Crs:H7404-AP Psychology G. Boulton Room 214 Southwest Guilford High SchoolDuration: High Point, NCA Psychology course in the 4-4 block schedule. This course last for one semester or roughly 90 days. We will meet Monday through Friday for 90 minutes each day.

Course Objectives: This course is an overview of what lies within the realm of psychology. Many people who are unfamiliar with psychology assume that the subject deals with mental illness, and only mental illness. This course is designed to present the learner with an overview of all aspect within the psychological world.

Student will learn:- The early history behind psychology.- The proper approach to the research. (scientific method)- The proper use of statistics in validating acquired information.- The ideas of right v. wrong methods of research. (Ethics)- Social Psychological (Socialization)- Biological aspects. (The Brain & Endocrine system)- Motivation; biological aspects, social aspects, stress, Sleep & Dreaming.- Learning: Operant (Instrumental), Classical, Cognitive, & social.- Sensation & Perception. Neurological, Adaptation Processes.- Memory- Thought and Knowledge- Language- Physical & Cognitive Development- Intelligence Quotients and testing- Personality- Freud- Abnormal Psychology (Neurosis v. Psychosis)- Treatment of Psychological disorders.

Psychology Sources

Basic Psychology 5th Edition Gleitman, Fridlund, ReisbergPsychology David G. Myers Social Psychology 2nd Edition Albrecht, Chadwick, JacobsonThe Good Life Burton PorterThe Merck Manual 14th edition“Force in Human Development” Jerome Kagan at MSU Oct 18 1994.

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Course Routine, Requirements & Grading scale: - The majority of test will be in essay form.- There will be a number of required readings. Analysis of the readings will be typed

and handed in according to standards presented in subsequent rubrics.- There will be extra credit papers available only in the second nine weeks.- There will several independent chapters and papers that will be assigned throughout

the course. You will have at least three weeks notice of when the independent work is due.

- There will be one group project on chapter five “Sensory Processes”. This will consist of a group presentation pertaining to one aspect of the sensory process.

- Test will constituted 80% of your grade. Quiz/Homework assignments will make up the remaining 20%.

Recommendations: One of the most helpful resources in passing the AP Psychology test involves the students’ ability to write an essay that demonstrates a mastery of the courses objectives. The AP Central web site, http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/Controller.jpf provides students with an opportunity to develop a better understanding of how to write an appropriate essay.

In addition, a class emailing list (all address will be filed in Bcc as to prevent any unwanted emailing.) that will help keep you informed as to assignments and possible outside information. If any student comes upon any relevant analogous material to the topics being studied, please feel free to send them to me. If the materials are pertinent, the instructor will pass them along.

Fall Semester 2016: The first grading period runs from 8-28 thru 10-27. Topic to be covered in the first nine week period: Scientific Method, Socialization, The Brain, Motivation, Learning, Sensory Perception & Memory.

Course Outline: Fall 2016

I. Scientific Methods & the History of Psychology:[Content Area & Percentage: Goals I & II 2-4% RM 6-8%]

Appendix 1 Page A1 (In the back of your book.) “Methods of Scientific Research”Basic Psychology

- Designing a Persuasive Experiment- Observational Studies (Objective v. Subjective)- The Importance of Multiple Methods

Natural Observation, Questionnaire method (Likert Scale), Direct Observation Interview method.

- Generalizing from Research (Double Blind, Placebo)- Research Ethics- Historical Perspectives: Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviorism,

Reinforcement, Gestalt School & Psychoanalytic - Areas of Specialization: Clinical, Counseling, Educational, Social,

Developmental Experimental- Main current perspectives: Biological, cognitive, Humanistic, Learning

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& Sociocultural.

II. Socialization: [Content Area & Percentage: Goal # XIV / 7-9 %]Social Psychology Albrecht Chapter 4 page 86- 124.Basic Psychology Gleitman Chapters 4 & 6Psychology Myers chapter 18 page 694

Socialization: The process of how we learn the rules and roles of our society.Basic Concepts: The Traditional Approach :

Society ------ Individual ------- Internalization-What is the goal of society?- “Significant other”Critical analysis:

Human Nature: Tabula Rasa (blank slate) (Pygmalion effect / Puddin head Wilson) Critical Analysis: Brazelton

Are People Inherently Good or Bad?-Ziglar and Child- Newsweek 1978 Jim Jones- Newsweek 1997 “Are Parents Needed?”- Freudian “innate tendencies of destruction” Neg. view. -Maslow “the actualized person” Pos. views. We create our being through stages.

Human Development under Minimal Social Contact- Children raised by wolves. (Kamala and Amala) October 17, 1920 in India the two wolf children were captured. - “The Case of Genie”- Harlow’s studies of Reese Monkeys. Isolation and monobreast experiments.(Passive vs. active views)

Section III Theories of Socialization: 1. Psychoanalytic Approach: Sigmund Freud

Critical analysis: 2. Social-Learning Approach:

- Vicarious Learning Albert Bandura-" BoBo Doll experiment".Critical analysis

3. Symbolic-Cognitive Approach: Kohlberg: 3 levels & 6 Stages of moral development

Concept of self. Critical analysis: Carol GilliganSection IV Socialization in the Family1. Parental Support:

Rene Spitz: isolation nursery / foundling home- Health and wellness are influenced by emotional well being.Critical analysis:

2. Parental Control:Two main types of parental control:Induction: Here, the child volunteers the action.Coercion: The child has no choice.Critical analysis:

Test & evidence of mastery:Students will be given a test consisting of 12 short ID’s followed by two essays. Examples and critical analysis will be requires in both ID’s and essays. (Test date 9-

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8-06. Test dates vary one or two days)

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III. The Brain [Content Area & Percentage: Goal # III / 8-10 %]Basic Psychology Gleitman Chapters 2 page11.Psychology Myers Chapter Ch. 2 Page 56.“The Brain” Discovery Channel videos.

One of the most significant chapters within the course, constituting 8-10% of the questions on the AP exam. The biological end of the “nature v. nurture debate”, the students will need to master this chapter to have relevant examples to be used in the essay and MC sections of the test.

- The organism as a machine p. 11-12- How the Nervous System is Studied p. 13-17 The History of Neurological studies. i.e. Phineas Gage.- The Architecture of the Nervous System (Anatomy of the Brain) 17-23- The CNS Connection to the Body 23-32- The Cortex: Localization and its significance.

Broca’s & Wernicke’s area.- One Brain or Two? (Corpus Callosom example: PBS series Vickie) 33-37- Functions & Neural Hierarchies 37-38- Building Blocks of the Nervous System 38-43

Neuron anatomy. Students will make a drawing or model of a neuron.- Neurological interaction. 43-50- The Endocrine System. Pancreas, adrenal. & pituitary. Hormones 51-54

Test & evidence of mastery: (Test dates: 9-15 & 9-21)Due to the importance of this chapter, there will be two tests on the material. One will be a straight forward biology test consisting of vocabulary word. The test will be in a matching format. The second test will be a combination essay and MC pertaining to the chapter.

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IV. Motivation: (CA VIII 7-9%)Basic Psychology Gleitman Chapters 3 pages 59-95.

Self-regulation / self-preservation / self-restoration Potentiation: Focus Questions:What is homeostasis?How does the concept of feedback work to produce a homeostatic state?Control Systems: Feedback system: Positive feedback systemNegative feedback: Homeostasis: (Literally, “equal state”) steady state

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Descartes --- MachineClaude Bernard ----- both internal and external (not in a vacuum)

Temperature Regulation: Temperature Control From Within:

Vasodilatation: Vasoconstriction:

Temperature control By Behavior: The Autonomic Nervous System and Temperature Control:

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Sympathetic & Parasympathetic:

Sensing The Internal Environment: The Hypothalamus Hypothalamus:

Thirst Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) :

Hunger

Focus Questions: - What signals indicate when to eat and when to stop eating?- How does the Hypothalamus play a role in the eating process?- How do both constitutional and behavioral factors contribute to obesity?- What are anorexia and bulimia?

The Signals for Feeding: (Feeding rats non-nutritional food) Four different signals are present at any given time. Signals from the Inside

Glucose: Hypothalamus

Receptors in the stomach and intestines What tells the body to stop eating?- The body can detect nutritious substances. Signals from the liver: Signals from outside Hypothalamic Control Centers: (Two antagonistic centers)- Dual-Centers For Feeding: - Lateral region: When activated, we eat. - Ventromedial region: When activated, we stop eating. - Setpoint

Obesity: - Bodily Factors in Obesity : - Lower metabolic levels.- Imbalance of the biochemical products needed to create a

homeostatic state.- i.e. Twins study. .

