Profiles of Learners 1

Profiles of Learners with Mild and Moderate Disabilities

Sierra Percival

EDSP 441 - 1001

November 14, 2012

Profiles of Learners 2

Learners with Emotional Disturbance (ED)

IDEA (2004) defines emotional disturbance as “a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:

A. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.B. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and

teachers.”C. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal conditions.D. A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.E. A tendency to develop physical symptoms, pains, or fears associated with personal or

school problems” (NICHCY, 2012a).

Note that the category of emotional disturbance includes children with schizophrenia, but not children who are socially maladjusted without an emotional disturbance (Marx, 2012b).

Remember that this disability category is easily skewed based on subjective perceptions of student behavior, and longitudinal observation with numerous sources of data needs to be conducted before categorizing a student as having an emotional disturbance (Marx, 2012b).

According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), in order to avoid negative stereotypes attached with the term “emotional disturbance,” it is more socially acceptable to refer to this disability category as “behavioral disorders,” instead (CEC, 2011a).

Language Characteristics (ED)

It is understandable that with deficits in building relationships with peers and teachers, as well as withdrawal, trouble coping, and inappropriate reactions to external stimuli, and poor social

Profiles of Learners 3

skills, students with emotional disturbance may also have deficits in communicating with others. It has been suggested that a majority of students with emotional disturbance may also have receptive and expressive language disorders (Project IDEAL, 2008b).

Receptive Language Disorder is a disability that affects the ability to understand spoken language. According to Kaufman Children’s Center (2012), students with Receptive Language Disorder “may have difficulty following directions, may often ask the speaker to repeat themselves, or may appear not to be listening.”

Expressive Language Disorder is a disability that affects the ability to express oneself by speaking via organizing one’s thoughts, forming coherent sentences, and thinking of the right words to express meaning. According to Kaufman Children’s Center (2012), students with Expressive Language Disorder “are not able to communicate thoughts, needs, or wants at the same level or with the same complexity as his or her peers.”

Social-emotional Characteristics (ED)

This is the category of characteristics that often defines this disability. Remember that all characteristics listed must be observed over a long period of time according to IDEA (2004). According to lecture, some social-emotional characteristics of students with emotional disturbance are listed as follows:

“Internalizers” (Personality Disorders, Immaturity Disorders)o Crying, sulkingo Withdrawalo Limited peer participationo Self-image issueso Social rejectiono Nonassertive behaviorso Problems building appropriate relationshipso Inappropriate reactions to normal stimulio Unhappiness/depressiono Emotions/fears that manifest themselves in physical symptomso Poor copingo Chooses younger children as friends

“Externalizers” (Conduct Disorders)o Physical or verbal resistance

o Seeking comfort from an adult to a greater extent than other peerso Disruptive/Antisocial behaviorso Acting out, inappropriate language, aggression, defiance of authority

Profiles of Learners 4o Socialized Delinquency (gang involvement)

(CEC, 2011a)(IDEA, 2004)(Marx, 2012b)

According to the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, other social-emotional characteristics of students with emotional disturbance are listed as follows:

Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness) Aggression or self-injurious behavior (acting out or fighting) Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills) Learning difficulties

(NICHCY, 2012a)

Be aware that students with emotional disturbances may be more likely to be bullies or become victims of bullying. Students with emotional disturbance cannot be punished for manifestations of their disability, so controlling behavior to prevent bullying is a must.

Read more about students with disabilities and bullying at:http://www.ncd.gov/publications/2011/March92011http://www.stopbullying.gov/at-risk/groups/special-needs/index.html

Cognitive Characteristics (ED)

According to lecture, students with emotional disturbance usually fall within the average to low-average IQ range of 85-115 (Marx, 2012b). Instead, this disorder can be caused by neurophysiological imbalances and genetic factors (Marx, 2012b).

Academic Learning Characteristics (ED)

According to IDEA (2004), an “inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors” is one characteristic of Severe Emotional Disturbance (SED). According to lecture, students with emotional disturbance and students with learning disabilities have similar academic needs, although students with emotional disturbance usually have IQ’s within the “average to low-average range” (Marx, 2012b).

Thus, students with emotional disturbance may need extra attention in the areas of reading, writing, and mathematics.

Students with ED need a highly structured learning environment, with predictable routines (CEC, 2011a). As with all students, engaging, structured lesson plans are best.

