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Strategies for success with science notebooksin the primary grades

any challenges face primary teachers as they consider using notebooks with youngscientists. "How do I start?" "What can I expect from students this young?"

"Are they really capable of writing and recording data?'1 "How do 1 assesstheir learning? " Armed with a few topical and organizational strategies, primary

grade teachers can successfully introduce their young scientists to science notebooks. Iknow-—l did it myself! I developed creative and meaningful science notebook experiencesfor my second-grade students. The following overview of notebook methods offers a menuof options. Choose and customize what works for your classroom to provide students withthe background and skills necessary to inquire, observe, test, and report.

Organizational. Strategies ...............Notebook Structure

The first step is to determine what the science notebook will look like. I prefer to use three-ring binders for flexibility because students can add and move both teacher-created materi-als and workbook pages as needed. I have found that using bound notebooks requires the

, -4;^ students to glue or staple in extra pages or tear out mistakes, leading to14 n it t T»wi 1 1 » til Kts f* m»a Mi

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Vi to the back of the binder, allowing them to create a chronology of their",/ science experiences and rearrange pages when necessary. At the end of)) the year, I spiral-bind the pages for each child to keep as a record of the,/ science they have learned.

November 2010 29

Other important early steps are to set goals to be metthrough the notebook activities and plan how the results willbe assessed. By first identifying instructional goals, we candevelop meaningful notebook experiences tied to desired out-comes. The most important goals I set for my students involvecontent and organization. These two goals are closely aligned.I expect each student to include all the content required foreach lesson; their name, the date, and the specifics needed forthe current activity (e.g., focus question, drawing, or what-ever the day's lesson demands). I also require them to keeptheir pages in order in the binders and put sticky notes or flagsat the beginning of each activity for easy reference. Whenstudents participate in activities and record their results andconclusions in an organized fashion, it is easier to check formeaningful understanding and determine whether there is aneed foraconceptto berevisited. Young scientists also experi-ence how good organization makes it easy for them to locatetheir data for later use. For example, when recording andcomparing monthly rainfall amounts throughout the year,students can compare totals at the end of they ear by creatinga graph. They see firsthand how keeping their data organizedmakes the comparison possible. This organizational aspect isalso in play when students make predictions and follow upwith procedures, results, and conclusions.

Scaffolding

In the beginning, students feel more confident with aguide, so I scaffold their entries for the first few months,At this time of the year, I'm more interested in cultivat-ing students' observation skills than in their develop-mental ability to write long or complex sentences. Earlyscaffolding helps students develop skills in recordingobservations. Sentence structures provided by scaffold-ing also help English language learners and students withspecial needs formulate their responses by giving them apattern to follow.

I often start the school year with the life cycle of a mon-arch butterfly using a fill-in-the-blank approach for thefirst few entries. For example, the worksheets I create askthe students to provide detailed observations and writtendescriptions and drawings. This raises their awareness ofthese aspects of their experiences and allows them to spendmore time on observations and to communicate accuratelythrough writing, measuring, and drawing (Figure 1). Overthe course of a few weeks, the children are given more op-portunity to describe and record their observations. Aftergroup observations and discussion, we list keywords on theboard, encouraging the children to master science termsand incorporate them into their writing.

Another strategy I use is incorporating word banks(including cognates) and graphic organizers into the be-ginning of the lesson. As the unit and year progresses, thestudents write more independently about their experienceswithless scaffolding. Later worksheets feature open-ended

questions and direct the students to create their own draw-ings, graphs, and data records.

Drawing, Dating, and Labeling

Young scientists need to practice the critical skills of draw-ing and labeling scientific subjects. It's important to workclosely with students to help them understand that sciencenotebooks are a time for accuracy, not inventiveness. Stu-dents must date all of their work and draw accurate pictureswith labels. A larva that is 1 cm should be represented andlabeled as 1 cm (Figure 2). Initially, I model the process withthem. For example, I show them how to measure a larva,draw a larva of the correct size, draw an arrow to the larva,and record the measurement at the arrow. The studentscopy my model as a notebook entry. Later, they learn todraw what they observe and record important data abouttheir observations independently. They get accustomedto adding specific dates, names, and measurements. Withpractice and guidance, they begin to observe, report, andstrive for scientific accuracy, For students who are unableto draw accurate detailed illustrations, support can be givenwith precut objects or templates. In some cases, I hold theruler for the student and let them measure and then drawtheir subject with my help.

Figure 1.,Aa initidi'fnoteJDbok.entry'shdwing'"fill-in-the-blank,style scaffolding.

I predict they will become!, c'-Pr' _because _i_"_.

30 Science and Children

A Menu of Options

Table of Contents and Glossary

It's easy to overlook the importance of organizational com-ponents, such as the table of contents and glossary, butboth elements enhance cross-curriculum learning and saveclassroom time. With regards to the table of contents, havestudents create it as they proceed through each assignmentor save that task for later in the school year. A third optionis to have students create their table of contents during alanguage arts period. Another path would be for teach-ers to create strips with activity titles and space to recordthe page numbers. The students in turn glue the strip intotheir table of contents and filTin the page numbers.