Behavioral Factors:

Restrained eating and obesity: Disinhibition, with restrained and unrestrained eaters.i.e. milk shake and ice cream experiment.Herman and Mack in 1975 dubbed the experiment the “What-the-hell” diet busting effect.

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The setpoint hypothesis: (Foch & McClearn 1980)

The Treatment of Obesity:

Anorexia and Bulimia

Anorexia nervosa: Bulimia:

Fear and Rage

Focus Questions: What broad functions are served by the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

What is the emergency reaction?

What is the limbic system?

Does Pain have a purpose?

Threat and The Autonomic Nervous System:- Walter Cannon (1871-1945) - The parasympathetic handles to vegetative functions.- The sympathetic handles the activating function. Activated

by the adrenal medulla.

The Emergency Reaction- Fight or flight reaction- Galvanic skin response (GSR)

Central ControlsDisruptive Effects of Autonomic Arousal Pain and The Endorphin SystemPain as an aid to survival: (Melzack, 1973) i.e Biting off of ones tongue.

Radiator burns, infections, etc.. Death at twenty-nine.

Pain Relief Through Endorphins:- Analgesic: - Endorphins : (internally produced morphine)

Sleep and Waking

Focus Questions: What brain system regulates when we sleep & when we are awake?- How does active sleep differ from quit sleep?- What purpose might sleep serve?- When during sleep are we most likely to dream?

Sleep and Physiological Activity EEG (electroencephalogram)Alpha waves : awake yet resting “not thinking about anything in particular”.The Stages of Sleep: Slow wave and REM sleep- Jittery waking frequency and accentuated alpha rhythms. Easily

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awakened and like daydreaming. - Muscles twitch on to deeper sleep.- Over the next hour (s) still deeper until waves increase in stage three- Higher voltage lower frequency. (stage 2 thru 4)- In these stages it is difficult to awaken someone. ((sleepwalking/ night terrors)- 90-100 minutes of uninterrupted sleep. varying between the levels.- Finally, REM sleep kicks in. (Paradoxical sleep) The first REM last about 5 minutes, Followed by stages 1-4 and then back.

awake slow-wave sleep Active Sleep stage one stage two stage three stage four Dreaming

[CA # V States of Consciousness 2-4% of Goals]

Test & evidence of mastery: Test date 9-28(7-9%) ID’s and Essays followed by Textbook MC questions. _________________________

V. Learning: [CA #VI 7-9%] Basic Psychology Gleitman Ch. 4 p. 97-137Psychology Myers Ch. 8 p. 308-342

Habituation : Classical Conditioning:

Focus Questions:- What steps are involved in demonstrating CC?- Once a conditioned response is acquired, how can it be extinguished (unconditioned),

and how can it be reacquired?- What is discrimination in CC?

Pavlov and the Conditioned Reflex Unconditioned & Conditioned reflexes US UR CS CR

The Major Phenomena of Classical Conditioning:Reinforced trialsUnreinforced trialLearning curveSecond-order conditioning a secondary signal is connected

Extinction Generalization DiscriminationExtension of Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Fear

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Conditioned emotional response (CER) Response suppression Phobias

The Relation Between CR and UR:

Conditioning and Drug Effects:Compensatory reaction

Instrumental Conditioning

Focus Questions:- What is instrumental conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?- What was Thorndike’s law of effect, and why did he consider it analogous to the

doctrine of evolution?- What is reinforcement?- What effects do ratio and interval reinforcement schedules have?

Thorndike and Law of Effect: The Law of Effect : Based on rewards or punishments Skinner and Operant Behavior 1938 The Major Phenomena of Instrumental Conditioning:

Appetitive stimulus Aversive stimulus Generalization and DiscriminationShaping (successive approximations) [mold the behavior]Conditioned Reinforcement (conditioned reinforcer) Schedules of Reinforcement

The Breadth of Instrumental ConditioningAversive Conditioning

-Punishment-Escape and avoidance-Aversive conditioning and the law effect

Cognitive Learning

Focus Questions:- What is the cognitive theory of conditioning?- What findings suggest that cognitive interpretations might apply to

both classical and instrumental conditioning?

- What is learned helplessness, and how can it explain some aspects of human depression?

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A Cognitive View of Classical Conditioning Acquisition in classical conditioning is an understanding of the relation between two stimulus events.

Temporal Relations Between the CS & The US Contiguity :

Temporal contiguity: (Book example p. 118. Highway warning signs)- Contingency : - Preparation, prediction & association.

We learn to ignore none essential cues. (i.e. fan noise)- Contingency vs. contiguity : (Robert Rescorla 1967)

(P.119 rat example)- The absence of contingency: What happens? Anxiety, fear, etc…

- A Cognitive View of Instrumental Conditioning

Evidence for “ Act-Outcome Associations” - Latent learning: Tolman & Honzik 1930 rat & maze experiment.- Contingency in Instrumental Conditioning - Response control in infants Mobile experiment (Watson 1967)- Helplessness in dogs : (Seligman 1975)- Helplessness and depression : A belief that there is no contingency

between acts and outcomes and so no point in trying.

Varieties of Learning

Focus Questions:- What are biological constraints on learning, and what are some examples both

from the laboratory and from everyday life?- Why are some kind of learning considered adaptive speculations, and what are some

examples?Biological Constraints on Associative Learning:

Belongingness

- Equipotentiality principle : Equal potential for any association.- Biological constraints : Specifics that a particular species has.

CS-US Relations in Classical Conditioning Learned taste aversion : Belongingness and taste aversion: On-trial learning : Food and X-rays experimentLearned taste aversions and the CS-US interval:

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- Taste aversion in humans: i.e. ice cream & the flu.Act-Outcome Relations in Instrumental Conditioning . (Shetleworth 1972)Species-specific defense reactions: - i.e. pigeons and their tendencies.The “Misbehavior” of Organisms: - i.e. Training a raccoon. - Adaptive Specialization of Learning

Differences in What Different Species Learn (Roper 1983, Gallistel 1990) - Some animals learn in ways that others cannot.- Clark’s nutcracker example. The bird has incredible spatial skills

regarding memory.

Similarities in What Different Species Learn (Couvillon & Bitterman 1980)

Focus Questions:- What are the shared forms of learning?- Environmental influences. i.e. gravity, energy etc…- Cause and effect causes all animals to use trial and error.- Natural selection favors animals that can detect relationships

between their actions and consequences.

The Neural Basis for Learning

Neural plasticity. Long-term potentiation

Complex Cognition in Animals

Focus Questions:- What are cognitive maps and what evidence suggests that some animals construct such

maps?- What evidence suggests that some animals can show insights and solve abstract

problems?

Cognitive MapsRadial arm maze example. (Olton & Samuelson)

Insightful Behavior - (Wolfgang Kohler) Kohler challenged Thorndike’s cat experiment

and claimed that animals are not simply trial and error machines. Kohler devised the chimpanzee in the cage with the box, stick, and bananas experiment. Significance : “Insight”

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- Complex Perceptual Concepts in Animals Discrimination may be inherent.Animals may be able to conceptualize (though differently fromour methods of conceptualization.)

- Abstract Concepts in Animals (Ann & David Premack)

Matching to Sample A procedure in which an organism has to choose which of two alternative stimuli is the same as a third, sample stimulus.

The chimpanzee named Sarah.Even pigeons can be trained to peck at the differing itemsand or colors.

Test & evidence of mastery: Test date 10-6-06.(7-9% of the MC on the AP) This test will consist of 65 fill in the blank id’s, 25 MC, 10 ID’s an One essay. (Hint: The main focus of the essay may relate to the various kinds of conditioning.) ________________________________________________

VI. Sensory Processes: [CA # IV 7-9%] Basic Psychology Gleitman Ch. 5 p.140-181Psychology Myers Ch. 5 p.192-230 The Origins of Knowledge- Empiricist views- Nativist views- Detection and Decision

A Survey of the Senses- Kinesthesis & The Vestibular Senses- The Skin - The sense of taste- The Sense of Smell- Hearing- Vision

Group projects and your take home test on chapter five will be due and presented on 10-16-06. Remember that the presentation is limited to 5-8 minutes with each group. You may not have more than four people in your group. All topics must be approved prior to the presentation.Originality and different formats are appreciated and welcomed. Get together and use your imaginations!!!!!! ______________________________________ VII. Perception: [CA #IV 7-9% of goals]

The Problem of Perception p. 183

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The Perception of Depth: Where is it? p.185- binocular cues- Monocular cues- The Perception of depth through Motion- The Role of Redundancy

The Perception of Movement: What is it Doing? p.190- Apparent Movement- Eye Movements- Illusion of Motion (Doc Edgerton example)

