Watch Letter N°40 · agricole, du développement rural, de la formation et de la recherche depuis 1962, est engagé depuis plusieurs années dans l’accompagnement et l’inclusion

Strengthening the role of women in rural and agricultural areas

Obstacles and opportunities

A CIHEAM-UfM Co-publication

N°40Watch Letter

October 2018

Strengthening the role of women in rural and agricultural areas – obstacles and opportunities 5CIHEAM-UfM Publication4

Table of contentÉditorial

Hommage à Cosimo Lacirignola, Feu Secrétaire Général du CIHEAM

Leaving No One Behind: Women in Rural Communities Are Key to a Sustainable, Food Secure Future – Commission on the Status of Women 2018 - Mohammad Naciri

Palestinian Women Empowerment in Rural Areas: 35 years of achievements in collaboration with PARC and rural women - Athar Hodali FAO’s commitment to empowering rural women in the Near East and North Africa region - Szilvia Lehel Working against the grain: Voices of women from rural areas in Bulgaria - Petya Stavreva Gender and climate induced migrations in the Mediterranean Region - Monia Braham Agriculture familiale et genre dans le Nord de la méditerranée (cas de l’Italie) - Catia Zumpano Les sept chemins de l’agriculture à la nutrition et l’empowerment des femmes : transformations et manipulations d’un modèle graphique - Elisabeth Hofmann Strategies on women empowerment and gender equality: how to reduce the gap between rural women and institutions - Rosanna Quagliariello Promouvoir les modes de garde collectifs dans les territoires ruraux : une opportunité de répondre à l’ensemble des ODD et notamment d’égalité des sexes - François Fatoux The impact of discriminatory social institutions on rural women’s empowerment - Gaëlle Ferrand The Role of Women on Urban Agriculture and Food Security in Beit Lahia City, Gaza Strip - Hadi Fathi Khalil La percée des filles dans l’enseignement agricole technique français : entre obstacles et opportunités - Joachim Benet Evaluation et chiffrage du rôle socio-économique et culturel des femmes dans les petites et moyennes exploitations agricoles du Sud du Maroc - Mustapha Ben El Ahmar “Faiminisme” - Nora Bouazzouni The European Parliament’s Work on Women in Rural Areas - Rosa Llobregat The Impact of Socioeconomic characteristics on Empowerment of Bedouin women in Egypt - Elham Abdelaal

The impact of gender inequalities on food security: what policies are needed?- Marcela Villarreal BOX 1 : L’exemple du bureau d’Appui à la femme rurale (Tunisie) BOX 2: Promotion of the Practice of Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) at the Household Level among Women in the Bedouin Community of Qatrana in the Karak Governorate/Jordan

BOX 3 : Autopromotion des couches vulnérables (Femmes et jeunes filles) par la mise en place d’Activités Génératrices de Revenus (AGR) à Bordj Bou Arreridj (Algérie)

6

8

10

14

18

22

26

32

38

44

48

54

60

64

70

76

80

84

90

98

102

104

The views and opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect those of the Union for the Mediterranean, nor those of CIHEAM, nor those of the Government of Sweden.

More information on the Union for the Mediterranean is available on internet (http//www.ufmsecretariat.org) © Union for the Mediterranean, 2018

All images: © Union for the Mediterranean, except for: photographies illustrating the cover and photographies used in p.17, p.27, p.43, p. 47, p.63, p. 69, p. 79, p. 83, p. 101, p.107.

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Published in October 2018

CIHEAM-UfM Publication6 Strengthening the role of women in rural and agricultural areas – obstacles and opportunities 7

coopération régionale impliquant la participation des organisations de la société civile, des syndicats, des entreprises et des coopératives ainsi que des milieux académiques et de la recherche.

Le CIHEAM, acteur méditerranéen de la coopération agricole, du développement rural, de la formation et de la recherche depuis 1962, est engagé depuis plusieurs années dans l’accompagnement et l’inclusion des communautés de petits agriculteurs et pêcheurs, dont des femmes. Le Plan d’Action pour la Méditerranée du CIHEAM (PACMED 2025) prévoit au travers des activités de formation, de recherche, d’assistance technique et de dialogue politique, le soutien aux initiatives en faveur des femmes rurales et/ou menées par elles. Particulièrement engagé dans la lutte contre le gaspillage des savoirs et des potentiels, le CIHEAM accorde de plus en plus de place au développement des compétences et à l’autonomisation des femmes. Il soutient la participation des femmes et des étudiantes dans les filières scientifiques et les réseaux de recherche, notamment dans les domaines de la sécurité alimentaire et de la nutrition, de la gestion des ressources naturelles, de l’énergie, du développement rural et côtier, de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques, de la santé animale ou des marchés agricoles : des thèmes liés aux grands enjeux méditerranéens.

L’accent mis sur l’autonomisation des femmes, en tant que principale contribution pour surmonter les défis pressants auxquels la région méditerranéenne est confrontée, est au cœur de la stratégie de l’Union pour la Méditerranée (UpM). Cette stratégie a été progressivement élaborée et structurée au cours des dernières années en étroite coordination avec les États membres de l’UpM et avec la participation des principales parties prenantes opérant dans la région, notamment les autorités locales, les organisations internationales, les bailleurs, la société civile et le secteur privé. Ainsi, dans la dernière Déclaration ministérielle de l’UpM sur le renforcement du rôle des femmes dans la société, adoptée le 27 novembre 2017 au Caire, les ministres ont convenu qu’il était urgent de prendre les mesures et politiques nécessaires pour assurer la pleine participation des femmes dans les domaines politiques, économiques et sociaux. Les femmes et les filles rurales constituent l’une des principales priorités de cet engagement.

A l’échelle de la Méditerranée, l’UpM et le CIHEAM travaillent à mieux faire entendre la voix des femmes et des jeunes filles et à renforcer leur pouvoir, leur participation et leur leadership, y compris dans les zones rurales.

La Watch Letter n°40 s’inscrit dans cet objectif. Cette publication commune vise à mettre en perspective différentes situations en Méditerranée en analysant les défis et opportunités liés au renforcement du rôle des femmes rurales dans les domaines économique, social, juridique et politique. Les articles de cette publication ont une portée nationale ou régionale, thématique (climat, migration, éducation, emploi, accès aux services et ressources...) ou sectorielle (agriculture, pêche, élevage, artisanat, entrepreneuriat, politique, ...). Ils nous permettent de mieux comprendre les logiques à l’œuvre de la discrimination, d’identifier des leviers de changement et de partager les bonnes pratiques. Un exercice salutaire à reconduire dans un contexte où la collecte, l’analyse et la diffusion de données sectorielles et territoriales genrées restent très insuffisante.

ÉditorialRenforcer le rôle des femmes :Obstacles et opportunités dans les milieux ruraux et agricoles

Un potentiel sous-estimé

Les femmes dans les zones rurales et agricoles jouent un rôle clef dans le développement des territoires. De par leur rôle dans l’économie agricole ou dans la pêche, les femmes sont au cœur de la résilience des sociétés les plus vulnérables. Elles constituent un élément de réponse, encore sous-estimé, aux défis méditerranéens en matière d’alimentation, de préservation des écosystèmes, de pérennisation des pêches, de gestion responsable des ressources naturelles, d’adaptation aux changements climatiques et aux crises migratoires dont l’exode rural est une manifestation. Elles représentent 43% de la main-d’œuvre agricole mondiale, pourcentage qui atteint 70% dans certains pays. En Afrique du Nord et au Moyen-Orient, le nombre de femmes constituant la main-d’œuvre agricole est passé de 34 % en 1995 à près de 45 % en 2011. En Europe, ce nombre est de 42% en 2017.

Parallèlement, le nombre de femmes rurales qui dirigent leur propre entreprise est croissant, bien que leur potentiel entrepreneurial reste méconnu et insuffisamment exploité.

Cette importance stratégique des femmes dans les communautés et territoires ruraux est inscrite dans les Objectifs de Développement Durable et a été le thème prioritaire cette année de la 62ème session de la CEDAW (mars 2018), qui a rappelé que l’égalité des genres et l’autonomisation des femmes et des filles rurales sont des conditions essentielles pour parvenir au développement durable et promouvoir des sociétés pacifiques, justes et ouvertes.