A glossary is also an important element of an active sci-ence notebook. It's essential for students to record sciencevocabulary as it is uncovered in lessons and refer back tothe words in an organized manner. I put the key vocabularyterms on a sentence strip prior to teaching a science activity.During the activity, as the students experience these newconcepts, we post the writtenterms on the board. Through-out the activity, we develop the meaning of the new termsin group discussions, The children then write definitions intheir own words and post the glossary terms at the back oftheir notebooks. Composing their own definitions after thehands-on experience encourages better understanding andretention of the newly introduced vocabulary. By the end ofthe school year, each student should have a usable glossaryin their notebooks. These standard elements of publishedbooks tend to give the students a sense that their sciencenotebooks are important, useful, and real.

Topical StrategiesFocus Questions

Before students begin a science experience, it's importantfor them to focus on a question. First we talk together asa group to develop a focus question. A good focus ques-tion narrows the scientific experience into a search for aspecific set of conclusions. With a tight focus, studentscan practice collecting and sorting data without beingoverwhelmed by irrelevant details. At this age, guidedby their teacher, students develop a focus question suchas, "What do you notice about the monarch butterfly lifecycle?" Then the young scientists record the focus ques-tion in their notebooks to guide their work.

It's critical to systematically talk through the focusquestion in a debriefing session after all science activi-ties. This is when I work with the class to reflect on theirobservations, ideas, and experiences and determine a wellthought-out response to the focus question. This vital taskdevelops students' understanding of the focus questionand ability to relate that to both the science experienceand their conclusions.

The responses to focus questions can often be enhancedwith accurate pictorial representations of the results. For

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A monarch larva crawls along a plant stem.

November 2010 31

Figure 3.A focus question, answer,detailed drawing. _

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A monarch butterfly rests ona student's arm. Monarchchrysalis in the classroom.

example, one focus question I use from the Full OptionScience Systems (FO SS) Balance and Motion unit is "Whatis the trick to balancing an object on its point?" After thehands-on activity, the students draw a model representingtheir actual results (Figure 3). They can then refer to theirdrawing to answer the focus question. Teaching childrento focus on a question helps them succeed as they progressthrough the grades and are challenged to hypothesize, infer,and generate their own investigable science questions.

Making Predictions

Another essential skill for young scientists to develop ismaking predictions that relate to the focus questions andreveal key concepts. Predictions ask students to think abouttheir prior knowledge and experiences and formulate intheir own minds what they think will happen. Often theymake a quick prediction without much thought, but thestudents' predictions should be followed by "because..."During the monarch butterfly experience, for example, astudent made the following prediction after observing thetiny eggs: "I predict the eggs will hatch into aphids becausethey are so small." When because is added to the sciencewriting it forces the students to give rationale to their pre-dictions (even when incorrect), and the predictions becomemore meaningful. I have my students write their predic-tions in their notebooks using the "because..." structure atthe beginning of science lessons. This gets them thinkingabout their prior knowledge of the topic and develops theirability to make predictions. After the activities we go backto our notebooks as a group and discuss our predictions andhow they compare to the results we observed.

/ Wonder...

We have all experienced the curious minds of primary stu-dents as they ask endless questions. "How big will the cater-pillar get?" "How many paper clips will the magnet hold?""What will the seeds become?" We should capitalize ontheir curiosity. "I wonder..." questions allow young scien-tists to take ownership of their work, explore the discoveryprocess, and develop their inquiry skills. Once they haveposed their questions and recorded them, they've devel-oped a personal investment and they want to know more.

Calendars and Graphs

As our young scientists develop their observation skillsand learn to accurately record data, they become ready towork more deeply with their information. Using graphs,charts, and calendars, students plot recorded dates anduse their data to answer focus questions, "I wonder"questions, and teacher-asked questions. As an example,after the monarch butterflies hatch in my classroom, stu-dents use their science notebooks to find the dates anddata they recorded about the different stages of the lifecycle (Figure 4, p. 33). They plot the data on a calendar


A Menu of Options

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2 Mark these dates on your calendar. Label what happened

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and use their calendars to answer questions about thelength of each step of the life cycle.

Another class experience is collecting and recordingrainfall. We use a class rain gauge to collect data about rain-fall amounts. The children use this information to createtheir own rainfall centimeter rulers and record the amount.They plot the rainfall amounts that occurred throughoutthe year on a student-made graph. When students creategraphs, charts, and calendars from the data they collect intheir science notebooks, it deepens their understanding ofscience and the process scientists routinely follow.

Start Small, Think BigScience notebooks give vivid insight into students' learningand allow us to review firsthand their procedures, processes,results, and conclusions. At the end of each science experi-ence, revisit the instructional goals and assess the outcomebased on the students' notebooks. If the goal is accuracy inscientific drawings, one has immediate access to their pic-tures to measure their progress. A teacher can get a senseof their improvement in language skills from their writtenentries. From their writings and drawings we can shape ourfurther instruction to ensure that student understanding iscorrect. The possibilities for detailed formative assessmentsfrom science notebook results are limitless.

Science notebooks are a comprehensive way to foster inter-est in learning, progress students in all auricular areas, andassess their multifaceted development. The question remain-ing is how we, as primary - grade teachers, can find the time todevelop and use an active science notebook. Start small. Es-

' tablisha few goals forthe students and their notebooks. Lookfor interdisciplinary options and take a few steps forward. It'sa worthy endeavorto includethe use of science notebooks inany primary classroom at whatever level possible, so use andadapt these organizational strategies to customrze a scienceadventure for your young scientists! •

Valerie Joyner ([email protected]) is a second-grade teacher at McNear School in Petaluma, California.

Connecting to the StandardsThis article relates to tKe following National ScienceEducation Standards (NRC 1996):

Content Standards'Grades K-4Standard A: Science as inquiry

• Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiryNational Research Counc'ij (NRC). 1996. Nationalscience education standards. Washington, DC:National Academies Press.