Form Perception: What is it? p.193- Information-Processing Approach- The Elements of form- Perceptual Segregation- Pattern recognition- Perceptual Problem Solving

Form Perception and the Nervous System p.203- Visual Processing in the Brain- The Humpty-Dumpty Problem

Perceptual Selection: Attention p.205- Selection through Orientation- Selective Listening Cocktail party effect. Dichotic presentation

Perceiving constancy p208- Size and shape Constancy- Empiricism & Nativism Revisited

Test & evidence of mastery: Date 10-17-06ID’s & Short answers. 20-25 questions. Students will need to know the order in which humans process information and why we have adapted to various types of perception. Students, will likewise need to discuss the materials from both a nature and nurture point of view. ________________________________________________________________VIII. Memory: [CA VII 8-10% goals]Basic Psychology Gleitman Ch. 7 p.214-251 Psychology Myers Ch. 9 p.342-383

Studying Memory p.215- Some Preliminary Distinctions

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- Encoding, Storage & Retrieval

Encoding: p.218- The Stage theory of Memory- A Changed Emphasis: Active Memory & Organization

Retrieval p.226- The relation Between Original encoding and retrieval- Elaborative rehearsal- Memory Search- Implicit Memory

When Memory Fails p. 232- Forgetting- Conceptual frameworks & remembering- Disordered Memories - What Amnesia Teaches Us.

Test & evidence of mastery: Test date: 10-24-06 & 10-27-06.Two test on Memory. The first on the 24th will consist of a matching vocabulary test of 50 words. The second will be a take home chapter test due on the 27th.

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The Mid-Term exam will be a comprehensive test up through our Memory chapter.

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IX. Thought & Knowledge: [CA # VII 8-10% goals]Basic Psychology Gleitman p.253-331

Focus Questions:

- What are the two kinds of mental representation?- What is eidetic imagery?- How are visual images like- and-unlike–pictures?

Mental representations: i.e. maps, blueprints menus etc…(We do not drive on the map)

Analogical: Actual characteristics.Symbolic: No characteristics. i.e. the word mouse looks

nothing like a mouse.

Mental Images : mental & visual. Visual images are easier to study.

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Studying One’s Own Images: Sir Frances Galton (1822-1911)Eidetic Imagery: Photographic imagery. (Though this is a

Fallacy)Picture like Aspects of visual Imagery:

(Kosslyn, Ball, Reisser 1978)Images and Pictures: There is an overlap between the

visual and the perceptual.Symbolic Representation: Focus Questions:- What are two constituents of Symbolic representation?- What kind of memory make up the “database” for symbolic

thought?- What is the network model of semantic memory, and what is one

of its limitations?

Symbolic Elements Concepts: Describes a class or category that includes some number of individual or subtypes. i.e. dog (what kind?) Propositions: Associations “this goes with that” This is not enough

we have to relate to a subject and a predicate (what is being asserted about the subject) Subjects without predicates and predicates without subjects are not enough to provide us with accurate symbols.

Knowledge and Memory: Generic memory : episodic: Life events

generic: knowledge basedSemantic: The meaning of words.

A Hierarchical Network: Network models: words and concepts are linked.

Words or concepts are represented by nodes. Associative links or connections: connections of the

concepts.A Network Model Based on Semantic Distance: Spreading activation model: Nodes and associative links

still exist here. Hierarchical positioning, similarity, and learned associations all interact. (i.e. the wave)

Distributed Processing Local representations: This involves nodes or sets of nodes. Distributed representations : Here, a pattern of activation occurs across the entire network.Distributed Processing: many different operations

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are going on at once, each influencing (or influenced by) a different part of the distributed representation.

The Process of Thinking Solving Problems: Focus Questions:- What does it mean to say that problem solving is hierarchical?- How do experts and novices differ in problem solving?- What are mental sets, and what are their costs and benefits?- What are algorithms and heuristics? Under what circumstances might heuristics be more useful and why?

Organization in Problem Solving: Means-end analysis : What do I have that I can use

to reach my goal?

Hierarchical Organization: Subproblems & subgoals: We achieve many little

goals on the way to the main one.Routine & Subroutine: When we know what we are

doing, we work on auto-pilot. However, wecan break this down into specific steps.Macro to Micro principles.

Experts: Each bit of information has greater accessto associations and connections. More things are cross referenced. Subroutines are even morespecific in the experts’ world.

Automatically: Automaticity once started is difficult to turn off. i.e. The Stroop effect.

Obstacles to Problem Solving: Mental set: Using something for a different purpose

i.e. Page 265 “The Three-Container Problem”

Overcoming Obstacles to Solutions: Working Backwards : Water Lilies double in area every24 hrs. On the 1st day of summer, there is one water lilyon a lake. It takes sixty days for the lake to become coveredwith water lilies. On what day is the lake half covered?

Finding An Appropriate Analogy: The tumor and laser example.

Artificial Intelligence: Problem Solving by Computer:

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Algorithms: Specific step by step instruction that enable you toarrive at the solution. LxHxW.

Heuristics : Rules of thumb that we use to arrive at solutions.“How did you know how to do that?” (Short cuts)

Possible Limitations of Artificial Intelligence:

Well-defined versus ill-defined problems:

The lack of common sense: Often the computer canbe beaten if one starts to play illogically. The computerfails to see what the individual is doing.

The Process of Thinking: Reasoning & Decision-Making Focus Question:- What are the two major kinds of reasoning, and what kind of errors can occur with each?- What kind of heuristics can lead to errors in decision making?

George Boole Boolean logic. How people think and how they should think is now being questioned.

Deductive Reasoning: syllogisms contain two premises and a conclusion.

All A are BAll B are CTherefore, all A are C (valid)

some A are Bsome B are CTherefore, all A are C (invalid)

Inductive Reasoning:Here we reason from the particular to the general.

Frequency Judgments: Frequency estimates and availability heuristic.Often correct but at times can lead to false beliefs.

Extrapolating from available Observations: We look for patterns to help us understand and

interact. These patterns help us make sense of our world.

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Representativeness Heuristic: a rule of thumb by means of which we estimate the probability that an object (or event) belongs to a certain category based on how protypical it is of that category, regardless of howcommon it actually is. (once is not always)

Scheerer, Goldstein, & Boring 1941 Horse and rider puzzle.

Confirmation Bias : When given the opportunity to seek out new information, we tend to find the information that supports our beliefs.

Erroneous beliefs: i.e. gambling

Decision Making: Framing Effect: (Page 277 example)A heuristic that affects the subjective desirability of and event by changing the standard of reference for judging the desirability of that event.

Are People Really Irrational? We tend to allow some error. Why?

The Thinking Brain Focus Questions:- What evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex is crucial to

thought?- What can we do without conscious awareness, and what might

consciousness enable us to do?

Localization of Thoughti.e. Broca’s / Wernicke’s Prefrontal cortex (the brain tissue just behind the forehead)

Spatial relationship exists in some form in this area.

Cognition and Consciousness - The main problem here is how can one scientifically show results of a non-tangible?- Does a dog know he is a dog?- How many of you are there?

Mental Processes that go on Below the Surface Unconscious activities that constitute a kind of

auto-pilot. (This is not Freud’s unconscious)

Perception without Awareness: We see the world

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and the things in it and react accordingly.We do not say hello to a chair.

Blindsight: Having perception about something thatyou could not have knowledge about.

Memory and Understanding Without awareness: Susan put the vase down too firmly on thetable and it broke. What broke? Why?

Action without awareness : Auto-pilot i.e. tie your shoe

What is Consciousness Good For? - Nonconscious occurs fast and without awareness.- Perhaps, the conscious occurs when we have to

break away from the nonconscious. How many times to you find yourself saying“Stop, think.”

Test & evidence of mastery: Test Date: 11-08-06(CA - Goals VII & VI)

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X. Appendix Two [ CA #’s II & XI. & 6-8% & 5-7% of goals]Psychology Gleitman Appendix 2 p.B1-B24

- Describing the Data B2- Organizing the Data B4- Describing the Relation between Two Variables: Correlation B11- Interpreting the data. B15

Test & evidence of mastery: A take home test that will be handed in on 11-17-07. __________________________________XI. Language: [CA #’s VII & XI 8-10% & 7-9% of goals] Psychology Gleitman Ch. 9 p. 287-331

- Major Properties of Human Language p.290- The Basic Units of Language p.293- Comprehension p.303- The Growth of Language in the Child p. 307- Language Learning with Sensory Impairments p.316- Language Learning with Changed Endowments p319. Gene, Chomsky and the critical period.- Language and thought. P.324- Language and its Learning p.328

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Test & evidence of mastery: Test will consist of vocabulary matching words followed by MC pertaining to the comprehension of the vocabulary.

