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WATERS IN PERIL
WATERS IN PERIL
edited by
Leah BendelI-Young and
Patricia Gallaugher Simon Fraser University
Canada
SPRINGER scmNCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Waters in peril: edited by Leah Bendell-Young and Patricia Gallaugher. p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 978-1-4613-5581-6 ISBN 978-1-4615-1493-0 (eBook) DOl 10.1007/978-1-4615-1493-0
1. Marine ecology. 2. Endangered ecosystems. I. Bendell-Young, Leah, 1942- II. Gallaugher, Patricia, 1958-
QH541.5.S3 W38 2001 577.7-dc21
Copyright © 200 I by Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 200 I Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 200 I
2001046202
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Assinippi Park, Norwell, Massachusetts 02061
Printed on acid-free paper.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword: Who Speaks for the Oceans? ............................................. . XVll
John Nightingale Preface: XiX
Waters in Peril: Patricia Gallaugher and Leah Bendell-Young .............. xxi Acknowledgments ................................................................................... xxiii
PART I - BIODIVERSITY
Chapter 1: Biological Invasions of Marine Ecosystems: Patterns, Effects, and Management............................. ............ ............ 3 Gregory M Ruiz and Jeffrey A. Crooks
Chapter 2: Known and Unknown Biodiversity, Risk of Extinction and Conservation Strategy in The Sea ................................. 19 Marjorie L. Reaka-Kudla
Chapter 3: Deep-Sea Fisheries: Perspectives and Lessons .................... 35 Richard L. Haedrich
Chapter 4: Fishing Down Marine Food Webs: An Update .................... 47 Daniel Pauly and Maria Lourdes D. Palomares
Chapter 5: Ecological Implications of the Shellfishery; A Case Study on the West Coast of British Columbia, Canada .................................................... 57 Leah 1. Bendell-Young and Ron C.Ydenberg
PART II - MARINE ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION
Chapter 6: The Oceanic Nitrogen Cycle: A Double-Edged Agent of Environmental Change? .................................................. 73 Louis A. Codispoti
Chapter 7: Beyond Algal Blooms, Oxygen Deficits and Fish Kills: Chronic, Long-Term Impacts of Nutrient Pollution on Aquatic Ecosystems ...... .................................................. 103 JoAnn M Burkholder
Chapter 8: Responses of Pelagic Marine Ecosystems to Climate Change - Can We Predict Them? ......................... 127 Kenneth L. Denman
Chapter 9: The Arctic Ocean and Contaminants: Pathways that Lead to Us ..................................................... 135 Robie W. Macdonald
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Chapter 10: Shouldn't We Be Putting Our Sulphide-Rich Mine Tailings in the Ocean or in Lakes Rather than on Land? ..... 151 Thomas F. Pedersen
PART III - TOWARDS SOLUTIONS
Chapter 11: The Cumulative Effects of Climate Warming and Other Human Stresses on Canadian Freshwaters in the New Millennium ........................................................ 165 David W. Schindler
Chapter 12: Marine Biological Diversity: Conserving Life in the Neglected Ninety-nine Percent ............................................ 187 Elliott A. Norse
Chapter 13: Human Ecology, Material Consumption, and the Sea: Indices of Human Ecological Dysfunction .......................... 201 William E. Rees
Chapter 14: Prevention is Better Than Cure: Systems of 'No-Take'
Index
Marine Reserves................................................................... 221 Bill Ballantine
233
LIST OF FIGURES
PART I - BIODIVERSITY
Chapter 2 Figure 1. Most species of mantis shrimps are small in body size. Most
of these live on coral reefs, and most have abbreviated pelagic stages ( closed triangles) compared to the level bottom species, which reach larger body sizes and have extended pelagic larval phases (open circles). ......... ...... ................... ............. ..... ..... ......................... ..... ........ 22
Figure 2. The size of the geographic range increases with typical body size of species of mantis shrimps within and among lineages. Related species are indicated by the same symbol. .............. .......... ................. 24
Chapter 3 Figure 1. A history of global deep-sea fisheries. The bars show the
reported total landings and the line shows the number of species exploited. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data. ............... 38
Figure 2. History of the Soviet exploitation of two dominant families of deep-sea fishes around Antarctica. FAO data. ............................... 39