November 2010 33

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tudent-generated graphics provideopportunities for students to expressthemselves at eveiy stage^ofaninvestigation.

By James Minogue, Eric Wiebe,Lauren Madden, John Bedward,

and Mike Carter

Imagine a second-grade student investigat-

ing how water moves through sand and clay

by illustrating the microscopic interaction

of the medium's varying grain sizes and

shapes. Envision a fourth-grade student grasp-angthe notion of attractive and repulsive forces

iby visualising and drawing the invisible mag-

inetic fields. Consider a fifth grader examin-

ing friction by representing the interactions

(between a vehicle's tire and the surface on which it is

<^3*Z&

moving. In these cases, graphics don't replace the use

•of written and oral expression; they complement and

enhance other modes of communication.

A common mode

of communication in the el-ementary classroom is the science note-

book. In this article we outline the ways in which

"graphically enhanced science notebooks" can help

engage students in complete and robust inquiry.Central to this approach is deliberate attention to

the efficient and effective use of student-generated

graphics as record keeping, meaning-making, andcommunication tools.

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The Graphically Enhanced NotebookDuring investigations, it may be appropriate for studentsto model the phenomena that they are going to investi-gate. This modeling may take the form of a predictionbased on what is known about the science concept. Al-though predictions can take a written form, they can alsobe graphic. This graphic may be a close representation ofa future observation (e.g., a student-drawn picture, or itmay represent a more abstract representation of an ideal-ized model or data that will be collected (e.g., a line graphrepresenting predicted change over time).

For example, when introducing new and unfamiliarterms, such as those we encounter with landforms—~apopular elementary topic—challenge students to drawa picture of what they think that term might be. Havingthat record of their initial ideas to match up alongsidean actual photograph or model of a particular landformallows the student to make sense of how their ideaschange, promoting metacognition. Graphics supportmeaning- making as students are creating them, but theyalso serve as an organizing and record-keep ing tool forlater reference. Together, these graphical representationsof ideas or concepts and of observations link together toform a powerful vehicle for meaning-making in science(Figure 1).

In our observations of science lessons, we have seen fewinstances before the investigation in which graphics wereused to express abstract, or "invisible," ideas in scienceother than the use of tables and other charts (e.g., KWL)to organize text. What we have found is that observationsduring the investigation make up the bulk of student-generated graphics. These graphics can be pictorial innature, such as an illustration, or they can include datagraphically organized into tables and graphs. Althoughthese organizational tools are certainly useful, we arguehere that student-produced graphics could provide addi-tional value. There may be many missed opportunitiesto help students use graphics not only for predictivepurposes before the investigations but also after inves-tigations in the reflective meaning-making process asthey share data, pool results, discuss variability, revisepredictions, and ask new questions.

For example, if you have challenged your class topredict the trends in a plant's growth over severalweeks, the students could use both abstract predic-tive line graphs and drawings of that plant's potentialchanges overtime. These "before" graphics could bea valuable tool to compare ongoing observations withstudents' initial predictions. Further, after the plant'slife cycle is completed, pooling student data to sum-marize the whole class' experience allows studentsto learn how their ideas are similar or different fromthose of their peers.

Fiaure 1.

The linkages among observations,graphics, and concepts that facili-tate meaning-making.

Beyond Human ScaleVirtually all of the "during investigation" observationalgraphics that we have catalogued have been at the humanscale. That is, students recorded phenomena that can beseen in a single, unaided view and happen over a relativelyshort (less than a class period) span of time. However, acomplete understanding of science concepts often liesoutside the human scale, as the scientific phenomena ofinterest can be too small or happens too fast to allow fordirect observation. For example, understanding why wa-ter travels through sand and clay at different rates or howa vibrating tuning fork creates sound requires a studentto conceptualize "invisible" phenomena. Similarly, somephenomena like wind erosion may be too large or too slowfor students to directly observe in the classroom. Graphi-cal representations of such large, slow scales can be facili-

A student draws and explains the Invisible forces of attraction andrepulsion.

November 2010 53

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Keywords: Magnetswww.scffinte.org

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tated by images from airborne or sat-ellite-based cameras. Although moststudents will not have experiencecreating new images using this typeof equipment, students can annotateand expand on existing images. Withpublicly available tools from NASA,

USGS, and Google Earth, science classes can interact withimages from their own backyards to better understandthese large-scale scientific phenomena. Annotating theseimages provides students with a sense of ownership andthus personal investment in their own understanding ofthese phenomena. Slower scales can typically be depictedacross multiple images, or frames, such as pictures drawnevery week of a growing plant.

We can help students build conceptual bridgesbetween their observations and science concepts withgraphic-based models that represent "invisible" aspectsof the phenomena that reside outside of the human scale.These graphics hold great explanatory power that can beused at all phases of an investigation to link the scientificconcepts with the witnessed phenomena and lead to a fulland complete inquiry cycle.

Figure 2.

A sample graphically enhancedscience notebook entry formagnetic interactions.