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XII. Social Psychological Unit: [CA #’s X & XIV 6-8%7-95 of goals]Social Psychology AlbrechtPsychology Gleitman Ch.’s 10-14Basic Psychology Myers Ch. 18The Good Life Porter

Egoism & AltruismKitty Genovese (Page 283/ Albrecht)I. Egoism and Altruism and Basic Human Nature:Egoism: Altruism: Modern Day Egoism: Paskel The Altruistic Gene Theory: (Behaviorist views.)Psychological Hedonism: Ancient HedonistThe Cyrenaics. (Page 97 “The good life” / Porter)Epicureans: (Epicurus 342-270 B.C.) Mental serenity. It is better to avoid pain than to

seek pleasure.Utilitarian’s: Jeremy Bentham (1789: People act primarily in ways that are specifically

designed to secure pleasure and to avoid pain.

Critical analysis: 1. Newton’s second law. 2. Nothing ventured nothing gained. 3. What if you end up unhappy?

Thomas Hobbes: “Life is short brutish and nasty.”

II. The Social Norm of Reciprocity: Gouldner: Two interrelated norms.

1. A stabilizing agent that obligates people to others.2. It initiates a social interaction among people.

III. Social Exchange Theory and Altruistic Behavior: Homan’s: All social interactions constitute an exchange of goods, which can be material or non-material. The likelihood that an action will take place is determined by the outcome of the action based on prior experience. (Reward or punishment.) Benefit = Profit – Costa. Justice in Exchange Relationships:There is a correlation between risk and reward. High risk = high reward.b. Social Exchange and Equity Theory:

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We seek a balance between what we give and what we get.

c. Research on cost and Rewards and Helping Behavior: Gillman: Blood donation

d. Time as a Cost Factor in helping Situations: i.e. The Good Samaritan Darley and Batson experiment: individual in the hall way experiments.

Time and perceived workload played a major role in helpingbehavior.

IV. Diffusion of Responsibility and Failure to Help Others

Latane & Darley: If there are large numbers of people around people are less likely to get involved.

Diffusion of responsibility: The presence of others can alter whether one will feel the need to help.

1. Witness share common fate with the victim.2. Witness are caught in face to face situation.

Personal and situational factors of helping behavior:

Schwartz: Moral norms; some actions have consequences for the well-being of others.

Awareness and responsibilityAC: Awareness of ConsequenceAR: Ascription of Responsibility

Rationalization: Defining the situation Personal Skill: i.e. doctor, mechanic. etc..Victim Similarity: Has this happened to you before?

Modeling and helping Behavior: The presence of a passive bystander will inhibit helping behavior. Likewise, if a bystander is active in helping, the individual new to the situation will be more apt to help.

Perceived need for help: Dependencies, Seriousness, and Legitimacy.If an individual has collapsed he or she will be more likely to be helped if it is perceived that they are ill. If they are perceived to be drunk, then help is less likely to occur.

Unambiguous Situation: If the situation is well defined the individual is more likely to help.

Urban vs. Non-Urban: People in the country are more likely to help.Why?

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The Modern Good Samaritan: __________________________________

Social Influences: Norms, Conformity, Obedience, & Independence

(Page 126) Pvt. Lynn McClure Albrecht

I. Norms and Social Influence:

1. The Origins of Social Norms: - Folkin status. The middle group, had the most to risk by going against the norms of the group.

Section V Independence Vs. Conformity

Hollander's Critical Judgment:

Critical Judgment: Actions between the individual and social demands.

II. Conformity: Generally, The more ambiguous the situation, the more we look

to others for our cues and definition of the situation.

- Riesman, Glazer, and Denney: Tradition, Inner, & Other Directed behaviors.

Tradition Directed: Societies rely primarily on norms and standards that have been handed down from the past.(Isolation is key here.)

Inner Directed: Internalized norms dictate behavior. Independence through the socialization process.

Other Directed: People who continually look to others for directives concerning appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

Robert Merton: Ritualistic - Overconformity can often have consequences that are as dysfunctional to society as are those associated with nonconformity.

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- Because of the emphasis on ritual, we lose sight of the goal. The ritual becomes the goal. This can be harmful.

Janis: Groupthink- The group is so focused on keeping the unanimity of the group that the only purpose of the group is to keep the group together.

1. Illusion of invulnerability2. Collective effort to rationalize.3. Unquestioned belief in the morality of the group.4. Stereotyped views of enemy leaders.5. Direct pressure on any member who expresses any dissatisfaction with the groups’ beliefs6. Self-censorship of deviations from the apparent consensus.7. A shared illusion of unanimity.8. The emergence of self-appointed mindguards.

Group Conformity versus Individual Judgment:

Soloman Asch- Line experiment.

Normative and Informal Influences:Deutsch and Gerard- Normative Influence: Go along to get along- Informational Influence: A need to understand the truth.

The Milgram experiment: Yale University 1962 Stanley MilgramMilgram experiment video

Proximity and Obedience

Compliance, Identification, and Internalization Kelmans' Compliance TheoriesCompliance: Here we go along with the groups demands not because we agree, but, this enables us to avoid sanctions.Once away from the group, the behavior is likely to be very different.Identification: This is a modeling form of behavior. Imitation because the individual desires to be like someone else. i.e. commercials, TV, famous athletes, actors, etc..

Internalization: Behaviors are chosen not due to reward or punishment. They are chosen because the individual believes in the

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act. i.e. 55 mph., bringing a wallet back. (This is much like Kohlberg's theory.)

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Collective Behavior

Studying Collective Behaviors1. Survey Method2. Content Analysis3. Observational Techniques4. Experimental Tech. i.e. Mintz Bottle example

Types and Examples of Collective Behavior1. Burgess: Audience/Acting or Expressive/Mob2. Blummer: Casual/Conventionalized

3. Berk: 1. the actual number of other people acting in ways that is consistent with

the desired actions. 2. The visibility of the actions of others. 3. The ease of interpretation (supportive) 4. Proximity of others

“Deindividuation” “Threshold”

Berk: 1. Anonymity2. Responsibility3. Modeling4. Time Perspectives5. Arousal

A. Communication in the Crowd : “Rumors”

Rumors give meaning to ambiguous situation. We like closure.B. Altering tends to follow three patterns:

1. Leveling: The process by which the rumor grows shorter.2. Sharpening: certain details become dominant, others are dropped.3. Assimilation: Distorting the rumor in the direction of established norms

and conventions. Distortion: i.e. The death of Paul McCartney.

D. The Role of Leadership in a Crowd: Leadership as a stimulus.

-The leaders tend to emerge out of the crowd and when the CB is over they fade back into the crowd. Why?- The exceptions tend to be the social movements.

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i.e. Ho Chi Mihn, Castro, etc.- The emerging leader (s) tend to be less educated.- They tend to be more deviant in normal society.- At times, “the good old boy” school comes into play- i.e. Tom Robinson/To Kill a Mockingbird- Proletariat or Bourbon Lynching’s- Myrdal 1. The leader increases the emotional tension.

2 . A suggestive course of action. The wrong must be righted.

III. Panic as a Type of Crowd Behavior:- Immediate danger: “Fire”- Economic - War i.e. Evacuation of Danang

Fritz & Williams:1. Ind. Perceive an immediate and severe danger.2. Limited escape routes.3. People believe that escape routes are closing.4. Lack of information. Communication channels are

Unable to keep people informed. Ambiguity

Fashions and Fads:- A Fad can be defined as some short-lived variation in patterns of

speech, behavior, or decoration. i.e. “streaking”

- Fads typically grow very rapidly, peak, & decline almost as rapidly.

- Fashion is a long-lived fad.

Section II Theoretical approaches to the Study of CB

1. Contagion Theory: - Moods, attitudes, and behavior on the basis of some process whereby

the people accept and rapidly act on the information.- There is a mental unity in the crowd.- Criticisms include the fact that contagion does not provide a basis for

predicting shifts that occur in episodes of crowd behavior.

2. Convergence Theory: - Predisposed conditions exist. - 1. Identify the relevant latent tendencies. - 2. What are the circumstances that brought these

like people together. 3. What events will trigger a collective behavior?

- Problems : How can one explain the shift in attitude.- How does the leader emerge?

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3. Emergent-Norm Theory:

-Normative Behaviors resulting actions that would not normally be accepted.

- Not to do so would be considered “deviant”.- Spontaneous and emotional.

4. Smelser’s Value-Added Theory:1. What are the factors that determine whether or not a CB will

occur?2. What determines whether on type rather than another will

occur?Six steps:

1. Structural conduciveness2. Structural strain3. Growth & spread of a generalized belief.4. A precipitating event.5. Mobilization of the participants for action6. An absence of sufficient social control.

i.e. Leeville, Texas spring 1930.