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Common Educational Outcomes (ED)

According to lecture, students with emotional disturbance are usually at or below grade level in achievement, but oftentimes experience academic failure (Marx, 2012b). This academic failure due to lack of behavioral interventions can lead to drop-outs and

criminal behavior/legal consequences, commonly known as the school to prison pipeline.

Common Academic Interventions (ED)

Many interventions with students with emotional disturbance focus on behavior. Appropriate interventions for these students start with conducting Functional Behavioral Assessments to come up with Behavioral Intervention Plans for these students. Unfortunately, oftentimes these students are lumped into the “bad student” category, and are given up on by their teachers. Inappropriate accommodations are often made (like isolating the student or sending them out of the classroom for disciplinary issues) that only exacerbate the problem and contribute to increased academic failure due to a loss of learning (Marx, 2012b).

Common interventions for these students include putting them in structured environments with predictable rules, punishments, rewards, and routines (CEC, 2011a).

Research-based behavior management techniques:

Token economies Emphasis on Positive Reinforcement Contracting Time-out Taking data on behavior change programs Cuing devices to signal fast triggers Self-monitoring devices Choice/activity menus Social Skill simulations/instruction

Assessment/Effective teaching techniques:

Modeling Discussion Rehearsal Explicit instruction Reality-based problems/scenarios

Profiles of Learners 6 Engaging lesson plans

Supportive Therapies:

Music therapy Art therapy Exercise Relaxation techniques Counseling (group or individual)

(CEC, 2011a)

Resources for Teachers and Parents (ED)

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilitieswww.NICHCY.org

10 Basic Steps in Special Educationhttp://www.nichcy.org/schoolage/steps/

Questions Often Asked by Parents about Special Education Serviceshttp://www.nichcy.org/publications/lg1

Evaluating Children for Disabilityhttp://www.nichcy.org/schoolage/evaluation/

Developing Your Child’s IEPhttp://www.nichcy.org/publications/pa12

Head Start – ED Fact Sheet (Spanish Available)http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/Disabilities/Services%20to%20Children%20with%20Disabilities/Disabilities/disabl_fts_00012_061105.html

Partner’s Resource Network for Parentshttp://www.partnerstx.org/Resources/ED/onlineresources.html

Nevada Department of Health and Human Services: Division of Child and Family Serviceshttp://www.dcfs.state.nv.us/DCFS_CommunityBasedOPSvcs.htm

For Families and Communitieshttp://nichcy.org/families-community

Profiles of Learners 7

Learners with Learning Disabilities (LD)

According to lecture, the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (1990) defined learning disabilities as a “heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span” (Marx, 2012a). It is important to remember that students with LD, like all students with disabilities, are all different, have different areas of deficit and strength, and cannot fit into a cookie-cutter mold. Learning disabilities can affect skills in listening, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, reasoning, and mathematics (NCLD, 2012a). The term “learning disability” represents a broad category of specific disabilities, not just one disability. A student may have a learning disability in multiple areas at the same time. Like any disability, learning disabilities can be seen in different levels of intensity (NCLD, 2012a).

Language Characteristics (LD)

Students with Dyslexia, one of the three broad categories of learning disabilities, frequently have difficulties with language. Although Dyslexia is primarily considered a disability in reading, students with Dyslexia may have difficulties learning to speak, especially when learning letters and their sounds, and organizing their thoughts when speaking (Marx, 2012a). Communication is hindered when a student has trouble organizing their thoughts, as students with dyslexia commonly do. Speaking, writing, and listening can be particularly challenging when language processing skills are hindered by a learning disability. Jokes, proverbs, and abstract phrases may be especially hard for students with dyslexia to understand. Students with LD may also have difficulties in receptive language, expressive language, and inner language (thought processes)(Cohen & Spenciner, 2009, pg. 44). For more information on these skills, see Language Characteristics of students with ED. Students with Dysgraphia, may also have

Profiles of Learners 8

communication skill deficits due to difficulty writing. According to CEC (2011b), students who have Dyslexia frequently have Dysgraphia as well.

For more characteristics, see Academic Learning Characteristics below.

Social-emotional Characteristics (LD)

According to lecture, students with learning disabilities may display problems with social perception, social interaction, and self-regulation (Marx, 2012a). Self-regulation “is the ability of people to monitor and adjust their behavior or language in response to a situation” (Cohen & Spenciner, 2009).

Typically, many students with disabilities need help learning social skills via explicit instruction, modeling, and role playing; students with learning disabilities are not an exception.