An Example of This Approach. To illustrate this point, we trace the application of this in-structional approach to several investigations from thepopular Full Option Science System (FOSS) module onmagnetism and electricity. Our focus here is on some of theearly activities designed to help students in grades 3—4 un-derstand magnetism. During Investigation 1 (The Force)Part 1 (Magnetism and Materials) students have the op-portunity to explore magnetic interactions. The goal of thissection is to help students appreciate the invisible forces ofattraction and repulsion. In doing so, students may create"talking magnets" and arrange a series of magnets on apen-cil. Both of these rather simple explorations are ripe with op-portunity for teachers to apply the ideas we have discussedin this article. Readers who have engaged their students inthese activities recognize the pedagogical power of actuallyfeeling the repulsive forces created in these scenarios. How-ever, we have found that students' understandings of whatis happening can be advanced by drawing these scenariosand using waves to represent the invisible forces being felt.In addition, N and S symbols could be incorporated to helpstudents link their observations with the science conceptof polarity, as shown in Figure 2. We have witnessed thatstudents are better able to connect the concrete experienceof feeling the forces with the abstract cause of the forcesthough the creation of these graphics.

As one progresses through this same module, anotheropportunity to leverage graphics presents itself. In Part 2(Investigating More Magnetic Properties) of Investigation1 (The Force) students explore induced magnetism andcome to realize that magnetic force acts through space andmost materials. Students create a temporary magnet usinga doughnut magnet and steel nail; then use it to pick upa paper clip. We have seen students draw aligned polar-ized particles—invisible to the eye—which represent themagnetized material, helping to develop ideas around theparticulate nature of matter. Next, they place a piece ofcardboard between the magnet and the paper clip and dis-cover that the paper clip still "sticks." But how? We havealso seen that students who are urged to draw the magneticfields passing through the cardboard are better able to ex-plain the phenomena at hand (FigureS). In addition, havingstudents label these magnetic fields builds on the earlierinvestigations, reinforces the idea of polarity, and lays thefoundation for understanding the deep but often elusiveconnection between magnetism and electricity.

For a final example we move to Investigation 1 Part 3(Breaking the Force) of this module. In this experiment,students set up an apparatus to determine how many washersit takes to break the attractive force between two magnets.Students introduce varying numbers of spacers between themagnets, the aim of which is to have them realize that thestrength of the magnetic force decreases as distance between


Graphically Enhanced Science Notebooks

Fiaure 3.

Another sample graphicallyenhanced notebook entry showinathat magnetic forces act throughcardboard.

the magnets increases. Again, we have seen that students atthis age are better able to connect the experiences, observa-tions, and data from this activity to the underlying scientificexplanation of the phenomena with the use of graphics rep-resenting the invisible forces at play. Students are then able tousethese graphics as they communicate their evidence-basedexplanations. Although the examples we use in this articleare with upper-elementary students, this does not precludethe use of these strategies with younger students. Graphiccommunication is for children of all ages. As children getolder they will be more capable of drawing proportionallycorrect representations with appropriate detail. As with thewritten language, they will also be more capable of learningstandardized representations to communicate scientific con-cepts. More sophisticated means of graphic communicationdevelop hand in hand with more sophisticated understand-ings about science concepts.

A Note on AssessmentIn this article we try to build a case for the power and util-ity of student-generated graphics in particular and the useof science notebooks more generally. Hopefully, readerswill agree that graphically enhanced notebooks are learn-ing tools that provide opportunities for differentiation andassessment throughout the learning process. In one study,

Connecting to the StandardsThis article relates to the following National ScienceEducation Standards (NRC 1996):

Content Standards

Standard A: Science as inquiry• Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry (K-8)

Standard B: Physical Science« Properties of objects and materials (K-4)• Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism (K-4)• Motions and forces (5-8)

National Research Council (NRC). 1996. Nationalscience education standards. Washington, DC:National Academies Press.

Atkinson and Bannister (1998) found that students oflower ability levels preferred to use annotated diagrams torepresent what they learned about plant growth, whereashigher-ability students preferred to use concept maps.When a teacher provides this sort of choice, it allows stu-dents to express their knowledge in a way most appropriatefor their abilities and interests. Much of our future effortswill be directed at developing flexible criteria for evaluatinggraphically enhanced notebook entries that are sensitive tothe classroom context and science content under study.

We see great opportunity in having elementary schoolstudents experience and tackle ideas that reside in the realmthat lies beyond that of the human scale—the invisible—andwe feel that graphically enhanced science notebooks representan ideal vehicle to facilitate work in this domain. •

James Minogue ([email protected]) is anassistant professor of Elementary Science Education;Eric Wiebe is an associate professor in the departmentof Math, Science, and Technology Education (MSTE);Lauren Madden and John Bedward are graduate stu-dents in MSTE; and Mike Carter is a professor of Eng-lish, all at North Carolina State University in Raleigh,North Carolina.

AcknowledgmentThis work is sponsored by a National Science Education Grant Mul-

timodal Science: Supporting Elementary Science EducationThrough

Graphic-Enhanced Communication [NSF-DR K12] (0733217).

ReferenceAtkinson, H., and S. Bannister. 1998. Concept maps and an-

notated drawings. Primary Science Review 51: 3-5.

internet ResourceGraphic Enhanced Elementary Science

http://geesft.ncsu.edu/

November 2010 55

Promoting learning through assessment

How Far Did It Go?By Page Keeley

Assessment serves manypurposes in the elemen-tary classroom. Formativeassessment, often called

assessment for learning, is character-ized by its primary purpose—promot-ing learning. It takes place both for-mally and informally, is embedded invarious stages of an instructional cycle,informs the teacher about appropriatenext steps for instruction, and engagesstudents in thinking about their ownideas. Formative assessment can takemany forms. One form that has beenused successfully in science educationis the formative assessment probe. TheUncovering Student Ideas in Science se-ries published by NSTA provides sci-ence educators with an extensive bankof formative assessment probes (seeInternet Resource for information onthe series). These probes are used toreveal the ideas students bring to theirlearning before instruction (preconcep-tions) as well as the conceptions formedthroughout the instructional cycle.Merely gathering this information, doesnot make a probe formative. It is onlyformative when the information is usedto improve teaching and learning. Eachmonth, this column features a probeand describes how elementary scienceteachers can use it to build their forma-tive assessment repertoire and improveteaching and learning in the elementa-ry science classroom. See NSTA Con-nection for more background on usingformative assessment probes.