Factors Influencing Conformity and Obedience: Dr. Menzel's Factors

Disclosure: The amount of information an individual has.To what degree do I know how this individual acts and Thinks?Distinction between private and public life.

Menzel studied the amount of doctors that were willing to claim that they had been using a new drug that had come onto the market.

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The doctors with lower esteem claimed to be using the cutting edge drug. The problem: The drug had not yet been released.

How we act in private is often contradictory to our public persona.

*** This is similar to how people acted over the phone in Milgram's experiment.

People will stretch the truth or lie if they think they can get away with it. (Is this a critical assessment of the human condition? Right back to the self, and esteem.)

Merton also points out that there is a greater tendency to conform when in a public situation as opposed to a private one. Attitude / Behavior & consistency Page 146-47.

Group Characteristics - Attractiveness and Cohesiveness :

The higher the degree of attractiveness to the group, the more conformity towards that group one will have.

The highly cohesive group will be conformed to a greater degree. Demands can be higher.

Overconformity is a real danger in these groups.

Individual Response Tendencies & Conformity Personal history of success:Need for social approval:Other directedness: (Riesman)

George Homan's: (1974) Analyzed the three rungs of the group. Top, middle, and lower. The Group that was most likely to conform was the middle rung.

The upper had status and could therefore go either with or without the groups consent. The lower group had to risk being right in going against the group. If they were, then they gained o conformity.

Hollander has identified six primary impediments to independent behaviors. These six factors can be viewed as either impediments to independence or as contributors to theWorld".

1. Risk of Disapproval

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One of the most important factors: It limits ind. for fear of rejection, and disapproval. i.e. A teenage boy will do amazing things just to avoid being called a chicken.

2. Lack of Perceived Alternatives Many see the alternative as a less attractive choice.

3. Fear of Disrupting Proceeding Fear of confrontation. We do not want to step on someone's

toes. "Go along to get along" attitude.If we go along, at least something will get done.

4. Absence of Shared Communication Pluralistic ignorance. "I thought I was the only one who

thought that way."The public scorns certain activities. Yet, privately people do

these activities.

5. Inability to Feel Responsible We may like to see the thing happen, but, it's not my job.

6. Sense of Impotence Some people have the feeling that what they think has no value.

What if strong feelings were had and nothing was done? i.e. Totalitarianism

Test & evidence of mastery: (Date 12-1-06) this test will consist of ID’s and essay pertaining to all three chapters. There will be study guide and students will be expected to answer all of the questions although they will not have all of the questions on their test.

This is a good test to demonstrate how many professors give test in college. Rarely will students study one chapter and then have a test.

______________________________________________

XIII. Physical and Cognitive Development

[CA # IX. 7-95 of Goals] Psychology Gleitman Ch. 13 & 14.

Physical and Cognitive Development

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What is Development?

1. Development as Differentiation:- Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876) initially differentiation was regarded solely as an anatomical

process.- Eventually behaviors are to be factored into the equation.- i.e. the development of hand use illustrates this process. (Page 444)

2. Development as Growth: (Physically and Mentally)

- Growth before birth: - Growth after Birth - The Slow Pace of Human Growth:

The Newborn’s Equipment : The infant’s response capacities:

- Grasp reflex : probably an evolutionary hangover.- Rooting reflex: Food relates. Everything goes into the mouth.

The infant’s sensory capacities:

Development as Orderly Progression: Physical development: - Holding the head erect, Rolling over, Crawling, Sitting up,

Standing up, Steps, Finally walking. The time may vary, but the order is always the same. (Page 447)

Intellectual development: Language acquisition :

(page448)

II. The Physical Basis of Development:

The Mechanism of Genetic Transmission: Genes & Chromosomes Dominant and recessive Genes: Genes & Chromosomes

Genotype (genetic blueprint)Phenotype (actual characteristics)

Environment at Different Points in Development:

The Environment Before Birth: One cell will become what they connect to. Differentiation of

cells. (i.e. Salamanders skin verses teeth)

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The Environment after Birth:

Environment and Maturation:

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget (1896 - 1980)

Development of children (0 - 18 years).

Development passes through four stages,

later stages are founded upon earlier stages

Sensory-Motor stage (age 0-2) This period of behavior is primarily motor. The child perceives and manipulates but does not reason. Object Permanence (peek-a-boo)A-not-B effect (hand game with object)

Preoperational stage (age 2-7) During this period symbolic thought develops (uses language and mental representations). Also children are seen to remember, imagine and pretend.

Concrete operational stage (7-11) While in this stage children begin to learn how to handle the basics of logical thought but still rely on concrete objects. That is, they can perform mental operations with concrete materials but not with abstract ideas.

Formal operations stage (11 plus) At this stage, abstract problems can be solved and the ability to formulate hypotheses is reached.

It should be noted that the transition from one stage to the next is not discontinuous. Moreover the quoted ages are for guidance only; individual children will develop at different rates. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that every child/adult will attain the full faculties of the formal operations stage.

More importantly, for tertiary education, is the underlying processes that facilitate the cognitive development through these stages. Piaget uses four concepts to explain how and why mental development occurs. These are:

Schema These are an individual's self-constructed mental structures. When a child is born, it has few schemas which, as cognitive development progresses, broaden and differentiate. That is, schemas are not destroyed, but instead are qualitatively and quantitatively refined. This is achieved through assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

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The ``fitting'' of a new stimulus into an existing mental structure (schema) - qualitative development.

Accommodation The creation of new schemata (from old schemata) or the modification of old schemata - quantitative development.

Equilibrium This is a balance between assimilation and accommodation.

What is the Cognitive Starting Point?

Space and Objects in Infancy:

The Effect of Occlusion: (Hiding from view)- Piaget’s view: Nurture leads to understanding.

- The habituation procedure: The rod experiment with four month old babies. Broken v. intact / attention spanThis experiment yield results favoring a nature argument.

Knowing About Objects: - 4 mo. olds are said to have an idea of space, time & permanence. (Page 460. Rotating stage experiment.)

Object Permanence and the Search Process:

Social Cognition in Infancy: The Existence of Other Minds

- Innate tendencies. Face recognition and shared attention tend to be traits that are inborn. Infant will look at an unscrambled face longer than that of an unscrambled one. (P461) Babies will look at what their mother is looking at.

Cognitive Development in Preschoolers

The Meaning of Mental Stage: Is this process all or none as Piaget has described? or, are the various stages blended together?(Numerical & Social cognition)

Numerical Skills in Preschoolers: Numerical Reasoning: . (Gelman & Gallistel 1978; Gelman 1982) Why do they fail Piaget’s conservation of numbers test? (The longer being the higher number.)

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Social Cognition in Preschoolers Developing a Theory of Mind

- Theory of Mind: Egocentrism Revisited: True and False Beliefs:

Sequence of Stages? The Causes of Cognitive Growth

Maturation or Learning? Nature or nurture? Neural structures / tabula rasa

Piaget was critical of both Nativist and empiricists:

Piaget’s Approach: Assimilation & Accommodation

Focus Questons: - Relevant schemas must be present if there is to be assimilation.

- What mechanism causes adjustment? How are schemas changed through accommodations?

How are the changes allowed?

The Information-Processing Approach

- Information-processing approach: (acquire, retrieve, or transform) Does a child process information the same as an adult?

The Child as a Limited Mental Processor: -Memory in infancy: String and mobile experiment.

The child had an implicit memory system at work.

-Memory in early childhood: They have their own magic number and it is not ours (7 +- 2).

The Child as Novice

- Interest specific. Horses, chess, sports, Pokemon, etc..

The Child as a Poor StrategistStrategies for remembering: Rehearsal in children under five or six tends to be poor.

Metacognition - A general term for knowledge about knowledge, as in knowing that we do or don’t remember

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something.

-Thinking about how they think.

- The idea of when and which strategy to use is often the greatest challenge.

Cognitive Development from a Cross-Cultural

Perspective

Differences in Competence - Australian aborigine example with the recognition of rocks vs. western kids.

Effects of Schooling:

- Schooled and unschooled children think differently.

Test & evidence of mastery: (Date:12-11-06 goal IX) An important chapter in Psychology, the test will consist of fill in the blank, MC, ID’s and essays (Hint: Piaget will show up).