Un rapport publié par la Banque mondiale en 2018 estime que si les femmes disposaient des mêmes revenus que les hommes, la richesse mondiale augmenterait de 23 620 dollars par habitant. Ceci représenterait en moyenne, dans les 141 pays étudiés, un montant de 160 milliards de dollars. Ce manque à gagner en terme de croissance économique, est une aberration, en particulier dans les zones rurales et agricoles qui sont celles

qui bénéficient le moins des retombées positives de la mondialisation.

Des discriminations toujours à l’œuvre

Pourtant, sur le 1,6 milliard de personnes vivant dans la pauvreté dans le monde, près de 80 % des personnes extrêmement pauvres vivent dans des zones rurales. Et depuis plusieurs décennies, cette pauvreté se féminise et constitue un obstacle à l’autonomisation des femmes.

Aujourd’hui, dans de nombreux pays, les discriminations et la marginalisation que subissent les femmes rurales restent importantes en raison de normes sociales et de certains aspects du droit coutumier. Elles continuent d’avoir un accès limité à la terre, à l’eau et à l’assainissement, aux services financiers, au crédit, aux services de vulgarisation et aux intrants agricoles, au travail décent, aux protections sociales, aux services de santé, à une éducation de qualité, à la formation, aux infrastructures et aux technologies. Cause et conséquence, une sous-représentation des femmes dans les organisations et institutions est plus importante en zones rurales, réduisant ainsi leur participation aux processus décisionnels, aux projets dans les territoires et aux politiques publiques.

Ce sont autant de filles et de femmes dont on gâche le potentiel pourtant essentiel à la réalisation des objectifs économiques, sociopolitiques et environnementaux que nous nous fixons dans l’espace méditerranéen.

La capacité des pays à aider les agricultrices, notamment les petites exploitantes, la pêche artisanale, l’horticulture ou l’élevage gérés par des femmes, doit être renforcée, notamment en dispensant un enseignement et une formation de qualité, en améliorant l’accès des femmes rurales aux services de vulgarisation, aux services financiers, aux intrants agricoles, au foncier, à l’irrigation, aux technologies dont les TIC, et aux transports sûrs et abordables. Des objectifs qui ne peuvent être atteints sans une véritable


Pour un investissement massif et engagé dans les femmes rurales

Travailler sur l’autonomisation et le renforcement des femmes dans les territoires ruraux et agricoles, c’est avant tout chercher à comprendre les rapports sociaux entre les femmes et les hommes, la construction des rôles des uns et des autres. C’est comprendre comment les assignations à identité se construisent et freinent parfois. C’est analyser les ressorts de l’émancipation.

Ce n’est jamais opposer les uns aux autres… Au contraire, il s’agit de rechercher les dénominateurs communs, de les renforcer et de les faire porter de manière collective afin que les effets positifs de cette démarche bénéficient à tous.

Travailler sur l’autonomisation et le renforcement des femmes c’est donc donner corps aux valeurs que sont l’équité, le respect, l’altruisme et l’ouverture.

Dans l’espace méditerranéen, cette approche inclusive est une nécessité. Dans les espaces les plus fragiles, les plus exposés au risque, elle est une obligation.

En Méditerranée se concentrent et s’accumulent de nombreux défis environnementaux, climatiques, économiques et sociaux. Pour espérer les relever ou du moins atténuer leurs chocs inhérents, la participation de toutes les forces vives est nécessaire. Parmi ces forces, il y a ces jeunes filles en devenir et ces femmes des milieux ruraux et agricoles. Il y a également les jeunes hommes, les petits agriculteurs et pêcheurs qui sont particulièrement vulnérables et pour lesquels le CIHEAM s’investit depuis sa création en 1962. Notre mission consiste à rapprocher le monde de la recherche des problématiques vécues par ces populations et à trouver des solutions concrètes en mobilisant nos activités de formation, la recherche en réseau, l’assistance technique et le dialogue politique.

Hommage à Cosimo Lacirignola, Feu Secrétaire Général du CIHEAM

Actrices sociales et économiques au potentiel entravé, les femmes des milieux ruraux et agricoles jouent un rôle qui reste aujourd’hui encore méconnu et sous-estimé. Temps de travail domestique ou informel non comptabilisé et non valorisé ; inégalités d’accès aux ressources éducatives, financières et foncières ; mobilité limitée ; faible représentativité dans les espaces décisionnels… Qu’il s’agisse de freins directs ou indirects, de discriminations légales ou de pressions socioculturelles, ces pénalités liées au sexe, exposent davantage les femmes à la pauvreté et à la précarité tout en les fragilisant davantage en période de crise.

Ces femmes jouent pourtant un rôle clé dans la résilience des territoires. Elles constituent une main-d’œuvre agricole précieuse et participent à maintenir un écosystème économique et social local. En Afrique sub-saharienne, les agricultrices contribuent à la production de 80 % des denrées alimentaires de base. Elles participent à nourrir leur famille, la communauté et le village. C’est un élément non négligeable, à l’heure où les insécurités alimentaires refont surface notamment aggravées par les chocs climatiques, la raréfaction des ressources naturelles telles que l’eau et la dégradation accrue des sols.

En Méditerranée, les femmes restent les principales responsables du choix et de la préparation des aliments. Elles sont donc au cœur de la sécurité nutritionnelle de la famille, de l’éducation alimentaire et de la prévention santé. Ce rôle est d’autant plus important qu’en raison d’une transition nutritionnelle accélérée, les pays de la région sont de plus en plus confrontés à l’obésité et aux maladies liées à l’alimentation telles que le diabète, l’hypertension, les troubles cardiaux vasculaires alors même que subsiste la malnutrition dans certaines régions.

Les femmes sont fréquemment les gardiennes de savoirs traditionnels relatifs aux plantes et aux espèces indigènes. Ces femmes sont dotées d’une expertise précieuse en matière d’hybridations et d’adaptations d’espèces végétales ou même

Tribune parue dans la publication Visions and actions to promote gender equality in the Mediterranean UpM, Novembre 2017Cosimo Lacirignola, Secrétaire général Centre International de Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Méditerranéennes (CIHEAM, Paris)

animales. Mais faute de transmission adéquate aux nouvelles générations, ces savoirs pourraient disparaître. En Méditerranée, elles sont par exemple, dépositaires d’un patrimoine culinaire ancestral, « le régime méditerranéen ». Constituée en grande partie à base de céréales, d’huiles végétales et de légumes, le « régime méditerranéen » a un impact faible sur l’environnement mais important sur le développement local. Ce régime contribue à la préservation de la biodiversité. Il est aussi pourvoyeur d’emplois durables. Agro-écologie, pêche responsable, restauration, gastronomie, agrotourisme… Le « régime méditerranéen » est à plusieurs niveaux stratégiques pour la région et les femmes en sont une composante centrale qu’il faut davantage soutenir et former.

Enfin, les femmes sont souvent plus à l’aise avec l’esprit d’innovation dans les domaines techniques, économiques ou organisationnels. Elles se distinguent par une forte capacité à développer des solidarités locales et à transmettre de bonnes pratiques. Les femmes entrepreneurs sont aussi un maillon précieux de la chaîne agricole. Elles innovent, créent de la richesse et de la valeur sociale ajoutée. Ces activités se font souvent dans l’ombre et il nous appartient de contribuer à l’émergence de modèles féminins de réussite dans les milieux ruraux.

Parmi les projets portés par le CIHEAM, beaucoup participent à améliorer le statut social et économique des femmes rurales et agricultrices, notamment grâce à la formation et en se focalisant sur l’amélioration de leur employabilité. Nous développons des outils pour l’inclusion des femmes dans la gouvernance des politiques alimentaires et agricoles. Nous participons à favoriser les échanges d’expériences et travaillons au maintien du dialogue institutionnel avec les pays méditerranéens au niveau local, national et régional. S’il est important de féminiser l’agriculture et de renforcer la place des femmes dans les zones rurales, il est aussi important de contribuer simultanément à féminiser les filières scientifiques dans lesquels

sont développées les solutions aux problèmes rencontrés en Méditerranée. Au CIHEAM, nous travaillons à renforcer la participation des femmes dans nos activités de recherche au sein de nos instituts agronomiques. Nous sommes, en effet, convaincus que les chercheuses représentent le socle de l’avenir en Méditerranée et qu’elles ont beaucoup à apporter dans le développement des territoires ruraux, la gestion des ressources naturelles, la sécurité alimentaire et la nutrition, les systèmes de production agricole innovants, ou encore dans la pêche et l’aquaculture durables.