At the elementary level, measure-ment is a concept and process com-mon to both science and math-ematics. Both the National ScienceEducation Standards (NRG 1996)and the Principles and Standards forSchool Mathematics (NGTM 2000)include measurement as an impor-tant learning target. Research hasshown that one of the largest gapsin mathematics performance be-tween minority and Caucasian stu-dents is in the area of measurement(Lubienski 2003). This gap trans-fers to the science classroom as well.For this reason, understanding theconcept of linear measurement andusing linear measurement tools isparticularly important when stu-dents are observing and describingthe motion of objects.

Inquiry provides an implicit op-portunity for students to apply theirunderstandings of measurementunits and the tools used to measurethe change in the position of an ob-ject after it has traveled a distance.However, without explicit, directinstruction in measurement and theinstruments of measurement thattakes into account students' commonmisunderstandings, significant errors

in measurement may develop early onin elementary grades that continue toaffect students' ability to use theseimportant concepts and processes insuccessive grades.

Using the ProbeThe formative assessment probe"How Far Did It Go?" in UncoveringStudent Ideas in Physical Science: 45Force and Motion Assessment Probes(Keeley and Harrington 2010) can beused to reveal whether students rec-ognize that units of distance traveledmust be measured from the startingpoint to the ending point. It is espe-cially useful In determining how stu-dents measure length when there isa nonzero origin. Student responsesreveal a common error pattern thatchildren make in both science andmathematics. Common error pat-terns refer to the systematic use ofinaccurate and inefficient proceduresor strategies (Rose and Minton 2010).For example, a common error patternthat applies to this motion assessmentprobe is the consistent misreading ofa measurement device.

Research in mathematics hasrevealed that few children recognize


that any point on a measurementscale can serve as a starting point.Studies of children, all the way upthrough grade five, have shown theyhave the tendency to read whatevernumber is at the end point. In the caseof this probe, many students selectedE: 10 units as their answer. Whenasked how they figured out their an-swer, the most common response was"The front wheels of the car endedon the 10 mark." These students didnot take into account the nonzerostarting point..

The best answer is G: 6. Noticehow the back of the car is positionedat the "2" mark. After the car movesand then stops, the back of the carIs positioned at the "8" mark. Thecar moved 6 units between the "2"mark and the "8" mark. Studentsget the same result if they measurefrom the front of the car. The frontof the car is initially positioned atthe "4" mark. After traveling, thefront of the car stops at the "10"mark, resulting in a distance trav-eled of 6 units. However, somestudents take into account thestarting point of the car but are notconsistent in using the same part ofthe car to identify the ending point.For example, students who chooseanswer D: 8 begin at the back ofthe car on the "2" starting pointand end with the front of the carat the "10" ending point, resultingin a distance traveled of 8 units.Conversely, students who choseanswer B; 4 begin at the front ofthe car with a starting point of "4"and end at the back of the car withan ending point of "8" for a total of4 units traveled. And finally, some

Figure 1.

How Far Did It Go? probe. :

How Far Did It Go?Before the car moves

After the car moves and stops

Gnicie \vants to measure the distance thar her toy car travels. She places her car ncxim ;i measuring tape as shown in the firsi picture. She pushes the car. "f he second pic-

ture sin m-s how fat •Ciracii!*f car ir<i\'e!ed until it snipped, Crock- measures flic dim neeher car miivwl,

Circle the number of measurement units ihar best describes hmv far Grade's c.irmoved.

A 2

B '\ 6

D 8

E in

Describe h«\ ynu fijjiimi uui your answer.

Download a full-size probe at www.nsta.org/SC1101.

January 2011 25

Focmative

students select answer A; 2 by mea-suring the length of the car, ratherthan the distance the car traveled.These students may not understandwhat distance means.

Teaching ImplicationsResponses to this probe clearly in-dicate the need for explicit teachingin both science and mathematicsabout starting and ending pointswhen using linear measurementtools. It also points out the impor-tance of providing opportunitiesfor students to measure differenttypes of objects and motions usingdifferent starting points. Studentsneed opportunities to measure thesame object and motion when thelength or distance are the samebut the starting points differ, sothat students see that the lengthor distance stays the same regard-less of starting point. The probecan be modified to determinewhether students' respond differ-ently when the car starts at a zeroor the "1" mark. For students whomerely read off the end point with-out considering the starting point,a useful strategy might be to helpthem differentiate between wherean object ends up from how far theobject has gone.

Consider combining this probe,which is used in a motion unit,with similar types of diagnosticand formative assessment that aredeveloped for mathematics such asthose in Uncovering Student Thinkingin Mathematics K-5: 25 FormativeAssessment Probes for the ElementaryClassroom (Rose and Minton 2010).

Combined, both of these "Uncover-ing" books show the link betweensimilar conceptual and proceduralmisunderstandings in both math-ematics and science and support theintegration of important topics likemeasurement.