Learning disabilities can have a strong impact on a student’s self-esteem and peer relationships. It can be very frustrating to a student when they don’t understand why they learn differently than everyone else (NCLD, 2012a). It is important for teachers and students to be supportive and helpful to all students with disabilities. Create a classroom environment where differences are celebrated, and make sure that students understand that there is no “right” or “wrong” way to learn things – all students have to find the way that suits them the best.

Like students with emotional disturbance, students with learning disabilities are more likely to be bullies or become victims of being bullied.

Read more about students with learning disabilities and bullying at:http://www.ncld.org/parents-child-disabilities/bullying

Cognitive Characteristics (LD)

According to NICHCY (2012b), students with LD usually have “average or above average intelligence. Their brains just process information differently.” This difference in processing information is the result of a neurological disorder – not just a difficulty in learning (NCLD, 2012a).

Academic Learning Characteristics (LD)

This is the category of characteristics that usually defines this disability. Learning disabilities usually manifest themselves via a “distinct and unexplained gap between a person's level of expected achievement and their performance” (NCLD, 2012a). An “uneven pattern of

Profiles of Learners 9

performance,” as well as low scores on standardized tests will typically be displayed by students with LD (Cohen & Spenciner, 2009, pg. 43). According to lecture, there are three broad types of learning disabilities: reading disabilities (Dyslexia), writing disabilities (Dysgraphia), and mathematical disabilities (Dyscalculia). The following are characteristics of these specific learning disabilities:

Dyslexia often results in difficulties with:o Reading, spelling, writing, and sometimes spoken languageo Distinguishing letter names/soundso Fluencyo Acquiring/using/organizing written & spoken

languageo Learning to speako Processing languageo Memorizing number factso Reading quickly enough to comprehendo Spellingo Learning a foreign languageo Correctly doing math operationso Telling left from righto Understanding abstract phrases/jokes/proverbs

Dysgraphia often results in difficulties with:o Spellingo Handwriting (legibility)o Developing thoughts in writingo Pencil grip/positiono Stamina while writingo Writing without speakingo Writing complete sentences

Dyscalculia often results in difficulties with:o Recognizing numbers and symbolso Counting with intervals (2s, 3s, etc.)o Memorizing facts / Mental matho Aligning numberso Understanding abstract conceptso Countingo Problem Solvingo Reading numbers/number sequenceso Time and Schedules

Profiles of Learners 10o Long term memory of conceptso Spatial directions

(NCLD, 2012b)(NCLD, 2012c)(NCLD, 2012d)(Marx, 2012a)(Cohen & Spenciner, 2009, pg. 43-44)

Also keep in mind that students with learning disabilities may also have deficits in memory. According to the CEC (2011b), some students with learning disabilities have difficulties transferring/processing knowledge from working memory to long-term memory. This can be particularly challenging in school, as students must often recall learned concepts when learning new ones.

Common Educational Outcomes (LD)

While recent interventions, like the RTI system, have proved helpful in identifying and helping students with learning disabilities, drop-out rates for students with learning disabilities are still high (NCLD, 2012a).

According to NCLD, the following statistics represent current educational outcomes for students with learning disabilities:

“Close to half of secondary students with LD perform more than three grade levels below their enrolled grade in essential academic skills (45% in reading, 44% in math).

67% of students with LD graduate from high school with a regular diploma vs. 74% of students in the general population.

20% of students with LD drop out of high school vs. 8% of students in the general population.

10% of students with LD are enrolled in a four-year college within two years of leaving school, compared with 28% of the general population.

Among working-age adults with LD versus those without LD: 55% vs. 76% are employed; 6% vs. 3% of adults are unemployed; and 39% vs. 21% are not in the labor force partly because of lack of education.”

(NCLD, 2012a)

These statistics are disheartening and should motivate teachers to work harder to create differentiated lesson plans for their classroom, use more research-based interventions in content areas, and make their classrooms an environment that facilitates success!

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Common Academic Interventions (LD)

Due to the nature of the Response to Intervention process in academics, students with learning disabilities are often in Tier 3 of the RTI process, receiving individualized, comprehensive, and intensive interventions with the special education teacher in their areas of difficulty.

According to LD Online (2010a), the best practices of successful and effective interventions for students with learning disabilities (particularly in reading) include “daily reviews, statements of an instructional objective, teacher presentations of new material, guided practice, independent practice, and formative evaluations.”