Mieux valoriser le rôle des femmes et renforcer leur capacité d’action dans la sphère publique et professionnelle, c’est réussir la construction d’un espace solide dans lequel les femmes verront leurs conditions de vies améliorées au bénéfice de la société dans son ensemble. Pour autant, il reste encore beaucoup à faire pour permettre aux femmes de déployer tout leur potentiel et pour faire valoir leurs compétences. Nous y travaillons au CIHEAM et nous invitons nos partenaires à un investissement massif et engagé dans cette cause..


Globally, women make up 40% of the agricultural labor force, both formal and informal, in unpaid and paid work in fields and on farms. Yet, women are also the largest unpaid care workforce, women are less likely to own land – with only 13% of agricultural landowners globally being women1 - and more likely to work on family owned land for free, without access to markets or new technologies. Women spend much of their time on work inside the home, contributing to and running households, with no recognition of this work, and no wages to call their own. While they often are best placed to accurately identify the immediate needs of their families, in many communities, they are not making decisions on how the household income is spent.

As noted in the Secretary General ś report on Rural Women, “rural women and girls are disproportionately affected by poverty, exclusion and the effects of environmental and climate change”2. Thus, women and girls living in rural areas are less likely to absorb shocks, recover from crisis, and be able to create a sustainable future for themselves and their families.

In light of the 2030 agenda, and under the notion of leaving no one behind, we have an obligation to focus on women in rural areas, who, unless they are empowered to become resilient to external (and internal) shocks, will continue to bear the brunt of climate change and inequalities that will hinder our collective prosperity and development.

It is exactly this that the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) had as a priority theme in March 2018, when member states, civil society and UN entities gathered to focus on Challenges and

1 UN Women infographic http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/multimedia/2018/2/infographic-rural-women 2 Challenges and opportunities in achieving gender equality and the empowerment of rural women and girls: Report of the

Secretary General, 2018 http://undocs.org/E/CN.6/2018/3 3 http://www.unwomen.org/en/csw/csw62-2018

4 http://undocs.org/en/E/CN.6/2018/L.8, p.10

Leaving No One Behind: Women in Rural Communities Are Key to a Sustainable, Food Secure Future

opportunities in achieving gender equality and the empowerment of rural women and girls3 in the commission ś 62nd session.

Just as in the Secretary General ś report, the Commission, in the agreed conclusions adopted on the last day, noted that the foundations for a sustainable, gender equal, Agenda 2030 are already present, in the Beijing platform for action, CEDAW and other internationally ratified conventions and protocols. The Commission highlighted recommendations for ensuring that Agenda 2030 can be achieved and that women and girls living in rural areas have the rights and tools needed to be part of the solution; for there can be no solution without them. Notably, the Commission outlined three broad areas of action, with specific guidance under each, and in adapting the document made a commitment to the recommendations made.

Strengthen normative, legal and policy frameworks

The conclusions call upon member states that have not already done so to ratify international conventions and review reservations on these, as well as design and implement policies that protect and promote women ś human rights. This includes ensuring full access to justice, living a life free from violence, sexual harassment, and discrimination. Furthermore, they call for a review of women ś landownership policies, notably referencing that these should be free from any discrimination based on the marital status of a woman, on a par with that of men. As a crosscutting issue, the conclusions called to “integrate a gender perspective into the design, implementation and evaluation of and follow-up to development policies, plans

Mohammad Naciri, Regional Director, Regional Director for Arab States, UN Women

and programmes, including budget policies.”4. Women ś empowerment is not a stand-alone issue, just as in Agenda 2030, the solution lies not with one ministry or one government entity alone. To truly address inequalities, we must ensure that women ś empowerment is prioritized across sectors and budgets and that the gap between the women ś rights agenda and broader national planning is bridged. We know that when women participate equally in the workforce, and in the economy that nations are more likely to prosper. Creating an enabling environment that empowers women to do so is key, therefore, for the 2030 agenda.

Implement economic and social policies for the empowerment of all rural women and girls

By far the most comprehensive of the three areas, this section focuses on a call for member states to strengthen macroeconomic policies, business opportunities, and recognize the role of women in sustainable agricultural and rural development. Furthermore, more action is needed to strengthen the role of women in attaining food security, protect women ś employment rights, women ś access to health and education. This section has a heavy focus on the joint responsibility of safe and fair work, and a recognition of women ś agency and a joint responsibility in ensuring this. Furthermore, focusing on women ś access to finance is key, as we know that women are less likely to access micro credit and loans in many countries due to a variety of barriers, including social. Key here is also the recognition and unequal distribution of unpaid care work and women ś unrecognized contribution to on and off-farm production. Globally, women

currently spend 1-3 hours more on unpaid care work compared to their male counterparts, with the hours being higher in certain countries. Unpaid and unrecognized care work and commitments also prevent women from being able to actively pursue paid work, education and professional growth, which in turn deters development as a whole. The CSW58 conclusions call for a review of this and a redistribution of unpaid care work, including breaking down negative stereotypes of men in caregiving roles – recognizing that social barriers also affect men.

Strengthen the collective voice, leadership and decision-making of all rural women and girls

Perhaps most importantly, this section calls for women ś agency across decision making processes; and that women fully participate in the design and implementation of policies and have a meaningful role in decision making processes, including in the management of natural resources, responses to natural disasters and conflict and recovery processes. The importance of women ś leadership is immense, moving away from a dialogue of victimhood to empowerment. In the same vein, the Commission recognizes the contribution of civil society organizations and women human rights defenders and calls upon member states to support their important work. In doing so, a clear signal is sent that the agency of women is indeed a fundamental right, not an afterthought, and that all policies do require women at the table in decision making to be truly sustainable truly attainable.

http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/multimedia/2018/2/infographic-rural-womenhttp://undocs.org/E/CN.6/2018/3http://www.unwomen.org/en/csw/csw62-2018http://undocs.org/en/E/CN.6/2018/L.8


The Commission on the Status of Women, therefore, sets out a robust call to action for member states, emphasizing that rural development is linked to overall sustainable development; and both are directly linked to women ś empowerment and gender equality. One cannot have one without the other; and women ś rights, therefore, and the rights of women in rural areas, do not exist in a vacuum.

So what next? We have the evidence, we have agreed upon conclusions outlining the commitment of the Commission and member states. Now the real work begins. Creating lasting, impactful change requires more than words on paper and the translation of commitment into action.

UN Women ś Response:

Empowering women in rural areas requires much more than political commitment, it requires that we better understand the deeply rooted causes that drive much of the inequality women and girls in rural areas face. The solution, therefore, goes far beyond addressing the immediate agricultural concerns, to addressing the need for a systematic shift in power dynamics that creates a space for women and girls in rural areas to have an equal playing field. Today, that is not the case, and evidence tells us that more than 50% of rural women lack literacy skills, poor rural women are less likely to have access to the internet and technology, and a rural girl is two times more likely to be forced into marriage as a child compared to her counterparts in urban areas5.

UN Women ś response to this is a comprehensive intervention, focusing on removing barriers to inequalities and empowering women and girls, men and boys at the community and national level to become policy influencers and shape the development of their countries.

Specifically, UN Women is promoting income generation and women’s income security by expanding decent work opportunities and access to gender-responsive social protection. Working in partnership with other UN agencies, UN Women provides vocational training and opportunities that enable women to connect to the broader market, coupled with policy revision and reform to ensure a safe and fair working environment for women and

women-led civil society organizations are key to successful implementation. Ensuring that community driven solutions are at the front and center means a greater chance for cross-fertilization of knowledge, and long term success in programming as the ownership remains at the local level.

At the regional level, UN Women partners with key organizations and inter-governmental bodies as an entry point for policy dialogue. This includes, inter-alia, the Union for the Mediterranean, the African Union, the Arab League, etc. Having a space for inter and intra-regional dialogue is imperative to strengthen political buy in and will and to share best practices among member states.

Conclusion:

Agenda 2030 sets forth an ambitious agenda for sustainable development, it calls upon all of us to do our part. As the world is increasingly becoming more urbanized and digitized, the notion of leaving

men. Recognizing the importance of ICT literacy, UN Women has created a platform that allows women to access real-time financial information, mobile payment, and ICT capacity building.