Figure 3. Catch rate of snow crab (bars: lbs trap-I day-I, log of the Village Bride, Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland) and the mean size (line: gm) of northern cod in scientific surveys. The horizontal band indicates the size at which cod begin to feed on crab. From Troy Coombs, BSc Honours Thesis, Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland. ............................................................. 41
Figure 4. Mean size (line: kg) and abundance index (bars: no. tow-I) of Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) from scientific surveys off northeast Newfoundland. Horizontal band indicates the size range by which 50% of the population is mature. CPUE = Catch per unit effort. .......... ....... ..................... ............ ...... .................... ......... 42
Figure 5. The differing space and time scales at which fisheries scientists and fishermen view their worlds. ........ ........ ........................ 43
Figure 6. A conceptual model showing the ratcheting interaction over time between ecosystems (communities of fishes) and human systems (fisheries). ............................................................................. 44
Chapter 4 Figure l. 'Catch pyramids' for the Northwestern Atlantic (FAO Statistical
Area 21), showing the TLs from which fisheries catches were taken in 1950 (left; mean TL = 3.79) and 1997 (right; mean TL = 3.28). Note
viii
collapse ofhigh-TL species (i.e., mainly cod off Eastern Canada and USA) and their partial replacement by low-TL species, especially invertebrates. ...................................................................................... 49
Figure 2. The full dots are time series of mean TL in the Northeastern Atlantic (FAO Area 27), illustrating a nearly pure form of fishing down marine levels. Calculated trend corresponds to 0.04 TL per decade but is an underestimate of the true trend (see text). The open dots represent the mean TL that would be obtained, were one to regroup the species, genera and families used for fisheries statistics in FAO Area 27 with larger taxa. Note absence of trend for these open dots. .............. ..... ................ ............................................... .......... 50
Figure 3. Relationship between TL and body length in the two groups (high-order carnivores and first-order carnivores) offish contributing to the overwhelming bulk of fisheries catches in the Northeastern Atlantic. Based on data in FishBase (Froese and Pauly 1998). .......... 52
Figure 4. Decline of equilibrium mean length in fisheries catches (in % of maximum length) due to increase in exploitation rate (E) for two values of the ratio of natural mortality to growth rates (MIK) and ranges of
size at first capture (Lf), derived from Z{L.",,+(qtp-'L)]j[qtp-+l] (Pauly & Soriano 1986; based on Beverton & Holt 1957). ................ 53
Figure 5. Nomogram representing the decline ofTL due to an increase of exploitation rate, for two values ofMlK and different lengths at first capture (Lf), for first- and higher-order carnivores. The lines are dotted past E = 0.7, as such high values ofE tend to be rare, optimum exploitation usually occurring when E = 0.5 (Beddington and Cooke 1981; Pauly and Soriano 1986). ......................................................... 54
Figure 6. Trends ofTL in the Northeastern Atlantic. Open dots: original values (see Figure 2). Filled dots: values corrected for the effect of declining size (and hence TL) within species, as implied by Figure 4. Further assumptions are E1950 = 0.1; E1997 = 0.5 and Lf = 40% of Lmax and MlK=2 for first-order carnivores and Lf = 20% of Lmax and MlK=l for higher-order carnivores. Note increased downward slope from full (-0.00398) to open dots (0.00465), representing an increase of about 15%. .............................................. 55
Chapter 5 Figure l. Location of three study beaches. .................... .......................... 60 Figure 2. Species richness (# of species) versus beach location (from
low, Block 1, to high, Block 6 tide. Species richness values for Reference Beach A that are significantly higher than Beach Band/or
C are denoted with an *. There is a sandbar located at position 4 on Beach A. Note the decrease in species richness with tide elevation
ix
for beach A and B, but not C. ............................................................. 61 Figure 3. Bivalve abundance versus tidal elevation (m above low tide). 62 Figure 4. Shift in community structure as measured by the % of species
that comprise surface, sub-surface and clams. ................................... 64 Figure 5. Difference in % organic matter versus tidal elevation of the
three beaches. .......... ............. ..................................... ............ ............. 64 Figure 6. Length-frequency distribution oflittleneck (native and