_____________________________

XIV. Intelligence: Its Nature and Measure [CA XI. Testing and Individual Differences 5-7% of goals]Psychology Gleitman Ch. 15

Intelligence: Its Nature & MeasurementI. Mental Test: The Study of Variation: Statistics

Frequency distribution Frequency distribution

The Normal Curve: Adolphe Queteket (1796-1874) made distributions for many human characteristics. Definition:

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The Variability and Darwin: variability is departure from the ideal.This helped Darwin in his arguments on natural selection.The evolution of the honeycreeper. Without variation, there can be no natural selection.

Correlation: Francis Galton (1822-1911) Covariation or correlation:

Correlation coefficient (r ) A number that expresses both the size and the direction of a correlation, varying from +1.00 (perfect positive correlation) through 0.00 (absence of any correlation) to -1.00 (perfect negative correlation). (Page 525)

Evaluating Mental Tests: Reliability: Test-retest methodReliability CoefficientsValidity: Predictive Validity: Construct validity: (Cronbach & Meehl 1955) Standardization:

Intelligence Testing: Measuring Intelligence:

Testing Intelligence in Children: Alfred Binet (1857-1911)

Intelligence as a general cognitive capacity The intelligence quotient, or IQ: IQ=MA/CA x 100

MA = Mental ageCA = Chronological age

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Deviation IQ:

Testing Intelligence in Adults: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): (1958)

Some New Developments in Testing Children’s Intelligence: The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC).

What is intelligence? The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Mental Abilities: Focus Questions:

Is intelligence a unitary ability or are there different types and qualities of intelligence? Does the Halo effect carry into intelligence?

Spearman & the Concept of General Intelligence: WAIS-R has four subsets: Information and General knowledge (I)

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Comprehension (C)Arithmetic (A)Vocabulary (V)

Factor Analysis: General intelligence: (g) According to Charles Spearman, a

mental attribute that is called upon in any intellectual task a person has to perform. Group-Factor Theories:

General Intelligence or Group Factors? Focus Questions;

Is there such a thing as general intelligence?

Is intelligence characterized by specialized skills, each operating?In it own arena?

Test scores of spatial ability are highly correlated.

Test scores of spatial ability correlate less with that of say vocabulary.

The value of general intelligence remains strong, at the sametime, the theoretical meaning of g remains open.

What is Intelligence? The Information Processing ApproachSimple Cognitive Correlates:

The process of looking up a word is swift but not instantaneous.Moreover, one must do this look-up again and again, for each of the words encountered. People who can do this task quicker mayhave a considerable advantage.

Complex Cognitive Components: (Robert Sternberg 1977)

Analogical Reasoning: Analogy problems are a staple of manyIntelligence tests, since analogy test are highly correlated with other intelligence subtest, they may provide a good measure of

Spearman’s g factor.i.e. Hand is to foot as finger is to (arm, leg, thumb, toe).Or more difficult:

Washington is to one as Lincoln is to (five, ten, twenty).

Cognitive Components:

The Role of Working Memory and Attention:

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Active-span task: Tasks in which research participants are asked to remember materials while simultaneously working on some other task; such tasks are an effective means of measuring working memory’s capacity.

Nature, Nurture, and Intelligence Some Political Issues

Richard Herrnstein & Charles Murray 1994 The Bell Curve Controversial book.

Genetic Factors- Can differences in heredity and environment be eroded by means of

educational enrichment?Genetic TransmissionPhenotype and genotype: Observable traits v. inherited genes. i.e. hair color.

The inheritance of psychological characteristics Phenylketonuria (PKU) Phenylalanine (one of the amino acidsPolygenic inheritance Genetics and IQ Twin studies

Identical twins / fraternal twins / Adopted children Environmental Factors

Impoverished EnvironmentsEnriched Environments Carolina Abecedarian Project 1994

(Campbell & Ramey) Scores went up with an enriched surrounding.

Worldwide Improvement in IQ ScoresFlynn effect: An effect observed worldwide over the last

several decades in which IQ scores seem to be rising.

(Nutrition?)

Group Differences in IQ Between-Group Differences: Are the Tests Culture-Fair? Between-Group Differences: Heredity or Environment? Within-group genetic determination Matching for environment

Test & evidence of Mastery: Date12-15-06. Test will consist of the fill in the blank, MC & Short answer test questions from the chapter 15 test bank.

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(No essay on this test.)

__________________________________

XV. Personality [CA # X. 6-8% of goals]Psychology Gleitman Ch.16 p.552-585.

Chapter 16 Personality

Trait theory: personality is the description & analysis of underlying personality traits.Behavioral-cognitive approach: Variations in actions and thoughts based on situations that individuals face or have faced on previous occasions.Psychodynamic theory: Personality stems from deeply buried unconscious conflicts and desires.Humanistic approach : That which is most important about people is how they achieve selfhood and actualize their human potential.Sociocultural approach: What things in our personality are universal and what things are culturally specific?

Focus Questions:Methods of Assessment- What are structured personality tests?- How were the items for the MMPI selected?- What are unstructured personality test?

Structured Personality Tests: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory MMPI

- First appeared in the 1940’s - Revised in 1982 , 89, & 91- The most widely used psychological test - Consist of personality inventories.- Designed to diagnose many psychopathological problems.- Page 557. Table 16.1- Scale value relationships are compared enabling cause & effect- “Look good” & “Fake bad” test takers create validity problems.- The test takes into account for extremes and thus factors out liars.

The CPI: Criterion Groups from Normal Life- California Psychological Inventory - Focuses on HS and College students- Tests personality traits such as dominance, sociability, Responsibility, well-being etc... - Consist of ranking from high to low.

The Validity of Personality Inventories- Predictive validity: The tests have a +.30 correlation (not great)- Repeat patient visits tend to be the main indicator.

Projective Personality Tests - Rorschach inkblot technique- Thematic Apperception Test

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The Rorschach Inkblots- Hermann Rorschach 1921- Originally had 10 different blots. Different diagnoses among His patients yielded different results.Administration and scoring: Interpretation:

- If you use the whole picture, you are said to be an individual who integrates, & conceptually thinks.

- If you use small details, this suggests compulsive rigidity. a frequent us of the white space (figure vs. ground)

represents rebelliousness and negativism.

- If your responses are dominated by color this suggest emotionality and impulsiveness.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Developed by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray in 1935)Administration:

- Thirty pictures of various scenes along w/one blank card.

- The individual gives a story about each picture.

- What is happening, what led up to the scene, & what the outcome will be?Interpretation:

- The desired end product is a picture of the person’s major motives and conflicts, pieced together by interpreting the TAT stories in relation to the case history of the patient.

- Page 561 read the two different stories.

- What could I tell if I did not know the case history? Do the stories tell the person any new information?

Validity of the Rorschach and TAT: (Zubin, Eron, & Shumer 1965)

(John Exner 1974, 78, 95 & Exner Clark 1978)

A good test of an individual’s motives.Incremental validity: The need to provide additional info is key to whether the test should be administered.

Page 563 / Does this ring any bells?

The Trait Approach Focus Questions:- What is the trait approach?- What are Norman’s Big Five dimensions of personality?

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- What was Eysenck’s alternative two-dimensional personality framework?- What is Situationism? - What is self-monitoring, and how do self-monitors differ from low self-monitors?- How is person constancy like the object constancy of perception?- What evidence supports a biological basis for personality?

Trait-Theory may have originated early on with the playwrights. Think of the famous characters and how we know them before theyeven open their mouths.

The Search for the Right Taxonomy:The unabridged dictionary lists 18,000 words referring to personality traits.(Allport and Odbert 1936)Taxonomy: classification, catalog, nomenclature etc…

Classification Through Language:- Long lasting adjectives (friendly, loyal, obedient, etc…)- Cattell 1957 4,500 terms taken from the 18,000 trait word list.- 171 trait words were chosen form the 4,500.- Factor Analysis : opposite adjectives were paired.

Dimensions of Personality: The Big Five (page 567)Neuroticism: Extroversion:Agreeableness;Conscientiousness:Openness to experience:Dimensions of Personality: Neuroticism/Emotional Stability

Extroversion/ Introversion

Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) Tried to access personality and personality disorders By using only two dimensions. They do correspond to Norman’s five dimensions.Question types: i.e. “Do you ever feel just miserable for no good

reason at all?

The questions are designed to get the persons expressions and reactions to the outside world.Chart on page 568.

Traits versus Situations: The Consistency Controversy

The Attack on Trait Theory: Walter Mischel 1968

Situationism:

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- If personality does not determine behavior, perhaps the situation does?- Zimbardo’s prison experiment.