For example, mathematics educa-tors point out that length is usuallythe first attribute children measurein mathematics; however lengthmeasurement is not well understoodby young children. There is a strongtemptation to explain to studentshow to use units and devices to mea-sure length and then send them offto practice measuring. The attentionshifts from developing a conceptualunderstanding of measurement us-ing units to one that is merely pro-cedural (Rose Tobey and Minton2010). Does this sound familiar inscience? Rose To bey's book includesseveral excellent K-5 probes thatelicit students' understanding oflength measurements as a result ofmatching a length with a number ofunits rather than as a number on aruler or measurement device. As youuse these measurement probes, itwill be obvious to you that we cannottake for granted that children learnmeasurement merely by provid-ing opportunities to measure. Youmust take the time to use carefullydesigned probes and watch, listen to,and determine the procedures andstrategies children use to measurelength or distance. The data will helpyou consider the teaching implica-tions and make adjustments to yourinstruction based your examinationof student thinking that results fromusing these probes. •

NSTA Connection *Read the introduction to Uncov-ering Student Ideas in Science,Volume 1, and download a full-size "How Far Did It Go?" probeat www.nsta.org/SC1W1.

Page Keeley ([email protected]), author of the UncoveringStudent Ideas in Science series, isthe .senior science program directorat the Maine Mathematics and Sci-ence Alliance in Augusta, Maine,andformer NSTA President.

References

Keeley, P., and R. Harrington. 2010. Un-

covering student Ideas in physical sci-

ence: 45 force and motion assessment

probes. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

Lubiensld, S. 2003. Is ourteaching

measuring up? Race-, SES-, and

gender-related gaps in measurement

achievement In Learning and teaching

measurement 2003yearbook, eds.

D.H. Clements and G. Bright, 282-

292. Reston, VA: National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics.

National Council of Teachers of Math-

ematics (NCTM). 2000. Principles and

standards for school mathematics.Alexandria, VA:NCTM.

National Research Council (NRC).

1996. National science education

standards, Washington DO Na-

tional Academies Press.

Rose Tobey, C., and L Minton. 2010.

Uncovering student thinking in

mathematics K.-5: 25 formative as-

sessment probes for the elementary

classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Corwin Press.


Resources and conversation on PreKto 2 science

Recording DataWith Young ChildrenBy Peggy Ashbrook

Young children collect dataevery day. They note whohas pink sparkly shoes andfind out who will share the

ball on the playground. Children willbe interested in collecting data if thetopic is important to them, such asrecording their favorite color. Mak-ing sense of the data by analyzing itappropriately is one of the challengesof teaching science in early child-hood. Mathematics is important tomaking sense of observations, andgraphing can help children see anypatterns in the data. Collecting datais part of National Science EducationStandard A: Science as inquiry, abili-ties necessary to do inquiry.

Learning how to graph data beginsby graphing something familiar us-ing real objects, such as the numberof each shoe type or color of shirt(Pearlman and Spector 2004), Kin-dergarten teacher and musical matheducator Stephanie Burton suggestshaving children line up by ones, twos,threes, fours, and fives to marchwhile singing the appropriate verseof the traditional song, "The AntsGo Marching," as a visible graph.Children can represent data by mea-suring and recording the growth ofa caterpillar with drawings and bytaping appropriate lengths of pipecleaner to a calendar. Later, childrencan use graphs and charts to see pat-terns in data gathered over a longerperiod of time, such as the amount ofprecipitation each week or month, or

comparing the growth rateof two plants (Charles-worth and Lind 2009).

Tally charts are usefultools to record and countdata. Demonstrate whereto put the tally mark. Ifind that children wantto put their mark righton top of, or next to, the picture orword representing the objects beingcounted.

With concrete objects, the datarecorded on the tally chart can be im-mediately checked for accuracy. Do a"tangible tally," using small coloredobjects, before children gather andrecord intangible data, such as favor-ite food. Do not correct any mistakesin tallying except for making surechildren record in the space belowthe representation of the object ratherthanontopofit. By making mistakes,children learn about data accuracy.After each child makes a tally markin the appropriate color box, groupthe actual objects together and countto compare the actual count with thetally chart count. On one occasionthere were "0" reds on the chart and"3" actual reds in the count! Thediscrepancy gave me a chance to saythat it is important to be accurate incollecting data.

Some forms of data are harderto count—drawings, writing anddictated observations—but they arevaluable in developing understand-ing, especially when children reflect

Choosing o favorite coioris an opportunity to learnabout graphing.

on their work at a later date. Childrenwill learn that science ideas are basedon evidence when asked to explaintheir reasoning about the patternsthey see in the data they collect.

Peggy Ashbrook ([email protected]) is the author of ScienceIs Simple: Over 250 Activities forPreschoolers and teaches preschoolscience in Alexandria, Virginia.

ReferencesCharlesworth, R., and K. Lind. 2009.

Math arid science for young children.

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.National Research Council (NRC).

1996. National science educationstandards. Washington, DC: Na-tional Academies Press.

Pearlman, S., and K.P. Spector. 2004.

Graph that data! In stepping up toscience and math: Exploring the nat-ural connections, ed. MJ.Goldston,29-32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

Internet ResourceThe Ants Go Marching

www.songsforteaching. com/folk/theantsgomarching- lyrics.php


Tally It!

Objective:To provide an introductory experience in collectingquantitative data.