The following are research-based intervention techniques that are commonly used with typical areas of deficit for students with learning disabilities:

Dyslexiao Word Recognition Skills

Direct Instruction Sequencing Segmentation Advanced Organizers

o Reading Comprehension Skills Direct/Strategy Instruction

Directed Response/Questioning Control Difficulty of Processing Demands of Task

o Sequencingo Task Analysiso Elaboration

Repetitiono Modeling Stepso Group Instructiono Strategy Cues

Think-aloud Listing Benefits of Strategy”

(LD Online, 2010a) Dysgraphia

o Effective Writing Instruction The Early Literacy Project (ELP)

Integrate reading and writing together in thematic units. Instruction on planning and revision

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Modeling Discussion Guided Practice Meaningful Writing Opportunities

o Writing about read materialo Journalo Reports

Word Banks Pictionaries Planning Sheets Explicit Teaching

o Phonemic Awarenesso Spellingo Phonics Skills

o Tailor instruction to meet needs of students with LD Extra teacher support

More attention to develop critical skills Explicit teaching of these skills Individually guided assistance

o Exemplary Writing Instruction Traits

Display student work/word banks. A variety of daily writing activities Motivate students

Allow to select their own writing topics/prompts Reinforce accomplishments Believe that each student can write well!

Hold teacher/student conferences often about written work Writing routines should be predictable/posted Modeling Small group writing activities Share writing with partners for feedback Direct/Explicit Instruction

Phonological Awareness Handwriting Spelling

o Pretest/Posttesto Corrections to testso Study strategieso Daily study/test sessionso Group work/peer tutoringo 6-12 unknown words per week

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o Self-monitoring of behavior and words masteredo Review learned wordso Learn how to spell unknown words

Phonological Awareness Alphabetic Principle Dictionary Skills Spelling by Analogy

o Dictionary usageo Read-aloud to catch spelling errors

Writing Conventions Sentence-level skills Text structure Functions of Writing Planning/Revising

Review/Follow-up instruction/discussions Connect reading and writing and use in multiple curriculum content areas Handwriting Instruction/Practice activities Allow self-regulation during writing activities Address strengths and needs with students Speak with parents about writing program and progress Take advantage of technological tools/OT tools

(LD Online, 2010b)

Dyscalculia o Allow children to count on their fingerso Provide scratch papero Diagrams/Drawings are helpfulo Small group work/Partner worko Graph papero Colored Pencils/highlightingo Manipulativeso Drawings for word problemso Mnemonic deviceso Rhythm and music for memorizationo Computer time for drill/practice activitieso Practice estimation skillso Move from concrete to abstracto Encourage questions/Self-talko Eliminate distractionso Self-monitoring areas of strength and weakness

(LDA, 2011)(LD Online, 2010c)

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Additionally, students with LD are required to be allowed appropriate accommodations and/or modifications that fit their needs (NCLD, 2012a). Instructional accommodations do not change the curriculum that the child is learning (i.e. extra time to take tests and complete assignments, readers, electronic spell checkers, electronic dictionaries, laptops, pencil-grips, note-takers, etc.). Instructional modifications change the curriculum that the child is learning (i.e. alternate tests, alternate assignments, etc.).

The following is a list of some accommodations that can be made for a student to help them succeed in the general education setting, courtesy of LD Online (2010c):

Accommodationso Presentation:

Provide on audio tape Provide in large print Reduce number of items per page or line Provide a designated reader Present instructions orally

o Response: Allow for verbal responses Allow for answers to be dictated to a scribe Allow the use of a tape recorder to capture responses Permit responses to be given via computer Permit answers to be recorded directly into test booklet

o Timing: Allow frequent breaks Extend allotted time for a test

o Setting: Provide preferential seating Provide special lighting or acoustics Provide a space with minimal distractions Administer a test in small group setting Administer a test in private room or alternative test site

o Test Scheduling Administer a test in several timed sessions or over several days Allow subtests to be taken in a different order Administer a test at a specific time of day

o Other Provide special test preparation Provide on-task/focusing prompts Provide any reasonable accommodation that a student needs that does not

fit under the existing categories

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Resources for Teachers and Parents (LD)

National Center for Learning Disabilitieshttp://www.ncld.org/

Learning Disabilities Association of Americahttp://www.ldanatl.org/

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilitieswww.NICHCY.org

10 Basic Steps in Special Educationhttp://www.nichcy.org/schoolage/steps/

Questions Often Asked by Parents about Special Education Serviceshttp://www.nichcy.org/publications/lg1

Evaluating Children for Disabilityhttp://www.nichcy.org/schoolage/evaluation/

Developing Your Child’s IEPhttp://www.nichcy.org/publications/pa12

For Families and Communitieshttp://nichcy.org/families-community

Profiles of Learners 16

Learners with Intellectual Disabilities (ID)

According to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), an intellectual disability is “characterized by significant limitations, both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practice skills. This disability originates before the age of 18” (AAIDD, 2012).

