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WAYS OF KNOWING1. INTUITION OR TENACITY
I just "feel it"
2. AUTHORITYBible, grandmother, expert
3. LOGICDeducing the answer
4. SCIENCEEmpirical test (focus for our class)
…each is usefulSome are best for particular questions.
For example, what is the fastest way to
Calgary?
1. WHICH WAYS OF KNOWING WOULD "WORK?"
2. WHICH IS “BEST?”
THEORYStatement of how one thing causes another,
usually involving TESTABLE hypotheses
EXAMPLE
OBSERVATION: Trees change colour in the fall.
THEORIES:
The great hunter causes trees to change colour in the fall.
Trees change colour in the fall because of frost.
Trees change colour because of they receive less light.
A GOOD THEORY:EXPLAINS current observations
PREDICTS future events
is USEFUL (practical applications)
is SIMPLE[R] than other explanations (parsimonious)
is TESTABLE (theory can be falsified)
Theory versus Observation
Observation(Variables)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Theory(Concepts)
The “wheel of science” (Bacon)
Observation
Generalization
Theory
Hypothesis
DEDUCTION
INDUCTION
From abstract to empirical
Concept A:
Punishment
Concept B:
Attendance
Yelling at students
Increases attendance by
50%
ABSTRACT
EMPIRICAL Observable
Theoretical
THE SCIENTIFIC METHODWhat’s GOOD about this method?
1. PURPOSIVE
2. RIGOROUS
3. TESTABLE
4. OBJECTIVE
5. FALSIFYABLE
Falsification (Popper)1. Make a Prediction
2. Establish Ground Rules
3. Gather Data
4. Compare Results to Predictions
a. If consistent, hypothesis was
supported (NOT proven)
b. If not, revise hypothesis and retest
Advances in Science (Kuhn)“Normal” science
Development and testing of compatible
theories
“Paradigm shifts”
Radical re-orientation
Examples:
Astronomy
Marketing
The Elements
Earth
Water
Air, Fire
Sun
Stars
Astronomy: Ptolemy
Kuhn’s “paradigm shift”
Earth
Sun
CONCLUSIONData don’t “speak for themselves”
Must know what to look for
Must know how to interpret the findings
Must understand underlying THEORY
Theories are nets cast to catch what we call
“the world”: to rationalize, to explain, and to
master it. We endeavor to make the mesh
ever finer and finer.
Karl R. Popper
Quote of the Day