Is consistency an illusion? - We tend to see the same behavior because we often repeat the same Scene or setting over and over.- At times, the behavior assessment is done from an outsider’s point of

view. In Defense of Traits:

Consistency over time: (Block 1971, 77)Consistency across situations: Seymour Epsein- Cross-situational consistency is even higher than Mischel thought.The definition of consistency: - Is a playground brawl the same when you get older?- What would constitute aggression that compares to both young and older

males?The Interaction Between Person & Situation

- Interaction between people and situations are the determinant of behavior. (Magnusson and Endler 1977)

Person-by-situation interaction- This theory broadens the number of definitions. - A narrowing would help.Reciprocal Interaction:- Modeling in certain situations.- Birds of a feather syndrome.- Is it the personality that seeks the situation or vise versa?

Consistency as a Trait:Some People are more consistent than others (Price & Bouffard 1974)- Funeral behavior has little variation.- In ambiguous situations, behavior is the same as well. (Monson, Hesley &

Chernick 1982)Self-monitoring: - Mark Snyder Page 573 “Self-Monitoring Scale”- This is like Goffman’s “roles” - If your self-monitoring level is low why can be a bad thing?

Person Constancy - The men in the hall sitting in their chair example - Perception- Core self

Traits and Biology Personality and TemperamentPersonality and the GenesPersonality and Physiological Arousal

Extroversion/Introversion:

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The need for caution:

The Behavioral-Cognitive Approach - What is behavioral-cognitive approach to personality?- How do social learning theorist view personality, and how do they

explain the ways in which personalities differ?- What is explanatory style and how does it affect the likelihood of suffering

from depression?- What is delay of gratification, and why might the ability to cope with it Be important in the development of adolescent and adult competence?

Behavioral approach: Human behaviors are determined from without. Reactions to external forces.

Behaviorism: A theoretical outlook that emphasizes the role of environment and of learning and insist that people must be studied objectively

and from the outside.Behavioral-cognitive approach: expectations and beliefs.

Social Learning Theory- Albert Bandura & Walter Mischel- Personality and trait are now combined in assessing personality.- Competencies – the kinds of things a person can do and understand.- Encoding strategies – the way people tend to interpret situations.- Expectancies – beliefs about what follows what, what act will produce what

outcomes, what events will lead to what consequences, etc…- Subjective values – Which outcomes are valued or valuable?- Self-regulation – How one regulates their own behavior? Self-imposed goals

& plans Control

Explanatory Style

- (Formerly attributional style) - Beliefs are intimately related to how one explains how the world works for

them.- Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) - Participants are asked to imagine themselves in a number of situations (for

example failing a test) and to indicate what would have caused those events if they had happened to them.

- This is a good test to see if an individual is depressed or not

Self Control

- Self Control : Doing what you do not want to because you know it is positive, or not doing what you want to do because you know it is not positive.

- Delay of gratification : What we call will power. The ability to forgo some immediate gratification in order to pursue some ultimate goal.

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- Are there different levels?- Delay of gratification in young children - Childhood delay and adolescent competence

Test and evidence of Mastery: Date of test: 12-11-9-07This test will consist of ID’s and essays that will require the student to demonstrate the ability to compare and contrast different theories of personality.

____________________________________________

XVI. Psychodynamic, Humanistic, & Sociocultural Approaches [CA #’s X. & XII. 6-8% & 7-9% of goals.] Psychology Gleitman Ch. 17

The Psychodynamic Approach: Freud and Psychoanalysis p. 587

- Origins of Psychoanalytic Thought- Unconscious Conflict- Unconscious Conflict and the formation of Personality- Windows into the Unconscious- A critical Look at Freudian theory

The Psychodynamic Approach: Personality differences p 609- Patterns of Conflict- Coping Patterns and Mental Health

The Humanistic Approach p.613- the Major Features of the Humanistic Movement- Evaluating the Humanistic Approach

The Sociocultural Perspective p.618- Human Diversity & Personality- Human Sameness & Universal Patterns of Personality- Collectivism & Indivdualism

Test and evidence of mastery: Test Date:1-12-06. The test will consist of Fill in the blanks (Taken from the worksheet provided from chapter 17.) ID’s and essays.

_____________________________

XVII. Psychopathology [CA # XII. Abnormal Psychology 7-9%]Psychology Gleitman Ch. 18 Psychopathology

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Psychopathology: Abnormal PsychologyNeurosis vs. psychosis

I. Different Conceptions of Madness: - Psychopathology as demonic Possession: Trephining / ice baths / etc…- Psychopathology as a disease: Post medieval age people were locked up. Bethlehem (bedlam) had 96,000 visitors in 1814.- Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) - Mental Disorder as an Organic Illness :

Treatment rather than imprisonment. Somatogenic (of the body / physical) General paresis:. Organic basis for mental illness:

(Nature vs. Nurture)- Mental Disorder as a Psychological Illness:

The modern conception of mental disorders: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental DisordersDSM-IV.

- Usually some mental disorder is associated with a break fromthe “norm”. What is normal can cause problems here.

II. The Underlying Pathology Model - Subcategories of the pathology model:

The Medical model: Psychiatrist and drugs The Psychoanalytic Model: Freud’s free association The Learning Model: Cognitive-behavioral model

- Classifying Mental Disorders : Emil Kreaplin (1855-1925) The process of labeling the problem: Clinical interview, symptoms, signs, syndromes, diagnosis.- Three main categories of mental illness: organic brain syndromes, neurosis, psychosis (Many terms are no longer used)

Explaining Disorder: Diathesis, Stress, and Pathology - When the causal chain is traced backward, two general factors

emerge.Diathesis: a predisposition to have an illness.Stress: This involves the environmental conditions that cause the illness to manifest itself. (i.e. obesity is a stressor that helps diabetes to manifest itself.

Section III. Schizophrenia 1. Signs and Symptoms:

- Disorders of Cognition: (i.e. letter)

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- Loss of Personal Contact: Social reality testing.- Elaborating the Private World : Symptoms?

Delusions: Beliefs that result from misinterpretation of real events.

“Ideas of reference” external events are specially

related to them. “Delusional system” The FBI is after me. “Paranoid Schizophrenia”

Hallucinations: Perceptions that occur in the absence of actual sensory stimulation. (psychogenic)

“Auditory hallucinations”: Most common. Many psychiatrists think the person is talking to themselves and are unaware of this.

Disorders of Motivation and Emotion - Disorders of Behavior : - Catatonic schizophrenia:- Disorganized schizophrenia: (formerly hebephrenia)

The Search for the Underlying Pathology:

What is the Psychological Malfunction?- The inability to filter information and stimuli.

- What is the Organic Pathology? Malfunctioning neurotransmitters:

- Structural Defects : Abnormalities in the structure of the brain.PET scans demonstrate abnormal firings within thebrains of schizophrenics.

- Crow’s two-syndrome hypothesis : Not all schizophrenics demonstrate the same symptoms.

“Positive symptoms”: What the patients do that normals do not. Negative symptoms”: What the patient does not do that normals do. Type I : malfunction of the neurotransmitters Type II: Some form of cerebral damage.

The Ultimate Cause of Schizophrenia:

Hereditary Predisposition:.Environmental Influences: The Pathology Model and Schizophrenia:

(Create one from your knowledge of the disease.)

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Mood Disorders

Mood Disorders: Affective Disorders

Bipolar & Unipolar Syndromes: Manic-depressive psychosis / and major depression. - about 10% of men and 20% of women will go through a state of

depression at some point in their lives. A period of time that lasts at least two weeks.

- Mania : Up all the time- Depression : Down all the time- Depression and suicide : Women are three times as likely to

attempt suicide than men. When men attempt suicide they are more likely to succeed. As a result, four times as many men kill themselves as women.

- Suicide attempts generally do not occur when the patient is depressed. The risk is when the patient is recovering from the depression. Reason: The patient has a depressed mood, but now has the energy level to act.

- Seasonal Affective Disorder : (Cabin fever) A lack of sunlight causes an influx of the melatonin in our bodies. This may disrupt

our sleeping patterns. Light Therapy can alleviate the symptoms.Organic Factors:

Genetic Components:

Biochemical Hypothesis: neurotransmitter. This chemical may be norepinephrine or serotonin.

- Antidepressant medications aim to increase the norepinephrine levels in the patients.

Psychogenic Factors: Why would an imbalance of serotonin or Norepinephrine cause an individual to believe that they are

“the most inferior person in the world”?

Mood or Cognition Change? Cause and effect / Which comes first?

- Theorist who believe in psychogenic explanations think that much of the problem is brought about by the individual’s thoughtpatterns. Thoughts bring on depression.

Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression: Beck believes that a trio of irrational beliefs confront the patient. 1. He is worthless

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2. The future is bleak 3. Whatever turns out will be for the worst.