Japanese) clams in September 1984 (black bar) and April 1985 (gray bar) in the mid-intertidal at Sandy Island Provincial Park, Baynes Sound. The difference between the two histograms indicates the portion removed, assumed mostly due to scoter depredation. ........... 66
Chapter 6 Figure 1. A schematic diagram indicating the great increase in anthro
pogenic nitrogen fixation over the last several decades. The units ofTg/yr mean 1012 g ofN per year. It is generally agreed that the anthropogenic rate now exceeds the natural terrestrial rate of nitrogen fixation, but there is considerable uncertainty as to the oceanic rate. Thus, we cannot say for sure that the anthropogenic rate at the present time exceeds the total natural rate. (source = International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme). ................................................... 76
Figure 2. A schematic and simplified diagram of the oceanic nitrogen cycle based on an original figure presented by Liu (1979). ............... 77
Figure 3. A pie chart showing the relative contributions of various atmospheric trace gases to the greenhouse effect. Note that water vapor which is another important greenhouse gas is not shown, and that the relative contributions could change with time. ...................... 78
Figure 4. The sum ofnitrate+nitrite (mostly nitrate) concentrations in the Choptank River, Maryland from an autonomous analyzer deployed by my group in Spring 1999. The Choptank is an arm of Chesapeake Bay. The shaded area shows data from the surface. Then a storm ripped the device off the mooring and it continued to work as a bottom sampler for the remainder of the deployment. It is unusual to find surface nitrate values higher than deep values in natural systems, but here we see the effects of pollution that is introduced near the surface. Sea level is also plotted to show that there are significant hourly scale changes in nitrate+nitrite that seem to be related to the tides. We are only now acquiring the instrumentation to easily resolve such scales. Also note that most
x
concentrations are well above 10 micromolar (J!M) and are therefore high enough to have a deleterious effect on eel grass (see text). ....... 80
Figure 5. Data from a station located in the portion of the Arabian Sea that contains suboxic water at depths between ~ 100-1 OOOm. Pressure in db is very similar to depths in meters. The data come from cruises, 39, 43, 45, 49, 50 and 54 of the U.S. Joint Global Ocean Flux Process Study of the Arabian Sea. They cover all seasons and were taken from the University of Washington's research vessel, the RIV T. G. Thompson. You can see the vanishingly small oxygen concentrations in the suboxic zone, a nitrate minimum at mid-depth that arises from the reduction of nitrate (NO f) during denitrification, and a corresponding nitrite (N02-) maximum. Calculations suggest that not all of the reduced nitrate is accounted for by nitrite which merns that some of the nitrate that should be there has been reduced to free nitrogen (N2). ..................................... 85
Figure 6. Vertical profiles of nitrate (N03-), phosphate (P04-3) and SiO(OHh- (the chemical symbol for silicic acid which is the main form of dissolved silicon) from the Southern Ocean taken during the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean Study (AESOPS). .......................... 90
Figure 7. Continuous vertical profiles of nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, phosphate, and SiO(OH3)- (dissolved silicon) taken with a pumping system during the 1988 Black Sea Expedition. ................ ........ .......... 91
Chapter 7 Figure 1. Export of total nitrogen from watersheds surrounding the
North Atlantic Ocean, as a function of net anthropogenic inputs of N into the watersheds. Net anthropogenic in-puts are defined as industrial N fertilizer + N 2 fixation by legume crops + atmospheric inputs of oxidized N + net imports ofN in food and livestock. Reprinted from Vitousek et aI.; originally from Howarth et aI., with permission from Kluwer Academic Publishers. ........... ....... ....... 104
Figure 2. Relationship between human population density in the watershed and export of soluble reactive phosphate in river water, considering data for 32 major rivers. Reprinted from Caraco, with kind permission from John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ................................. 104
Figure 3. Generalized shift in primary production of major plant groups with increasing nutrient inputs to most natural lakes (small, less than 10 meters deep). Phytoplankton dominance gives way to submersed plants and benthic microalgae, then to emergent plants along a gradient of increasing nutrients over time. In shallow estuaries and coastal embayments, by contrast, phytoplankton
generally are minor contributors to primary production throughout. Dominance by seagrasses and their algal colonizers gives way to dominance by macro algae (seaweeds). Modified and reprinted