Beyond direct support to women farmers, UN Women recognizes the inter-sectoral nature of gender inequalities, and couples agricultural technology, access to opportunities, with work on food security, nutrition and ending violence against women and girls. One example of empowerment through targeted interventions is in Egypt, where UN Women has worked with Villages Savings and Loans Associations (VSLA). A total of 1,036 VSLA groups in Upper Egypt were established, comprising 18,844 members (92% of which are women). The VSLA methodology is designed to target poor and marginalized women in rural communities and enables them, through participation in the savings and loan groups, to better manage household cash in an efficient and flexible manner, while investing in income generating activities that can secure and stabilize cash income. In addition, VSLA members receive trainings on social empowerment and financial illiteracy. Over the past 3.5 years, weekly savings have increased 3 to 4 times, demonstrating women’s confidence in managing their own capital.

The Importance of Partnerships:

UN Women ś work on empowering rural women and girls would not be feasible without targeted partnerships and the expertise of other UN agencies, civil society and member states to mention but a few. None of UN Women ś work is done in isolation. Capitalizing on the expertise of each partner, UN Women works with agencies such as WFP, FAO, UNDP, UNFPA to mention but a few. Each agency is a leading actor in their area of expertise and niche. UN Women brings a strong UN coordination and normative mandate to the table, which means that existing solutions by other stakeholders, that have been proven to work, can be adapted to have a strong women ś empowerment element. In doing this, the outreach is far greater, and the impact larger. Empowering women in rural areas goes beyond empowering their families alone, ensuring women ś leadership is crucial in making communities more resilient to climate change and increase food security.

In all the countries where UN Women is active,

no one behind becomes all the more important. If we do not invest in rural areas and do not invest in the lives of women and girls who live there, we will not be able to progress, we will not achieve food security, make communities resilient to shock, and be able to bounce back from natural disasters. To increase productivity and efficiency in an environmentally sound manner, we cannot leave half of the population – the very half who often know their communities best – behind. Meaningful engagement of women in all decision making processes, meaningful engagement of women in income generation and productive employment is the key to sustainable development. That was clear during the Commission on the Status of Women, in the hundreds of events organized by member states and civil society on the margins, and that remains clear in the evidence we have, the statistics we gather and the changing environment around us. Agenda 2030 is our collective responsibility, now we must step up to ensure a sustainable, prosperous and equal future for all women and men, boys and girls.

5 UN Women infographic


Palestine is a country located on the Eastern Coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It is considered part of the Levant with an estimated area of 27,000 km2 and it extends to the Jordan Valley. Its population recorded during the mid-2016 is estimated at 4.81 million people in both the West Bank and Gaza Strip. 73.9% of these people live in urban areas, 16.6% in rural areas, while 9.5% of them live in refugee camps.

Palestine has the highest population density in the world, especially in the Gaza Strip. The estimated population density for the year 2016 is of approximately 800 persons/km²; 519 persons/km² in the West Bank and 5.154 persons/km² in the Gaza Strip.

Given the sensitive political situation of Palestine, the percentage of families that are headed by women has increased, amounting to 10.9% of the total of the Palestinian families in 2015, 12.2% in the West Bank and 8.6% in the Gaza Strip. In addition, the percentage of female participation in the labour force is low compared to males. The female participation rate is 19.4%, 17.7% in the West Bank and 22.3% in the Gaza Strip. The female unemployment rate stood at 42.8% against 22.3% for men.

The National strategy for the Agricultural Sector and the Millennium Goals

The implementation of the 17 sustainable development goals for the year 2030 officially started in January 2016. These goals were adopted in September 2015 during a historic international summit; participating countries, including Palestine, will mobilise efforts to eliminate poverty in all its forms over the coming fifteen years. In addition to fighting against inequality and addressing climate change, although it is not legally binding, governments are expected to develop national frameworks to achieve these goals. The

Palestinian Women Empowerment in Rural Areas: 35 years of achievements in collaboration with PARC and rural women

Palestinian national strategy for the agricultural sector includes 9 of the 17 SDGs, especially, those related to the second goal: “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture”.

Agricultural Sector and Rural Woman in Palestine

The agricultural sector in Palestine is considered one of the most important pillars of Palestinian resilience in facing Israeli Occupation. It is a major component of the cultural, social and economic spheres. This sector provides food security and helps reduce unemployment and poverty. It is characterised by diversity in terms of agricultural production as a result of the diversity of climates in Palestine. It shows interesting scope for expansion due to irrigation and crop exports and is able to keep up with the latest technical developments due to the suitability of existing agricultural patterns and the existence of pioneering farmers and producers. The agricultural sector is therefore very effective in creating employment opportunities and in contributing to sustainable development.

Since the 1990s, the agricultural sector has faced several difficulties due to Israeli Occupation under which agricultural lands are attacked and water resources controlled. Due to the siege imposed on the Gaza Strip since 2007, 20% of agricultural land has not been accessible. More than 3,000 fishermen are unable to reach 82% of the marine areas agreed under the Oslo Agreement of 1992. These restrictions cause annual losses in agricultural production and affect development. The losses of the fishing sector are estimated at an annual 80 million US dollars.

Rural Woman

Women play a major role in the comprehensive development process in communities, especially

Athar Hodali for the Agricultural Development Association – PARC

communities that work in agriculture and grazing. Official statistics in Palestine show that women participation in economic activity does not exceed 16% (19% in WB and 9% in GS). Women carry out 87% of the agricultural animal production labour and 54% of agricultural plant production labour, which are a source of income for thousands of Palestinian families in Palestine, in addition to their role in securing the food basket by supplying fruits and vegetables.

Results show that agriculture provides 11.5% of employment opportunities and represents 5.6% of GDP and 21% of total exports. The agricultural sector is considered the main employer of women. About one-sixth of women work in agricultural professions (20%) and,, the services sector is the second largest employer of women. The percentage of women participating in the agricultural sector is 35.4% (32.3% in WB and 46.1% in GS). The percentage of agricultural holdings owned by women is estimated at 6.7% of total agricultural holdings which indicates that large holdings are managed by men. The agricultural sector including forestry and fishing suffers from low wages: the average wage is NIS 65 in the WB and NIS 20 in GS.

Challenges Faced by Rural Women

Rural Palestinian women face different challenges including:

1) tradition, as the Palestinian community is considered a male dominated society; this affects women’s ability to study, work, and freely leave their houses. It is important to note that rural women face different types of gender-based violence;

2) limited access to and control of resources including funding resources, educational institutions, and difficulties in controlling women’s rights due to weak policies.

PARC: 35 Years Working with Rural Women

PARC has been working with rural women for sustainable rural development for the past 35 years. It was initiated by group of agricultural engineers volunteering to support farmers and rural areas as a means of protecting Palestinian lands from confiscation by Israeli occupation, and providing rural families with good income to live with dignity while protecting their lands.

PARC has adopted several approaches including social participation, volunteerism, transparency, accountability, experience sharing, and learning and thus, has become a pioneering institution in Palestinian rural development.

PARC aims to achieve sustainable development by working at all levels of the community, and especially with women. Through its technical agricultural extension programme launched in 1983 which initially targeted men only, PARC discovered that such a programme is also required for women. PARC strives to provide female agricultural engineers and extension workers with proper extension services. Social restrictions and barriers prevent these women from receiving guidance from male agricultural engineers.

Through the agricultural extension programme, PARC found that women carry out 67% of agricultural work, whislt extension services are only provided for men. Based on the dire need to provide women with such services, PARC started targeting female agricultural engineers and providing them with the necessary extension services.

Between 1987 and 1992, during the first Intifada, when roads were closed, Israeli products were boycotted, and a curfew was put in place. PARC focused on a home economics programme targeted


at rural women with the aim of achieving food security for the rural community in general. This situation had positive effects on the resilience of rural communities enabling them to become more dependent on local products and food processing by using the surplus fruits and vegetables to produce frekeh, jams and maftool.

PARC encourage women to adopt a collective approach and adapt to the regulatory framework through working by exploring new different regulatory framework possibilities, especially those with special focus. This comes from PARC’s belief in local community capabilities to effect change through these different types of regulation.

In 1997, PARC was unique in adopting gender-focused programmes to integrate gender into its policies and procedures. Gender is considered one of the main priorities at PARC and women are included in all its programmes and activities. Women are members of the general assembly, the board of directors and the monitoring committee. In the executive team there is no discrimination on the basis of sex in various privileges and women even receive their holiday rights, salaries, and allowances as stipulated in international laws and charters.