Procedure:

1. To introduce the use of a tally chart for recordingand counting data, draw a chart that will allow chil-dren to make a mark, or "tally," to represent eachpiece of data they collect. The chart will have a sec-tion with a drawing or photo of each object that isbeing counted, and a space below or next to eachpicture for the tally marks.

2. Give each child a choice of several colors of a com-mon small object such as a rubber band. For three-year-old children, begin with a limited choice of twoto three colors. After every child has chosen a rub-ber band, collect the extras.

3. Show the children your color rubber band andsay, "I'm going to make a pile for (my color) rub-ber bands here. Does anyone else have a (my color)rubber band?" Have the children put their rubberbands into piles by color, one color at a time.

4. Have the children count the number of rubberbands in each pile as practice. Next, have them picka rubber band again, and you collect the extras.

5. Demonstrate the use of a tally chart. Say, "The colorof my rubber band is , so I'm going to makeone tally mark in the section underneath the color

square on the chart." You can write the colornames with the appropriate color marker.

6. Have the children put their rubber band in front ofthem, record its color with a mark on the chart, andput it into color piles as they pass the chart.

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terms jar maKing a tally chart*,, j **^Sj»^Sfe1CSSt'V!%f I11" v*1- t * v

, jf (a chart to record and count data)

7. After all children have made their tally mark andput their rubber band in a pile, have them count thenumber of marks made in each color section. Com-pare with the number of actual rubber bands in thatcolor pile. Open-ended questions about the agree-ment or discrepancy between the tally and actualcount can get the children to think about the impor-tance of accuracy in collecting data.

Further use of tally charts should be to collect data ofinterest to the children, such as favorite color, smell oractivity, type of vehicle that passes by the window whilechildren wait for pickup, and amount of rainfall eachday. Data about engaging topics can be analyzed for pat-terns, leading to understanding—what type of vehicleis most common and why might that be, and did it rainmore this month than last month, for example, a

Print ResourcesEvans, C.W., A. Leija, and T. Faikner. 2001. Math links:

Teaching the NCTM 2000 standards through children's

literature. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Finkelstein, A. 2001. Science is golden; A problem-solving

approach to doing science with children. East Lansing,

MI: Michigan State University Press.

Lehrer, R., and L Schauble, eds. 2002. Investigating real data in

the classroom: Expanding children's understanding of math

and science. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Rockwell, R.E., E. Sherwood, R. Williams, and D. Winnett.

2001. Growing and changing. White Plains, NY: Dale

Seymour Publications.

Internet ResourcesHandling Data

www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks2bitesize/maths/data

Math-Related Children's Books, Songs, and Finger Plays

for Preschoolers

www. naeyc.org/files/tyc/flle/BooksSongsan dFingerPlays.p df

Colored rubber bands make the tally easier and more fun.

NSTA ConnectionFor more resources, visit the Early Yearsblog at www.nsto.org/EarlyYears.

January 2011 23

Background boosters for elementary teachers

What is the best way torepresent data?

By Bill Robertson

"Very funny, Art-Boy. Just make sure I get the cartoon on time."

A f To answer that question, let's* look at various ways to rep-

resent data. Below are several situ-ations along with graphs or chartsthat help visualize them.

Galen, Martha, Sabrina, and Wallywork on their homework differentamounts of time each week. Galenaverages 10 hours per week, Marthaaverages 5 hours per week, Sabrinaaverages 3 hours per week, andWallyaverages 1 hour per week (Figure 1).

A car begins at rest and speeds upas it moves down the road. Its speed

at different times is given in thistable, and represented in the graphin Figure 2.

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A study was done comparing theaverage annual income of 50-year-

old adults and the number of years oftheir formal education. The results areshown in Figure 3.

By the time you've gotten this far, Ihope you realize that these three differentgraphs or charts (Figures 1—3) are reallybad ways to represent the data in thethree different situations. In Figure 1, thegraph indicates that there's some kind ofmeaning to that line that's drawn betweenthe data points. Is that line supposed toindicate that there's a trend of doing lesshomework each week the farther downthe alphabet you are in the first letter of


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your name (in case you didn't notice, thenames are in alphabetical order)? Non-sense. That line is meaningless. Yet manystudents get the idea that whenever theygraph data, they're supposed to make aline graph as in Figure 1.

Figure 2 is a pie chart, but does it tellus anything more about Table 1 thanwe already know from the numbers inthe table? No, and in fact it's relativelyconfusing to put these numbers in apie chart. But pie charts are attractive,aren't they? Why not use them?

Figure 3 is probably the best rep-resentation of the data of the threeexamples, but there's a much better wayof showing what's going on. Speaking of

better ways, Figures 4a,4b, and 4c show graphsor charts that are rela-tively useful for showingthe situations depictedin Figures 1-3.

If you just want toshow that differentnumbers are associatedwith different peopleor places or groups ofpeople, a bar graph(the graph of studentsand homework hours)

shows this just fine. Thereis no overall trend. But thegraph in Figure 1 implies thatthere is some kind of trend.Students love to connect dots,and you don't want themdoing this when it doesn'tmean anything. Similar tothe bar graph is the histogramshown in Figure 3. The maindifference between a histo-gram and a bar graph is that

a histogram does show a definitetrend. Figure 3 shows that thereis an upward trend in annual in-come the more years of educationyou have. But Figure 3 is limitedin what it shows. The graph ofannual income and educationshown in Figure 4c is much morerevealing, in that it shows all thedata instead of just categories,and you can judge just how wellthe two numbers (income andeducation) are correlated. Thatgraph is known as a scatterplot,and it reveals that while thereis a correlation between annualincome and education, it's nota strong correlation. (This is

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made-up data, by the way.) Finally, thegraph of speed versus time in Figure4b sHows a definite trend in what thecar is doing as time moves along—it'sspeeding up. That isn't at all clear inFigure 2, which is a pie chart.