Language Characteristics (ID)

According to lecture, students with ID typically have difficulty with language development (Marx, 2012a). Language development and literacy falls under the conceptual skill category of adaptive behavior – one of the areas of deficit that defines ID (AAIDD, 2012).

According to the Washington State Developmental Disabilities Council, students with intellectual disabilities may display “limited vocabulary, difficulty understanding and answering questions, mimicking answers or responses, difficulty in communicating events clearly in his/her own words, and difficulty in understanding complicated instructions or abstract concepts.” They also may have difficulties with receptive and expressive language. For more information on receptive and expressive language, see Language Characteristics of students with Emotional Disturbance.

Social-emotional Characteristics (ID)

According to lecture, students with ID typically have deficits in social development (Marx, 2012b). The deficit in social skills (an area of adaptive behavior) is also something that defines ID, with potential deficits in “interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, naïveté (i.e., wariness), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized” (AAIDD, 2012).

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Behavioral/Social Skill deficits and Characteristics of Students with ED:

Interpersonal Skills Social Development Social Responsibility Self-esteem Gullibility Naiveté Social Problem Solving Ability to follow rules/obey laws Often victimized by others May not understand consequences Unaware of social norms/behavior Child-like behavior Low frustration tolerance Poor impulse control Tries to escape emotional situations May deny having a disability May have memory gaps Eager to please authority/peers

(WSDDC, na)(Marx, 2012b)(AAIDD, 2012)

Cognitive Characteristics (ID)

This is the category of characteristics that usually defines this disability. The severity of this disability is often measured by one’s IQ. According to lecture, the American Psychological Association has an intellectual disability severity model that shows the following information:

Mild ID (IQ 50 to 70) Moderate ID (IQ 35 to 50) Severe ID (IQ 20 to 35) Profound ID (IQ 20 and less)

(Marx, 2012b)

Profiles of Learners 18

Academic Learning Characteristics (ID)

According to lecture, students with ID usually have difficulties with “working memory, language development, self-regulation (meta-cognition),… and motivation” as well as the “generalization and maintenance of skills” (Marx, 2012b). Some academic skills fall under the conceptual skills of the adaptive behavior deficit that defines this disability. Such academic skill deficits include “literacy, self-direction, and concepts of number, money, and time” (AAIDD, 2012).

Academic Skills that students with ID may display difficulties in:

Working memory Language Development

o Limited vocabularyo Understanding and responding to questionso Mimicking answers/responseso Communicate events clearlyo Understand instructionso Receptive/Expressive Language

Reading/Literacy Writing Telling time Money counting Self-direction Number concepts/Mathematics Staying focused/Attention span Motor coordination Concrete vs. Abstract thought/Science concepts Memory gaps

(WSDDC, na)(Marx, 2012b)(AAIDD, 2012)

Common Educational Outcomes (ID)

Just like all students, if the appropriate accommodations/modifications/assistive technologies/instructional practices are in place, students with ID can be successful in the school environment (Project IDEAL, 2008a). However, success for students with ID should not be measured by their skills/knowledge compared to that of their peers. Due to their disability, students with ID may never be able to achieve the level of understanding of concepts that their

Profiles of Learners 19

peers do, but these students still need dedicated and effective teachers to teach them life skills, basic concepts, social skills, and other such useful information (Project IDEAL, 2008a). Students

with ID rely heavily on the education system to learn life skills to prepare them for exiting the school system and entering the workplace. Transition services and generalization are very important for these students.

Common Academic Interventions (ID)

AAIDD (2012) has developed a couple of assessments that can be helpful in determining the adaptive behavior deficits and strengths of a student and determining the support level needed for that students’ problem or challenging behaviors. These two assessments are the Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale (DABS) and Supports Intensity Scale, respectively.