Five years later, PARC worked with a qualified team of rural women to design a comprehensive development programme for rural women including the project of establishing women’s clubs to work in privacy due to cultural issues. Then PARC developed its steps toward having specialized centers for women that women clubs established in 1994 in rural areas for its desired need to work in such clubs for its privacy due to cultural issues.

Economic Empowerment Programme

PARC also believes in the importance of empowering women economically, help them develop their skills, integrate them in the production process, provide them with access to financial resources and enabling them to have their own small businesses. A project incubator was set up by PARC aimed at providing women with loans to facilitate the establishment of small income-generating projects to achieve self-sufficiency and allowing a source of income for women’s families.

Credit and Saving Programme

In 2000, PARC introduced a credit and saving programme aimed at empowering women economically and increasing access to income resources by offering a diversity of grant options such as individual and collective grants encouraging women to work in cooperatives.

PARC had helped women gain legal and societal legitimacy and to overcome many of the obstacles they faced. This paved the way for women to claim their civil, economic or political rights.

It is important to present one of the success stories. MadleinKallab, 17 years old challenged traditions by becoming one of the fishers after the illness of her father preventing him from providing his family with a proper income. She proved that women can go beyond restrictions and are able to ride the wave and raft it to achieve their objectives. Madlein, the daughter of the sea, as she is called by the fishermen did not choose to work in the sea but the sea has chosen her. She loved the sea in her childhood during her fishing trips with her father. The difficult circumstances gave birth to a challenge so she learned to ride the sea to get fishing protected from the people’s question, and created between the nets a bridge from the safety bar for her fear of being falling into poverty and destitution.

We would like to conclude this paper with three recommendations:

1Improving the legal environment for rural women, through:a. The organisation of advocacy campaigns to encourage female farmers to claim their right to inherit agricultural land and to consider the inheritance of the Shari’a Court as an executive order, thus facilitating their access to finance and land control. This requires the relevant institutions to be registered in the name of the applicant.

b. The submission of applications to amend Palestinian laws (Agricultural Law and Labour Law) to address women’s issues and comply with the international conventions and agreements signed by the Palestinian Authority.

c. The promotion of the role of women and their integration into unions and specialised agricultural cooperative societies and agricultural committees. They should be enabled to obtain leadership roles.

d. Support of rural women’s participation in public life and the promotion of women’s institutions to support them in all fields (institutions can partially contribute to registration fees and membership of female farmers in cooperatives).

2Improving the land that supports rural women, through: a. Rehabilitation and improvement of agricultural roads, to facilitate farmers’ access to markets.

b. Appropriate support to rural women for land reclamation in border areas, which enables them to register land in their names.

c. The expansion of the process of formal agricultural extension services, both in terms of quantity and type (number of guides and specialisations).

d. The establishment of sufficient and competitive storage and cooling companies to maintain surplus production and improve sales in different seasons.

3Rural women capacity building and economic empowerment by: a. Determining the real needs of rural women in the agricultural sector and formulating plans for rapid intervention as needed and providing them with integrated services.

b. Building their negotiating capacity and providing different choices through networking and promoting collective work to ensure the best prices in selling and buying and looking for new marketing means.

c. Providing specialised technical training and introducing new production techniques for post-harvest operations.

d. Providing administrative and financial training for rural women on the feasibility study of projects and bookkeeping to improve revenues, reduce costs, and increase profits.

e. Providing grants and soft loans for rural women to develop their projects.

References

1. Palestine Statistical Book of 2016, Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.

2. Agricultural Sector Strategy “Resilience and Sustainable Development” 2017-2022, Ministry of Agriculture.

3. “Promoting the Status and Role of Women in the Palestinian Agricultural Sector”, Palestinian Economic Policy Research Institute (MAS)

4. “Fact Sheet on the Rights of Female Farmers”, Karem Nashwan, November 2016


The rural economy in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) is undergoing a rapid social and economic transformation. Exacerbated by climate change, demographic pressure and migration have contributed to the decline of food self-sufficiency and increased incidences of rural poverty. Within this context, women’s role as food producers has increased exponentially, mostly due to the gendered segmentation of the labour market that has resulted in women farmers’ preponderance in rural production systems. Women constitute a significantly smaller share of all landowners than men, despite their active engagement in agriculture. Yet, sustaining women producers is crucial to the survival of small-scale agriculture in the region. This paper explores these challenges and highlights policy and development efforts undertaken to empower rural women in the agricultural and rural sector in North Africa and some efforts deployed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

Background on the situation of rural women in the agriculture sector in the region

Women’s role in agriculture across the Near East and North Africa (NENA) has increased through the effects of various drivers of structural and rural transformation. This trend is especially pronounced in North Africa, where the share of women in agriculture increased from about 30% in 1980 to 43% in 2010. In many countries of the region, agricultural incomes are no longer sufficient to sustain the livelihoods of rural men and women. This has resulted in large waves of male migration from rural areas to cities as well as abroad to work as wage labourers, with women staying behind and mainly practicing subsistence agriculture as they lack other economic opportunities. In this context, the importance of women’s roles as food

FAO’s commitment to empowering rural women in the Near East and North Africa region

producers has increased dramatically, giving rise to what has become known as the feminisation of agriculture in the region. This phenomenon is also underscored by the diversification out of family farming induced by demographic pressures and land fragmentation, the intensification of agriculture (which may increase the need for female labour and decrease the need for male labour), the parallel growth of non-agricultural jobs, and social and cultural norms that affect women’s and men’s mobility and livelihoods6.

Rural women in the region typically work long hours, engaged mainly in non-mechanised, labour-intensive, non-capital intensive activities and have primary responsibility for the husbandry of small animals and ruminants. Despite their important role in agriculture, women own and hold less land than men, i.e. up to 15% and their land is often not as fertile. Women also hold smaller land plots than men, often impeding mechanisation and the development of infrastructure such as irrigation that could improve yields. In addition, the high illiteracy rate of rural women severely limits their agency and this is a major handicap for their active participation in associations and organisations. Land tenure and property rights are usually required as collaterals for loans.

As a consequence, women face several constraints in accessing credit and other financial services needed to build up capital and start an enterprise, and to acquire equipment or the skilled labour required in the production process. This virtually cuts them off from related decision-making processes, support systems, new technologies, rural services and training. Consequently, most often, women farmers remain in the lower segments of the agricultural value chains. In addition, competition over scarce resources, especially water, is high between smallholders and

Szilvia Lehel, Gender, Environment and Development Specialist, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

those with large irrigated farms with better access to pumps and water drills.

Women are also the main caregivers in the household. This affects the amount of time they have available to work in productive activities. Young women have higher probability of being unemployed than young males. In many countries of the region, unemployment rates among young women aged 15–24 approach 50%, compared to 10–20% for males. The main factors hindering female labour force in NENA are weak support systems (such as public transportation and child care services), educational disadvantages and wage discrimination.

The traditional role of women as natural resource managers in rural communities also makes them especially vulnerable to climate change for two reasons. First, these predominantly rain-fed systems are highly reliant on climate for their productivity, which makes them highly exposed. Second, because women face structural barriers and limited diversification options, they have less capacity to adapt to climate change. Their lower adaptive capacity results in exacerbated well-being, impacts on individuals, households, and communities. Nevertheless, rural women play a key role buffering the family against unexpected climatic shocks. Their knowledge of ecosystems, their skills and abilities, social networks and community organisations help communities mitigate hazardous conditions and events and respond effectively to disasters. This further justifies the need for their empowerment..

FAO’s commitment to gender equality in the region

FAO’s recent biennial Regional Conferences have set priorities to reduce gender inequalities in

agriculture and in the rural sector of the Near East and North Africa. Strengthening rural institutions, developing female and youth human capital and promoting a holistic understanding of social dynamics in rural areas were all addressed and discussed with the Ministers present at the 32nd

and 33rd Regional Conferences. The Ministerial Declaration on “Reiterate(s) the importance of inclusive and sustainable development, that fully encompasses agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and livestock and gives equal employment and development to vulnerable people including youth and women, in the framework of promoting peace and stability in the region” is duly reflected in the FAO’s Regional Gender Equality Strategy7 for the Near East adopted in 2017 and underscored by a wide range of interventions described below.