xi
with permission from Wetzel (1979). ................................................. 109 Figure 4. The response of the seagrass, Zostera marina, to water-column
nitrate enrichment in outdoor mesocosms during the spring growing season, as (A) control plants with ambient sea- water nitrate « 15 ug N03-NIL), (B) low enrichment and (C) moderate enrichment (addition of enough nitrate to achieve a water-column concentration of 50 ug N03-N IL or 100 ug N03-N/L, respectively, immediately after addition; added each morning for 6 weeks). Note the thick, robust growth of the control plants, with fewer plants in the low enrichment regime, and sparse plants in the moderate enrichment regime (see Burkholder et al. 1992 for details). ................................. 112
Chapter 8 Figure 1. A schematic of the planktonic ecosystem model coupled to
a I-dimensional vertical mixing model. N - dissolved nutrient, P - phytoplankton, Z - zooplankton, and D - detritus or sinking organic particles. The lij arrows represent fluxes of nutrient between compartments and the arrow XP represents the sinking flux of organic particles at 1epths of 50 and 120 m. The images show that each living compartment represents many species of organisms. ...... 130
Figure 2a. Results of the simulations with abundant iron for phytoplankton growth. The summer maximum concentration of zooplankton Z increased by 154%, and the flux of sinking organic particles (export of carbon by the biotic pump to the ocean interior) increased by 25%. ................................................................ 132
Figure 2b. Results of the simulations with a warming of2° C applied. The stocks in the ecosystem did not change significantly. The flux of sinking organic particles decreased by 25%. ................................. 132
Chapter 9 Figure 1. The Arctic Ocean is shown as a "Mediterranean Sea"
surrounded by some of the most industrial and agricultural regions of the world. Note that the area of the drainage basin exceeds that of the ocean and that rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean not only deliver dissolved and particle-bound contaminants, but also help to stratify the ocean and prevent vertical mixing. .................................. 13 7
Figure 2. The connection between the Atlantic Ocean and the Arctic Ocean (after Dahlgaard, 1995). As illustrated by reprocessing plant
xii
radionuclides, the waters of North em Europe are connected directly with the Arctic Ocean, transit times being only 5 or so years. ........... 139
Figure 3. Stratification of the Arctic Ocean. Upper oceans, because they contain much light, fresh water, are separated from the deeper water with which they do not easily mix. Note also that there are two domains in the Arctic Ocean (Pacific and Atlantic) separated by a front (cf. McLaughlin et aI., 1996). .................................................... 140
Figure 4. The predominant, large scale transport pathways of ice. Note that the Transpolar Drift tends to move ice and surface water from the Russian shelves out to the East side of Greenland. ...................... 142
Figure 5. Sources of radionuclides to the Arctic Ocean (after Aarkrog, 1994; Layton et aI., 1997). PBq = 1015 Bq ..... ........................ ........... 144
Figure 6. Top Panel- the emission history of a-Hexachlorocyclohexane (a-HCH) (after [Li et aI., 1998]): Bottom Panel- present input and output fluxes for HCH in the Arctic Ocean (after Macdonald et aI., 2000a). ...................................................................................... 146
Chapter 10 Figure 1. Profiles of dissolved iron, zinc, copper, and lead in pore
waters and near-bottom waters collected at a shallow site (1 m deep) in Anderson Lake, Manitoba. The horizontal line marks the location of the bottom (the sediment-water interface) and is accurate to within 2 cm. Data from Pedersen et aI. (1998). ............................................. 155
Figure 2. Profiles of dissolved iron, manganese and zinc in pore waters and near-bottom waters collected very near the site of the former tailings outfall in the south basin of Buttle Lake, British Columbia. The horizontal line marks the location of the bottom (the sedimentwater interface) and is accurate to within 2 cm. Data from Pedersen et aI. (1998). ........................................................................................ 158
LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 1 Table 1. Ecological, genetic, and evolutionary effects of exotic species
within invaded ecosystems. ...... ...... ..... ............ ... .......... .......... ..... ....... 8
Chapter 2 Table 1. Described biodiversity for different major environments. ......... 21 Table 2. Area of marine, terrestrial, and freshwater regions of