Teaching strategies for students with ID are listed below, courtesy of Project IDEAL (2008a):

Teach one concept at a time Sequence one step at a time Small groups or one-on-one teaching Practice skills in a variety of settings for generalization Physical and verbal prompting Specific verbal praise Prelinguistic Milieu Teaching (for early literacy

instruction)

Due to the social skill/life skill deficits of students with ID, teachers should also focus on areas other than those of the general curriculum if possible. Areas like “independent living skills, self-care and hygiene, community access, leisure activities, and vocational training” are all important concepts for these students to learn. Generalization is also of utmost importance with these learners (Project IDEAL, 2008a).

Remember that assistive technology is available to aid these learners, which usually help with motivation and generalization (Project IDEAL, 2008a). Examples of assistive technology include manipulatives, calculators, spell checkers, and audio-visual software (Project IDEAL, 2008a).

Resources for Teachers and Parents (ID)

American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilitieswww.AAIDD.org

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Project IDEALhttp://www.projectidealonline.org/intellectualDisabilities.php

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilitieswww.NICHCY.org

Washington State Developmental Disabilities Council (PDF on ID)http://www.ddc.wa.gov/Publications/090825_Checklist_for_magistrates_and_law%20enforcement.pdf

10 Basic Steps in Special Educationhttp://www.nichcy.org/schoolage/steps/

Questions Often Asked by Parents about Special Education Serviceshttp://www.nichcy.org/publications/lg1

Evaluating Children for Disabilityhttp://www.nichcy.org/schoolage/evaluation/

Developing Your Child’s IEPhttp://www.nichcy.org/publications/pa12

For Families and Communitieshttp://nichcy.org/families-community

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References

American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD). (2012).

Definition of intellectual disability. Retrieved from

http://www.aaidd.org/content_100.cfm?navID=21

Cohen, L. G., & Spenciner, L. J. (2009). Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities:

Research-based practices. (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

Education Inc.

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). (2011a). Behavior disorders/emotional disturbances.

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http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Behavior_Disorders_Emotional_Di

sturbance&ContentID=7577&template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). (2011b). Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from

http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Mental_Retardation&Template=/T

aggedPage/TaggedPageDisplay.cfm&TPLID=37&ContentID=5630

IDEA. (2004). Building the legacy: IDEA 2004. Retrieved from http://idea.ed.gov/explore/home

LD Online. (2010a). Effective reading interventions for kids with learning disabilities. Retrieved

from http://www.ldonline.org/article/33084/

LD Online. (2010b). Prevention and intervention of writing difficulties for students with learning

difficulties. Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/article/6213/

LD Online. (2010c). Number sense: Rethinking arithmetic instruction for students with

mathematical disabilities. Retrieved from

http://www.ldonline.org/article/Number_Sense%3A_Rethinking_Arithmetic_Instruction_

for_Students_with__Mathematical_Disabilities

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LD Online. (2010c). Accommodations for students with LD. Retrieved from

http://www.ldonline.org/article/Accommodations_for_Students_with_LD

Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA). (2011). Dyscalculia. Retrieved from

http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/dyscalculia.asp

Marx, T. (2012, Sept 5a). Understanding students with learning disabilities, ADHD, and other

health impairments [power point]. EDSP 441. UNLV. Retrieved from

https://webcampus.nevada.edu/webct/urw/tp0.1c33129041/cobaltMainFrame.dowebct

Marx, T. (2012, Sept 10b). Understanding students with emotional disturbance, mental

retardation (intellectual disabilities), and autism spectrum disorders. [power point].

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MainFrame.dowebct

National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). (2012a). Learning disability fast facts.

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disability-fast-facts

National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). (2012b). Dyslexia.

Retrieved from http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/dyslexia

National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). (2012c). Dysgraphia.

Retrieved from http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/dysgraphia

National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). (2012d). Dyscalculia.

Retrieved from http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/dyscalculia

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY). (2012a). Emotional

disturbance. Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/emotionaldisturbance

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National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY). (2012b). Learning

disabilities (LD). Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/ld

National Joint Commission on Learning Disabilities. (1990). Definition of learning disabilities.

Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/pdfs/njcld/NJCLDDefinitionofLD.pdf

Project IDEAL. (2008a). Intellectual disabilities. Retrieved from

http://www.projectidealonline.org/emotionalDisturbance.php

Project IDEAL. (2008b). Emotional disturbance. Retrieved from

http://www.projectidealonline.org/emotionalDisturbance.php

Washington State Developmental Disabilities Council (WSDDC). (na). Common traits of people

with intellectual disabilities. Retrieved from

http://www.ddc.wa.gov/Publications/090825_Checklist_for_magistrates_and_law%20enf

orcement.pdf