Specific areas of action: Gender and water governance

Over half of the region’s rural poor population live in water-scarce countries and do not have access to safe and reliable supplies of water for productive and domestic use. Women are seriously affected by water scarcity due to their role in managing both domestic and productive water use. Under the conditions of climate change and growing resource scarcity in the region, FAO’s Water Scarcity Initiative aims to combine the triple objectives of increasing agriculture productivity, efficient use of water and income diversification for small farmers and rural women. Gender dimensions focus on the adoption of gender-sensitive water efficiency and productivity frameworks and the promotion of on-farm technologies and incentive frameworks to promote the uptake of on-farm good practices.

Through this initiative, FAO promotes legal and regulatory frameworks as well as institutional arrangements that enable the integration of

6 http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/bodies/NERC_34/NERC_34_INF/MW127_INF_8/MW127_NERC_18_INF_8_en.pdf 7 http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7116e.pdf

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/bodies/NERC_34/NERC_34_INF/MW127_INF_8/MW127_NERC_18_INF_8_en.pdfhttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i7116e.pdf


gender-sensitive approaches to water resource management and decision-making at national and local levels. Intersectoral multi-disciplinary analyses of transboundary water governance, encompassing socio-economic and gender issues have also been conducted in a number of countries of the region (Morocco, Tunisia and Jordan), enabling future water resource management strategies that have the potential to be truly sustainable and inclusive.

Small-Scale family farming and gender-sensitive value-chains

This Initiative covers three main components:

a) Evidence-based policy and strategies to improve and enhance the small-scale agricultural sector and the livelihoods of those involved;

b) Sustainable improvement of small-scale agriculture productivity, aimed at including youth in the agricultural sector; and

c) Institutional strengthening and empowerment of smallholders, through support for enabling environments for economically viable and sustainable small-scale agriculture.

Gender-sensitive interventions of the initiative focus on priority agro-food value chains in the region through gender-sensitive agro-food value chain assessments, understanding of the major constraints, barriers and opportunities for women and assisting governments in building an institutional and policy environment that promotes decent work for rural and migrant women and men, addressing gender discrimination, occupational health and safety, and minimum wages in particular. Country-specific legal and policy reforms are also encouraged to ensure equitable land laws and guarantee women’s right to land.

Putting empowerment into action in Tunisia – two complementary initiatives

A project under the umbrella of the FAO’s Multipartner Programme Support Mechanism (FMM) implemented in Tunisia drives significant changes for the benefits of women clam fishers and serves as an entry point for other groups along the Tunisian coast. Beneficiary women associations and cooperatives received training in business management, and post-harvest and processing good practices, resulting in their economic and social

empowerment. The project aims to put the FAO’s gender equality objectives into practice by making clam fishers aware of their rights and getting them involved in decision-making process, developing their entrepreneurship skills, engaging them in protecting biodiversity and responsible fisheries and providing opportunities for diversification of their outlets and alternative income sources.

Since 2015, the CIHEAM and FAO have established a successful strategic partnership to strengthen the livelihoods of rural communities in the Mediterranean region, as part of efforts undertaken to promote food and nutrition security, rural development and improved management of scarce water resources for agriculture. The CIHEAM Bari and FAO have also a long-standing collaboration encompassing a wide range of activities, including capacity enhancement and assistance to governments with policies and programmes tailored to empower small-scale farmers and fishers, improve their livelihood opportunities and resilience and ensure equal opportunities for men and women.

In 2017, the CIHEAM Bari and the FAO started to work together to improve the livelihoods of women in three coastal communities in southern Tunisia, namely Jderia, Ajim and El Grine. This new partnership was designed to address women’s multifaceted challenges by providing financial resources through microcredit overseen by a Tunisian microfinance institution, vocational and financial literacy training, identifying alternative income-generation activities, and required infrastructure and marketing opportunities. A thorough assessment of capacity needs was conducted to analyse the complex livelihood situation of women clam collectors and design training activities, coaching and mentoring, and micro-projects. Training activities focused on building group cohesion, self-confidence and unlocking women’s entrepreneurial potential. In addition, representatives of three women’s groups will participate in a study tour to Italy and attend various training activities organised at IAM BARI’s Tricase centre on seafood processing, pasteurisation and HACCCP standards, and learn from the experience of Italian private companies working with small-scale fisheries. Women beneficiaries from the three communities have appreciated the “real life skills, group cohesion and solidarity” provided by the initiative through training and mentoring, as well as the opportunity to unlock their entrepreneurial spirit and stand on their own feet”.

http://www.fao.org/in-action/women-in-agrifood-value-chains/fao-project-supports-women-clam-collectors-in-tunisia/en/

http://www.iamb.it/uploads/attachments/366/CIHEAM-FAO_Project_in_Tunisia.pdf

The need for better statistical data on women’s participation in the rural sector

There is limited accurate, detailed and up-to-date statistical data on the involvement of women in the agricultural sector in this region, including statistical information on women’s resources and access to assets. In addition, agricultural statistics tend to under-represent, or even omit variables that are essential to a clear understanding of rural sector activities and rural development mainly because this work is unpaid and not considered productive. This severely limits policymakers and practitioners’ ability to grasp the real situation in rural economies which, in turn, limits their potential to strengthen those economies.

The demand for specific data and indicators incorporating a gender perspective has risen in the region in recent years. The general awareness of the need for a gender perspective in development policy formulation, and of the corresponding need for pertinent statistics, is now well established, and the demand from member states to work on this has come from the highest levels. Closing the information gap on gender and agriculture will increase the ability of governments and development partners to design and scale up agricultural innovations that reduce gender inequality on the ground and contribute more effectively to poverty reduction, improved food security, nutrition and environmentally sustainable livelihoods.

FAO continues to support member countries to take stock of their current capacity for generating and analysing sex-disaggregated data and related indicators and will support two workshops on the use of sex-disaggregated data for capacity building and policy formulation. In addition, FAO, as a custodian UN agency of Target 5.a of SDG 5 addressing issues of access to ownership and control over agricultural land, leads an extensive process for the implementation of the Voluntary Guidelines for the governance of tenure for land and other gender-responsive development interventions.

The way forward for the empowerment of women in the region

It is clear that more focused and concerted efforts are needed by all stakeholders present in the southern Mediterranean region to ensure that rural institutions serve both women and men.

This will require strong and inclusive rural institutions such as producer organisations that are essential for poverty reduction and economic development that benefits small-scale women farmers. Both public and private service providers operating in rural areas, including those offering extension, animal health or financial services will need to better consider the specific needs of rural women for the benefit of the entire communities. FAO is committed to increasing support for mechanisms that build social capital with female entrepreneurs such as cooperatives and rural women’s business associations to access wider markets and increase the value of their products and reinforce technical assistance provided to promote gender-sensitive agricultural extension services. It is important that research institutions focus more on agriculture practices that are climate-smart and labour-saving technologies that can benefit women farmers.

FAO shares the commitment for the need to integrate agricultural initiatives into a broader development vision for the sector that includes developing the potentials of smallholders alongside large-scale commercial agriculture and promotes gender-responsive interventions for a prosperous and stable future for the region.

http://www.fao.org/in-action/women-in-agrifood-value-chains/fao-project-supports-women-clam-collectohttp://www.fao.org/in-action/women-in-agrifood-value-chains/fao-project-supports-women-clam-collectohttp://www.fao.org/in-action/women-in-agrifood-value-chains/fao-project-supports-women-clam-collectohttp://www.iamb.it/uploads/attachments/366/CIHEAM-FAO_Project_in_Tunisia.pdfhttp://www.iamb.it/uploads/attachments/366/CIHEAM-FAO_Project_in_Tunisia.pdf


Women from rural and agricultural areas in Bulgaria are generally in a disadvantaged position. They are faced with big challenges. This paper seeks to revisit some of these issues by listening to the voices of a number of women from rural areas in Bulgaria, in order to make an assessment of the current position of women in the rural labour market and society. The analysis will be based on the data collected from a number of local informants from diverse age-groups and regions of Bulgaria. Possible solutions for the continued emancipation of women and the society in rural areas are considered.