the world. .... ..... ........ ............. .......... ................ .... ...... ..... ....... ....... ....... 25
Chapter 4 Table 1. Percentage of catches reported by FAO at different aggregation
levels in the late 1980s, by F AO statistical areas arranged from North to South. ................................................................................... 52
ChapterS Table 1. Densities (no. m-2) and mean lengths of four species of clams
in the mid-intertidal at Sandy Island Provincial Park, Baynes Sound, before (September 1984) and after (April 1985) a winter scoter depredation. ... ........ ... ........... .......... ................... ........... ........ .... ........... 67
Chapter 6 Table 1. An unauthorized history of minimum turnover time estimates
for oceanic fixed-N (inventory/total sink term) ................................. 89
ChapterS Table 1. Steps to Prediction ..................................................................... 129
Chapter 13 Table 1. Examples of areas where large-scale extinctions are thought
to have accompanied human occupation. ............ .... ............ ............ ... 205
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Bill Ballantine Professor, Leigh Marine Laboratory, University of Auckland, Box 349, Warkworth, New Zealand. Phone: 64-9-422-6111 Fax: 64-9-422-6113 (E-mail: [email protected])
JoAnn M. Burkholder Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 29606 USA
Leah I. Bendell-Young Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Ave, Burnaby, BC V5A 1 S6, Canada
Louis A. Codispoti Professor, Horn Point Laboratory, Center for Environmental Science, University of Maryland, Po. Box 775, 2020 Horn Point Road, Cambridge, MD, 21613 USA
Jeffrey A. Crooks Post Doctoral Fellow, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Po. Box 28, Edgewater, MD USA21037 USA
Kenneth L. Denman Research Scientist, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, University of Victoria, Po. Box 1700, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
Patricia Gallaugher Continuing Studies, Siinon Fraser University, 8888 University Ave, Burnaby, BC V5A 1 S6, Canada
Richard L. Haedrich Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland Al B 5S7, Canada
Robie W. Macdonald Research Scientist, Institute of Ocean Sciences, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, PO. Box 6000, Sidney, BC V8L 4B2, Canada
Elliott A. Norse Marine Conservation Biology Institute, Redmond, WA USA
Maria Lourdes D. Palomares Marine Biologist, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), MC po. Box 2631, Makati 0718, Philippines (E-mail: [email protected])
Daniel Pauly Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, 2204 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada (E-mail: [email protected])
xvi
Thomas F. Pedersen Professor, Earth and Ocean Sciences; Associate Dean, Research and Faculty Development, Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1 Z4, Canada
Marjorie L. Reaka-Kudla Department of Biology, The University of Maryland, College Park, MD20742 USA
William E. Rees, PhD University of British Columbia, School of Community and Regional Planning, 6333 Memorial Road, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2, Canada
Gregory M. Ruiz Smithsonian Envimnmental Research Center, po. Box 28, Edgewater, MD 21037, USA
David W. Schindler Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E9, Canada (E-mail: [email protected])
Ron C. Y denberg Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Ave, Burnaby, BC V5A 1 S6, Canada
FOREWORD Who Speaks for the Oceans?
The question has been asked a lot in recent years - just who is looking out for our oceans? Covering over seventy percent of the earth's surface it is the world's largest common property resource,jojntly owned by over six billion humans. It is the foundation for life on earth as we know it. Over the years, many people have spoken about various aspects of our ocean environments and they have spoken to different audiences in many different ways. For many in the public realm, Jacques Cousteau spoke for the ocean. Since his passing, no single voice with the sallle public identity or recognition has emerged. Certainly the many governments bordering our oceans cannot agree on common principles or issues of ocean use and management. We might be tempted think that we do not have an ocean spokesperson or champion, but we would be wrong. Today, the rapidly growing number of scientists working hard to expand our understanding of our ocean realm are the ocean voices we should listen to. At the same time as our scientists advance their understanding of the oceans, we all need to advance our abilities and commitment to communicate on behalf of the oceans with broader and broader audiences who need to be aware of where things stand.