- As a result the individual makes mountains out of molehills.- molehills out of mountains. He’s inept even though he has just won

the noble prize.- These negative schemas usually form from unfortunate experiences

in earlier life. Critical attitudes in the home or school, loss of parents, rejection by peers, etc…

- A “self-fulfilling” prophecy ensues.- Solution: Cognitive therapy works to help the individual confront the

irrational beliefs.

Learned Helplessness and Depressive Attributions:

Martin Seligman: Learned helplessness The rat with control vs. the rat without control.

Attributional style and depression: why is it that helplessness does not necessarily lead to depression? Also, why does the individual have this self-hatred? If you are helpless, why blame it on yourself?- The revived helplessness theory is now attributional style.- Is the glass half empty or half full?

Sex Differences in the Incidence of Depression:- Major depression is diagnosed about twice as often in women as in

men. Why?- Hormonal factors. Greater fluctuations.- Men’s hormones generally cause them to act out.- Men tend to distract themselves whereas women tend to dwell on

the depression.- Many of the factors could be cultural expectations.

Mood Disorders and the Diathesis-Stress Conception: - Some people may be genetically predisposed to become depressed.- Most likely a combination of psychological and physiological.

Anxiety Disorders:

1. Phobias: Irrational fears- The Conditioning Account of Specific Phobias:

2. Obsessive – Compulsive Disorder: - Obsession:- Compulsions: (Counteraction / Lady Macbeth)

3. Generalized Anxiety Disorder:

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- Constantly worried- tense- physical ailments - no defense mechanisms against anxiety- Abnormal secretions of GABA (inhibitory neurotransmitter)

4. Panic Disorder: - Physical shut down- Agoraphobia fear Fear of being in public. (Greek Marketplace)

5. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: - Dissociation : Actually believing that you are back at the event.

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative amnesiaDissociative fugueDissociative identity disorder (Multiple personality disorder)

Factors Underlying Dissociative Disorders: - Freud’s theories play a big role.

Dissociative Disorders and the Diathesis-Stress Conception - Some people are more prone to be hypnotized

Somatoform & Psychophysiological Disorders

Somatoform Disorders: - Hypochondriasis:- Somatization disorder: The symptoms do not add up.- Somatoform pain disorder: Like a conversion disorder

Psychophysiological Disorder:- (Psychosomatic disorders)- Is the origin mental or organic? Both?- Coronary Heart Disease: Risk? Cholesterol, obesity, smoking

gender, behavior.- Type A personality:- Type B personality:- Many are refuting these labels. - The Diathesis-Stress Concept and Psychophysiological Disorder Is the anxiety and stress pre-wired to be interpreted?

in a specific place and or way.

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Social Deviance The SociopathSociopathy and the Disorder Concept

Test & Evidence of Mastery: Date: 1-16-07 This test will consist of predominantly knowing the various psycholo0gical disorders. ID’s and matching. The next test will incorporate ch. 18 and possible cures ch. 19.

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XVIII. Treatment of Psychopathology [CA # XIII. 5-7% of goals]Psychology Gleitman Ch. 19 Treatment of Psychopathology

Biological Therapies Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) more methods of torture than cures.

Drug Therapies - Psychotropic drugs Used for schizophrenia and mood disorders.

Olfson and Klerman 1993.Drug Treatment of Schizophrenia - Antipsychotics Thorazine, Haldol, Clozaril, & Risperdal.- Classical antipsychotics tend to block dopamine receptors.- Atypical antipsychotics Clozaril and Risperdal work on the reverse.- The social reality of treating schizophrenia Deinstitutionalization. Problem: Homeless

Drug Treatment of Depression Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors Nardil and tricyclic antidepressants such as Trofranil.Nardil and Tofranil increase the amounts of norepinephrine and serotonin.Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) for depression.Kramer (1993)Side effects?

Drug Treatment of Bipolar Disorders Antimanics Lithiumcarbonate i.e. EskalithRegulation of the neurotransmission of calcium on neuronal

membranes.Side effects?

Drug Treatment of Anxiety

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Anxiolytics tranquilizersWork with neurotransmission at synapses containing the neurotransmitter GABA. Shader and Greenblatt 1995.Valium & Xanax Somewhat addictive.Side effects? Not good when mix with alcohol.

Evaluating a Medication

Controlling for Spontaneous Improvement- Sometimes the body fixes itself.

Controlling For Placebo Effects - 70% of patients make improvements when given the proper placebo. (Beecher, 1995: Benson & Friedman, 1996)

Controlling For Expectations- Double-blind techniques

Assessing Improvement - outcome measures gage whether the medicine is working- Cost-effective Up and downside of the medication.

Limitations of Drug Therapy - Fisher & Greenberg 1989 criticize the antipsychotics as being to difficult to keep people on due to side effects.- Some people claim that getting the patients out of the wards is a much better way of life for the patients.- What right do we have to require medication?

Psychosurgery (Brain surgery)

Electroconvulsive Therapy - ECT or shock treatment - Six to ten treatments over a period of 1 to 2 weeks.- Induced convulsive seizures- Andreasen & Black 1996 anesthetics are now used to limit the

thrashing and danger to the patients.- Originally of Schizophrenics, it was found helpful for some people

with depression.- Neuroimaging will help to determine how effective the ECT treatment

is with specific problems and specific patients.

Psychotherapy Classical Psychoanalysis

- Generally, the first half of the 20th century saw this method used exclusively over any kind of neurological advancement.

The Recovery of Unconscious Memories - Free association- Resistance

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Psychodynamic Therapy - Behavior Therapy

- Exposure Techniques (extinction/systematic desensitization)- Aversion Therapy

Cognitive Therapy- OCD is internally produced not socially induced.- Cognitive therapy Aaron Beck 1976

Think in a different way.- Major Techniques

- Maladaptive beliefs often have contradictions. Confronting the patient with the contradictions is inherent in the

treatment. - Irrationality (s) must be revealed to the patient.- Is the problem the end of the world? Are you going to die because of the event or act?

Humanistic Therapy - Client-centered therapy / not typical / We are not mere machines.

(Maslow)- Nondirective techniques (Rogers, 1942)

- The patient must be come to believe that the psycho therapist must have a genuine involvement in the patient’s problem. - Accepting and understanding of what the person is going through.

Some Common Themes (Client-therapist relationship is crucial)- Technical eclecticism (doing what works for the patient)- Therapeutic alliance (Schofield 1964) “The purchase of friendship”- Emotional defusing

“What’s wrong with me?” “Am I normal?”Patients learn that their problems are common, not something to be ashamed of and quite treatable.

- Interpersonal learning Teaching people how to react to others.- Self-knowledge

For Freudians; emotional insights to the past.Rogerians; Feelings in the presentBehaviorist; identifying the eliciting stimuli or consequences that maintain problematic behavior

- Therapy as an incremental process Rarely is the “A Ha” the method of solution (s)Step by step over time.

Extensions of Psychotherapy Benefits are financial, utilizing limited therapist.The family and religious ties of the modern societyare lacking and therapy fills the void.

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Group and Relationship Therapies - Shared-problem group (i.e. AA) - Therapy groups- Coupled therapy and family therapy

Cultural Competence in Psychotherapy

Evaluating Therapeutic Outcome

Does Psychotherapy Work? - Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) Conducted interviews and found that in

the case of neurosis, 60% of the patients claimed to get better after therapy. Eysenck also noted that 70% of neurotic

people get better over time without any therapy. Spontaneous recovery

- Jacobson and Christenson, (1996) They claim that therapy does work. They claim only a 30% experience spontaneous recovery.

Meta-Analyses of Therapy Outcome A statistical technique for combining the results of many

studies even when the studies used different methods to collect the data. This technique has been useful in studies on the outcome of psychotherapy.

- A combination of different studies.- Statistics on improvement among patients- GPA’s were used as an indicator for improvement.- (Smith, Glass, & Shapiro 1982) Of the 435 people who received therapy they were better off than 80% who did not.

Comparing different Therapies Dodo bird verdict: Everyone has won and all must get

prizes. (Alice and Wonderland)

Behavioral and cognitive therapies hold a slight advantageat this time.

Common Factors - Shared placebo effect. - Interaction is healthy

Specific Factors - prescriptionism- The right treatment for the right problem

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Accountability for Psychotherapy - How rapidly can the person return to work?- How fast can the patient be discharged?- How long will the therapy last?- Who will pay and for how long?- Malpractice suits for the wrong treatment?- Osheroff v. Chestnut Lodge 1990

Test & evidence of mastery: Date 1-19-07 This test will enable the students to demonstrate their ability to connect the various schools of behavior with psychological problems and then provide various solutions based on the particular schools diagnosis and possible solutions.

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AP review sessions will begin in March. The AP exam will be on Tuesday, May 15 Afternoon session.

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