The European Dimension

The rural areas of the EU are particularly affected by population ageing, low population density and, in some countries like Bulgaria, depopulation. Demographic change, emigration and a general decrease in the proportion of women in the population of many rural areas make it more difficult to ensure an adequate local provision of goods and essential everyday services, basic medical treatment and care, pre-school education, schooling and vocational and academic education and further training or adequate cultural and leisure activities. About 42% of the 26.7 million people working regularly in agriculture in the European Union are women and at least one holding in five (around 29%) is managed by a woman. The significant contribution made by women to local and community development is inadequately reflected in their participation in the relevant decision-making processes (European Parliament, 2011).

The Situation in Bulgaria

The role of agriculture in the Bulgarian economy is important. There are approximately 2.9 million people living in rural areas in Bulgaria and approximately half are women. The share of agricultural labour force amounts to 20% and

Working against the grain: Voices of women from rural areas in Bulgaria

agricultural production accounts for 16% of the total production. The main employment opportunities for women in rural areas are in agriculture and they work full-time, part-time and seasonally in cooperatives and private farms. Privatisation has posed a lot of problems to small farms.

According to Fidanska (2009) the major problems faced by rural women in Bulgaria include unemployment; declining or low incomes; economic problems generated by social changes; the heavy workload both in the framework of paid employment and at home; lack of free time and inequality in free time when compared to men; low levels of education; and depopulation in rural areas, especially the migration of young rural women.

Abadjieva (2008) claimed that the reform process in Bulgaria following the transition to democracy seriously affected rural areas. The main problems concern the rural population on the one hand, and the rural economy on the other. These issues include a low birth rate, negative natural increase, higher mortality rate, low educational status, higher unemployment rate and long-term unemployment, deteriorating infrastructure, depopulation, especially due to the emigration of young people caused by lack of employment. The high long-term unemployment rate is explained by the lack of employment opportunities in rural areas and the deteriorating quality of the labour force. Entrepreneurs encounter difficulties in finding qualified labour force. The negative impact of urbanisation is multifaceted. In a number of areas, the demographic, economic and social consequences are quite evident. More significant in the border regions (especially the north-west and south-east borders), the depopulation process in villages has led to serious consequences for Bulgaria’s economic development. The process of depopulation persists because of the deteriorated social and economic conditions.

Petya Stavreva, President, United Agrarians, Sofia, Bulgaria, Former Member of the European Parliament

Rural poverty is generally associated with inequality and poor access to resources, services and markets. In 2017 the unemployment rate in rural areas was 8.8% compared to 4.7% in urban areas (National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria, Statistic Book for 2007). Employment services for rural people are lacking. This puts additional burdens on rural women. Households headed by women are usually very poor.

The interviews

The main aim of the study is to give a voice to women in rural areas in Bulgaria. It was therefore decided to collect ethnographical data through semi-structured interviews with seven women from different rural areas in Bulgaria.

In order to have as wide a representation as possible, the study adopted a purposeful sampling procedure whereby these seven women were selected to represent different age groups, occupations and geographical locations. They were from different regions of Bulgaria - 3 from the North and 4 from the South. The youngest woman interviewed is a 20-year-old university student from a village. The oldest is an 80-year old woman from a small town in a rural community.

Table 1 The profile of the participants

The women who were interviewed have the following profile:

The ages of the women ranged from 20 to 80 years as shown in Table 1 above. All of them form part of the active civil society in the rural areas and they are in a position to describe accurately the current situation of women in small rural settlements in Bulgaria. Two of the women have graduated from high school, one is currently a student, and four of the women have a university degree: three of them have a master’s degree and one has a medical doctorate. All of them consider education as very important. Five of them are married. In the course of the interviews, three of the women reported that their monthly earnings are below the country’s minimum wage.

The women were asked about: the difficulties and opportunities they encountered as women living in a rural area; what they would like to change in the development of rural areas to provide women with better career opportunities; and their involvement in regional, national and European initiatives. The women were also asked whether they would advise their children to continue living and working in their home village or town.

Occupation Age in years Location

1 University student 20 Northern village

2 Mayor 35 Southern village

3 Worker in a small Cultural Centre 38 Southern small town

4 Farmer/Physical Education teacher 40 Northern village

5 Medical doctor 50 Southern village

6 Retired teacher 65 Southern village

7 Retired journalist and poet 80 Northern small town


Participation in regional, national and European initiatives

Six of the women had participated in some regional initiatives and training programmes. One woman had not participated in any way. Two had participated in training programmes specifically intended for women from the rural areas. One woman is involved in a cultural exchange programme involving several European countries.

Advice to their offspring

The last question of the interview was about whether they would recommend their children and relatives to continue living and working in their village. Four women would recommend this only if the infrastructure was improved and there were increased opportunities for employment in their villages in the near future. One woman would like her children to have a better life in the city. Another woman felt that life in a village is extremely difficult and she wants her children to be successful in a big city or in another country. The youngest woman said that she has plans to move to a bigger city and to live and work there.

Conclusions

Rural women from different age groups have the same understanding of the required changes in rural development policies. This study confirms the results of previous studies stipulating that women feel they occupy a generally disadvantaged position in agriculture and in rural areas in Bulgaria. Despite the significant progress that Bulgaria is making in the development of rural areas, and especially in involving women as an active force in the labour market, a number of critical issues still persist. The women identified low labour costs, the lack of permanent jobs, depopulation, underdeveloped infrastructure and the limited opportunities for health care and a good quality education in villages as major problems. The difficult access to European programmes for projects in villages is another persisting problem. There is still a lack of cultural and entertainment activities such as theatre performances and concerts. The women interview put forward proposals such as investment and new employment opportunities to improve the position of women in rural areas. They also referred to the need for a specific European programme to finance exclusively developmental activities in the villages.

The younger women paid more attention to the limited education and career opportunities. The older women tended to focus more on the need for better infrastructure, the preservation of rural traditions and the revival and promotion of local initiatives. These women are aware of the limited opportunities available in villages and would therefore like their children to have better life and career prospects in the cities.

They believe that rural development policies at national and European levels are not sufficiently effective. For them, access to financial resources remains very limited. They see huge potential in the development of alternative activities in villages, including rural tourism and the revival of traditional festivals and initiatives.

Women aspire for better and stronger rural communities as they recognise that the condition of women can only improve through better conditions for their whole society. They aspire for sustainable development with tangible results.

Europe is moving at several speeds. Rural areas are still lagging behind cities in terms of earnings, career opportunities and infrastructure. At the same time, they have huge development potential as an alternative to living under stress, and suffering pollution and traffic in the city. Active women in villages can be the engine for the revival of the rural areas.

References:

Abadjieva, Lilia (2008) Poverty and Social Exclusion in Rural Areas. Country Report for Bulgaria. European Communities, Brussels.

Fidanska, Bozhura (2009) The Position of Women in the Rural Labour Market in Bulgaria - Many Challenges and Some Solutions in Economics and Rural Development, Volume 5, Number 2. Alexandro StulginskioUniversitates.

National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria, Statistic Book for 2007. National Statistical Institute, Sofia.

The Role of Women in Agriculture and Rural Areas (2011) Report by the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development, European Parliament.

Difficulties encountered

With regards to difficulties faced by women living in the rural areas, all of them pointed out that in the villages there are usually no well-paid and permanent job opportunities available. Four of the women observed that when compared to cities, villages have very poor public transport systems. Three women also referred to the lack of a pharmacy and permanent medical services in villages. Four of them indicated that in rural areas, opportunities offering a good quality education for their children are very limited. Two of them said that there are no schools in their villages, so their children have to travel to the city.

The lack of cultural events and entertainment were mentioned by five women. Three women pointed out that the main problems include low-paid jobs, unemployment, depopulation and increased migration to the cities. For the youngest participant, the major problem is the very limited opportunities for her professional development and career progression. One participant who owns a farm referred to the difficult access to European programmes for rural projects as a major problem. She said that being a woman-farmer and living in a village “is a great challenge and a struggle for survival”.

One of the women who is a retired teacher mentions the absence of a bookstore among the difficulties of village life. In order to procure books and textbooks they have to travel to neighbouring cities. Another concern is that there is no museum to preserve the rich past of the village and the unique local traditions and customs.

“I love my village and I am trying to work for it to survive and to revive. Here are my roots, my

identity, my world…” (Retired teacher from a Southern village)

Opportunities

When asked about the opportunities for women living in a village or a small town, all the seven respondents replied that these are very limited. Four of the women responded that the clean air and the good food produced in the home gardens are some of the advantages. Two women pointed out the less stressful life, when compared to cities, and also the opportunities for some tourist activities.