Often called "the last great frontier", earth's oceans are vast, widely varied, and are hard to get to, arid into, to do the research we need done. When we really step back and think about our oceans, we realize there is no single "ocean". It is hard to comprehend just how many different parts of the world's oceans there are - the tropics, the cold oceans, surface waters, the deeps, coral reefs and coastal zones, to name only a few segments. Collectively, earth's oceans are amazingly diverse with huge variations in physical, biological, ecological, and geographical makeup. When we throw in the compounding factors of the impacts caused by humans such as global warming, overfishing and pollution, we are left with a staggering number of ocean niches. And, we have an endless supply of ocean topics on which we badly need more information. In fact, some have suggested that we may know more about the moon than we do about parts of world's oceans. As more and more people on earth increase the impacts on ocean ecosystems yearly, we need the expanded scope and passion oftoday's concerned scientists. We need even more research to go along with the current results of their science, and we need books like this one.
xviii - Waters in Peril
In Waters in Peril, a group of inspired scientists speak about some of the key parts of our oceans, and their issues. This book is a badly needed benchmark - taking the pulse of what we know and do not know about our oceans. It is not a "doom and gloom" assessment, but a group of proven scientists integrating the best knowledge we have today. It is vital that we periodically stand back and assimilate and integrate what we know. As Honourable John Fraser, Canada's former Ambassador to the Environment, noted in the workshop and think tank that led to this book, we need more science to improve our understanding and guide our actions and we also need to work together in new ways. The international list of scientists who came together and contributed to this volume is impressive.
This benchmark summation of what we know about our oceans and ocean environments at the tum of the millennium is important for two reasons. We need to step back and take stock periodically, and Waters in Peril does that admirably. Importantly, it expands the number and quality of voices speaking more loudly for our oceans. The author scientists writing here are speaking for many different aspects of our ocean ecosystems. We will need these scientists to speak loud and often, and to recruit others to help us all get a better "grip" on the state of our oceans and our role in their future. It does not matter what our profession is, it is up to each and everyone of us to talk to our neighbours and friends, our students, our colleagues, to government leaders, and to talk via the mass media. We must speak frequently and with passion to anyone who will listen to us because we must seek to first engage, and then inspire people. Use this volume, it is a great overview, and carry its voice to someone who should know more
John Nightingale, Ph.D. President Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Centre
PREFACE
In recognition of the International Year of the Ocean, a number ofleading ocean scientists came together to discuss their over-riding concerns about the state of Earth's oceans and freshwater ecosystems. Over a period of two days these scientists presented their findings that demonstrated the consequences of years of human exploitation of and impacts on the waters of Earth.
This volume provides a selection of the presentations of these concerned scientists, describing what they have observed and notably, what we can do to halt or even reverse the negative human-induced trends. We are hopeful that the well-substantiated content will guide politicians and policy-makers in making sound decisions with respect to future management of the Earth's ocean and freshwater resources.
A consensus statement, Waters in Peril, was produced by these scientists together with a group of academics, government managers and policy makers, representatives of industry and non-governmental organizations and members of the public. It is an urgent call for action.
WATERS IN PERIL
The world's waters are wanner, stonnier, more polluted and less supportive oflife than at any time since records have been kept. As scientists and citizens we agree that: 1. The health of freshwater and marine ecosystems is essential to sustaining
life. There is overwhelming scientific evidence that freshwater and marine ecosystems are in serious trouble. We must restore and maintain the biological diversity and integrity of aquatic systems. The risks of not taking strong action are dangerous and unacceptable.
2. Human activity and population growth are causing these problems. Nothing happening on Earth threatens our lives more than the degradation of ecosystems. Our survival depends on wetlands, streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries, coastal waters, and oceans.
3. We are all responsible for taking care of these waters. We know enough to do better. Political decisions must reflect this reality.
4. We must act to protect our children's future. We must reduce our consumption of resources and production of wastes. The choice is to take effective action now or be overwhelmed by the consequences of our inaction.
