffering and evil? Give 3 examples.
1.
2.
3.
Only a being such as God can bring an end to suffering and evil. Humans have worked hard to make progress in fighting illness and diseases, but God could end them in second, if he wanted. Similarly, with natural disasters, such as earthquakes and tsunamis, we are not able to do anything about these, but God could, therefore he is responsible.
The concept of ‘responsibility’ is a difficult on in relation to natural causes of suffering and evil. As humans do not cause this. In relation to human caused evil and suffering there are many complex factors that can lead to bad actions (Up-bringing, addiction, mental illness), therefore, to assign responsibility does not always make sense.
Humans are responsible.
For those who do not believe in God, there is no one else to blame for suffering and evil but ourselves.
For those who do believe in God, It is our job to do something about evil and suffering in the world, not him.
We have limited control, not no control over suffering and evil, therefore we should take responsibility.
Humans may have limited control over natural forces, but we are also responsible for them too. Consider climate change, and how our actions are causing more storms and floods all over the world. Therefore, we are responsible in some ways.
The final decisions about our behaviour lie with us. We can blame our up-bringing or drugs, but we must shoulder the responsibility.
suffering and evil? Give 3 examples.
1.
2.
3.