Changes for better opportunities

The question about things to change in rural areas to provide women with better career opportunities was the most popular. Each woman put forward some suggestions aimed at improving the situation in villages and small towns.

Two of the women referred to the need for new regional programmes for small settlements. Five women responded that more European projects involving women from the rural areas are needed. The mayor of a southern village proposed the creation of a new European programme to finance activities which strengthen the social and economic fabric of rural communities. She pointed out that currently, according to the criteria of the European programme for rural development, cities that are municipal centres receive most of the funding, and there is hardly anything left for villages. Four women put forward the need to attract new investments in villages and the creation of new job opportunities. The young university student advocated modernisation through increased digitalisation of the villages.

“We live at a time of modernisation. I would like digitalisation to also reach my village.”

(University Student from a northern village)

Other recommendations were related to the restoration of schools in all villages and lower tax incentives for companies that open branches in rural areas. Three women emphasised the need to revive traditions and promote rural and alternative tourism such as those pertaining to cultural and historical heritage, ethnography and traditional music, crafts and cuisine. One woman proposed the national authority and European programme financing of local initiatives and regional festivals that depict the authentic spirit of each village to attract more tourists. Five women asked for more investment in rural road infrastructure. One woman appealed for the reduction of bureaucracy in the process of applying for European projects. Another participant proposed the setting up of a special fund to provide financial credits for initiatives by young people in the villages and the small towns.

“I would like to recommend the people who lead Bulgaria and Europe to support the revival of the villages because I believe they have a big

potential for development.” (Medical doctor from a Southern village)


In 2015, Europe faced an unprecedented influx of migrants from the Middle-East, Maghreb, Sub-Saharan regions and the greater Horn of Africa. While securitized border responses were quickly cobbled together, less attention has been paid to the underlying drivers of these migratory flows, among them climate change and conflicts, and their complex secondary effects in migrants’ countries of origin. In fact, Europe is a major destination for mixed migration flows through and from North Africa, due mainly to its proximity, historic and linguistic links, real and perceived economic and employment opportunities, existing networks, and established asylum systems. Increasingly restrictive immigration regimes and border management in Europe, combined with high migration pressures in the region and real labor market demands in Europe, have contributed to the rise in irregular migration (ESCWA, IMO, 2015)

Nationalities of irregular migrants recorded for the period January 2017 - March 2018 on the Central Mediterranean Route of migration included Nigerians (15,6%), Guineans (8,3%) and Ivoirians (8,2%) followed by citizens from other sub-Saharan countries such as Mali and Senegal. Together, those countries make up more than 50% of arrivals in Italy for the same period. Other migrants from the Sahara caught up in the flows through the Western Mediterranean Route are motivated by a mix of humanitarian and economic concerns, especially with the increasing climate vulnerability witnessed in their countries of origin. The number of migrants from North African countries also considered countries of origin of migration to Europe has been on the decrease since 2015; North African migrants represented only 15% of the migration flows to Europe in 2017.

From a gender perspective, migration flow through the Eastern Mediterranean Route seems to be more gendered (22% women and 37% children) than the central route (11% women and 15% children), and

Gender and climate induced migrations in the Mediterranean Region

the western route (8% women and 9% children). This is due to the nature of displacements from conflict affected countries to Turkey and Europe involving families rather than individuals and the high risks related to sea arrivals on the Western and Central Mediterranean Routes for women and children compared to land arrivals through the Eastern Mediterranean Route. New trends of irregular migrant flows to Europe and some extreme weather events in the same periods clearly show that arrivals from some countries of origin to Europe are those of climate migrants.

Climate migrants forced to flee because of loss of livelihood and habitat will be unlikely to meet the legal definition of refugee and, therefore, will become irregular migrants. Most migration occurring from climate change is likely to be internal, with the affected population seeking more habitable locations with greater economic opportunities within their own countries. A portion will undoubtedly be international, however. Depending on the specific situation, climate migrants will resemble labor migrants, seeking better livelihood opportunities in a new location, or they may resemble refugees and internally displaced persons who have fled situations beyond their individual control (F. Martin, 2010).

Gender is a determining factor of climate migrants’ needs and priorities, and women, who suffer the double injustice of climate vulnerability and gender inequality, are disproportionally affected by climate change because they tend to be on average poorer, less educated, have a lower health status, and have limited direct access to or ownership of natural resources. Both the process (actual movements) and the outcomes (rural-rural or rural-urban migration, out-migration) of climate induced migration are also likely to be highly gendered (Shindarkar, 2012). Although the link between the gendered dimensions of climate induced migration is still under investigation,

Monia Braham, International Expert in Sustainable Development Policies

gender remains fundamental in the decision-making process of migration since the assigned roles to men and women in family, community and society are also a defining feature of vulnerability to climate change.

In this contribution, the interaction between gender, migrations and climate change, as well as the way forward for a proactive protection of climate migrants by the countries of origin, transit and destination through the Mediterranean routes will be explored. Those concerns are also reflected in the progress made towards integrating gender into climate negotiations, climate planning and climate action, as demonstrated by the efforts for the adoption and implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Lima Work Programme on Gender (2014, FCCC/CP/2014/10/Add.3, Decision 18/CP.20) and the gender equality considerations in the recent UNFCCC Paris Agreement (2015, UNFCCC/CP/2015/L.9/ Rev.1).

Yet, the key challenge remains a systematic integration of gender equality and women’s empowerment strategies in climate change responses at the local, national and international levels. This signifies a paradigm shift that puts gender concerns and the voice and agency of women, girls, men and boys, at the center of adaptation, mitigation, and disaster risk management efforts

(UNWOMEN, 2016). This contribution attempted to identify the legal and policy lessons learned on climate induced migrations to, across and within the Mediterranean region taking into account the double injustice of gender inequality and climate vulnerability as suffered by women in their countries of origin. The key findings of this analysis are also intended to shed light on the need for advocacy on a Regional Protection Agenda of Climate Migrants for the preparations to Katowice COP 24 at the end of 2018.

Migration and the double injustice of gender inequality and climate vulnerability

The understanding of migratory patterns in the Mediterranean and beyond is sin qua non to the identification of climate change as a push factor of the international migration flows to North African countries as they involve several points of transit to Europe and from these countries, depicted also as countries of origin of thousands of migrants to Europe annually. The migratory flows on the different routes of the Mediterranean region encompass women and children. Also, women, children and elderly persons left behind by men in the countries of origin should be considered a full part of the investigation in order to provide a comprehensive reading on the gendered dimensions of migration flows throughout the three Mediterranean routes.

International migration flows from climate change hotspots in sub-Saharan countries and the Horn of Africa region to the Mediterranean are attributed to several natural hazards and casualties: desertification, rising sea levels, negative agriculture change and disasters. Migration streams within the borders of Mediterranean Arab Countries that are also countries of origin of thousands of climate migrants to Europe need to be highlighted. Internally displaced persons


because of climate change impacts on ecosystems and livelihoods in rural areas of Syria, in the Saiess region in Morrocco and in Bhira of the Nile Delta in Egypt should be considered on the same footing as international migrants for their protection regardless of the regular or irregular nature of the migratory pattern.

In sub-Saharan Africa, changed patterns of rainfall would have particularly serious impacts on food security (Brown, 2008). New patterns and other intense hydrological cycles mean that extreme weather events such as droughts, storms and floods are expected to become increasingly frequent and severe. Serious impacts on agriculture are predicted by the IPCC which is largely rain-fed in Sub-Saharan countries: yields from rain-fed agriculture could fall by up to 50 per cent by 2020. Agricultural production, including access to food, in many African countries is projected to be severely compromised by climate variability and change” (IPCC, 2007).

The regional displacement figure from Sub-Saharan Africa needs to be complemented by the climate induced migration from other regions, notably the Horn of Africa. Migration flows from January 2017 to March 2018 included individuals from Somalia, Eritrea, and Sudan. Apparently, the rapid onset of climate change events such as extreme weather events and disasters, as registered the same period, are the root causes of those migration flows to the Mediterranean. Indeed, figures about migrants from Eastern African countries (Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia in addition to Sudan) are numerically 18,702 migrants during 2017 and surpassed largely those

Documents

Watch Letter N°40 · agricole, du développement rural, de la formation et de la recherche depuis 1962, est engagé depuis plusieurs années dans l’accompagnement et l’inclusion