Patricia Gallaugher Continuing Studies in Science Simon Fraser University
Leah Bendell-Young Biological Sciences Simon Fraser University
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to all of those who worked with us in developing and facilitating the Oceans Limited conference which led to the idea of producing this volume. Foremost, we wish to thank the members of the Steering Committee, Richard Haedrich, Mark Graham, John Fraser, and representatives of the Environmental Sciences Students' Union at Simon Fraser University, Damon Matthews, Sachia Kron, and Sonia Nobrega.
We are particularly grateful to the Simon Fraser University Publication Fund which made this volume possible. In addition, we acknowledge the sponsors of Oceans Limited: Fisheries and Oceans Canada; Canadian Museum of Nature; Memorial University of Newfoundland; Dean of Science, University of British Columbia; President's Office, University of Victoria; British Columbia Information, Science and Technology Agency; Vancouver Aquarium; Canadian Coalition of the Maritime Organizations on Education; and the President's Office and Dean of Science, Simon Fraser University. Student subsidies to attend the conference were graciously provided by each of the following organizations: Dean of Graduate Studies, Simon Fraser University; British Columbia Information Science and Technology Agency; Dean of Science, University of British Columbia; University of Victoria; Analytical Service Laboratories Ltd.; Teekay Shipping Limited; EVS Environmental Consultants; LGL Limited, Environmental Research Associates; National Sea Products Limited; Fishery Products International; Ocean Fisheries Limited; and Canadian Fishing Company.
We also wish to acknowledge the support and dedication of all of the contributing authors in the preparation of this book together with a number of external reviewers and Ann Cowan of Simon Fraser University for encouraging us to produce this volume. Laurie Wood and Barb Lange of Simon Fraser University provided invaluable assistance with the editing and production of the volume.
Finally, a very special thank: you to all the members of the think tank who contributed their time and energy during and following the conference which in tum led to the Waters in Peril consensus statement: Patricia Betts, Biology, Memorial University of Newfound land and, Marine Issues Committee, Ecology Action Centre, Nova Scotia; Robert Brown, Institute of Fisheries Analysis, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia; JoAnn Burkholder, Department of
xxiv- Waters in Peril
Botany, North Carolina Stat~ University; Murray Chatwin, Ocean Fisheries Ltd., British Columbia; Louis Codispoti, Centre for Coastal Physical Oceanography, Old Dominion University, Virginia; Ken Denman, Institute of Ocean Sciences, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, British Columbia; Mary-Lynn Dickson, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island; Rod Dobell, School of Public Administration, University of Victoria, British Columbia; Dale Ferriere, Environmental and Occupational Safety, Tee1rny Shipping (Canada) Ltd., British Columbia; John Fraser, Chair, Pacific Fisheries Resource Conservation Council, British Columbia; Grant Gardner, Associate Dean of Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland; Mark Graham, Director of Research, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ontario; Kees Groot, Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, British Columbia; Richard Haedrich, Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland; Ken Huffinan, Ocean Policy, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Ontario; Vicky Husband, Sierra Club of British Colmbia; Colin Jones, Dean of Science, Simon Fraser University; Paul LeBlond, University of British Columbia; R.W. Macdonald, Institute of Ocean Sciences, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, British Columbia; Darcy Mitchell, School of Public Administration, University of Victoria; John Nightingale, Vancouver Aquarium, British Columbia; Elliott Norse, Marine Conservation Biology Institute, Washington; Ross Norstrom, Wildlife Toxicology Division, Environment Canada, Quebec; John Ogden, Florida Institute of Oceanography, Florida; Tom Pedersen, Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia; Randall Peterman, School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University; Marjorie Reaka-Kudla, Zoology, University of Maryland, College Park; Bill Rees, School of Community and Regional Planning, University of British Columbia; Tony Roper, Star Shipping (Canada) Ltd., British Columbia; Laura Richards, Science Division, Pacific Region, Fisheries and Oceans Canada; Harald Rosenthal, Institut fUr Meereskunde an der Universitat Kiel, Germany; Gregory Ruiz, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Maryland; David Schindler, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta; Joe Truscott, British Columbia Ministry of Fisheries; Verena Tunnicliffe, Centre for Earth and Ocean Research, University of Victoria; and Kelly Vodden, Geography, Simon Fraser University.