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Genera! GuidelinesSo, there are general guidelines forthe best way to show data. If youhave a clear relationship between twovariables, especially if one variable ischanging with time, then a line graphis a great idea. Here, though, you have

to be careful about just connectingthe dots. That's often not what youshould do. If you suspect a correla-tion between two variables, as withincome and education, then youcan usually best tell the story by us-ing a scatterplot. If all you want todo is show that different numbersare associated with different peopleor categories (as with the kids andthe homework), then bar chartsare great. Pie charts are similar tobar charts, and relative amountsare sometimes easier to see in a piechart. For example, compare thegraphs in Figures 5a and b. Theyshow the same data, butthe pie chart demonstratesrelative amounts better.

Of course, maybe youdon't want to reveal every-thing in a graph. In thatcase, there are many waysto hide things. Figure 3 isan example of this. Thathistogram seems to showa clear trend, even thoughthe scatterplot data indi-cate that the correlationisn't all that strong be-tween income and educa-tion. Figure 6 shows vot-ing data in two differentways. One hides the factthat different regions in astate voted differently, andone makes that apparent.

And if you want to exaggerateyour point, you can always cut offpart of your graph, as demonstratedin Figure 7. Showing only part of thedata can make it seem like an effect ismuch larger than it really is.

So, there isn't any one best wayto represent information, but somemethods can be misleading or caneven border on being fraudulent.One thing that's for sure is that plot-ting data points on a set of axes andconnecting them with a line won'twork for everything, even though thatmight seem like the most scientificway of doing things. •

BiH Robertson ([email protected]) is the author of the NSTA Pressbook series, Stop Faking It! FinallyUnderstanding Science So You CanTeach It.

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Editorial

By Michael Klentschy

ommunication is vital to science and has acentral role in inquiry—students of all agesneed to have a place and a means to reflect ontheir ideas. Language becomes the primary

avenue that students use to arrive at and communicatetheir scientific understandings, with notebooks as a pri-mary means for them to apply that language and reflecton their ideas.

Student science notebooks can mean many things. Theycan be a collection of drawings and items pasted on blankpages by preschoolers and kindergarteners. They can benotes and sketches from an outdoor field study. Sciencenotebooks can also be the source of recorded data from aclassroom investigation and used by a student to supportand justify a claim made during a class discussion. It is thestudent's personal record that can be referred to and updatedthroughout an investigation or even an entire unit of study.Whether for scientists or students, a science notebookrecords what was observed or done and what the scientistsor students thought as a result of the experience.

When beginning to use science notebooks, manystudents will draw a sketch or write a procedural ornarrative account of what they did. Requiring details likethe date and time and headings or titles adds purpose totheir work and will provide the basis for students to returnto their previous entries to determine how their thinkinghas changed over time. Students will eventually grasp thenotion that the science notebook is their record of whatwas observed or measured and that this information isavailable for future use.

Science notebooks have the potential to move studentsbeyond completing the task to making sense of thetask, transitioning from writing about what they didduring a science investigation to writing about whatthey learned from the science investigation. In this way,science notebooks support the development of students'scientific reasoning.

Supporting ExplanationsOne important inquiry practice is the construction,analysis, and communication of scientific or evidence-based explanations. Explanation construction is not anability most elementary students possess and as suchshould be an important part of the design of elementaryschool science instruction. It is a process that takes timeand practice.

The developmental movement from writing about whatwas done during a science investigation to writing aboutwhat was learned during the science investigation can beguided by embedding writing scaffolds into the inquiryprocess. This will assist in explanation construction bythe student. These writing scaffolds can be consideredas a cognitive, apprenticeship. The teacher provides thescaffold by breaking down tasks, providing the scaffoldsor supports for understanding the process of the inquirycomponent, using modeling and coaching to teachstrategies for thinking, and giving feedback throughquestioning that helps students diagnose and self-correcttheir own problems. The teacher then gradually removesthe supports and releases responsibility to students toperform these functions on their own. The emphasis ison helping students develop expertise in their thinking,verbalize their ideas, and communicate their ideas inwriting in their science notebooks.

Specific sets of scaffolds are appropriate for primarystudents and other sets of scaffolds are more appropriatefor upper elementary students. These scaffolds providestudents with exposure to several of the essential sciencenotebook components and the opportunity to practicewriting their own science notebooks (Klentschy 2005,2008). For more ideas, formats, and scaffolds for gettingstarted, visit the East Bay, Rhode Island EducationCollaborative and the North Cascades and Olympic SciencePartnership for additional resources to get started usingscience notebooks (see Internet Resources).


Classroom DiscussionsIn the early stages of using science notebooks, studentsmay experience difficulty in learning how and what torecord. Classroom discussions at key junctures in theinvestigation help students focus on their science note-book entries, allow teachers to model suggested formats,and provide opportunities for teachers to use examplesfrom other students as models. Classroom discussionand sharing allows students to see a variety of how andwhat to record. At all grade levels, students should bereminded that their observations, measurements, anddata are their evidence for their investigation. The sci-ence notebook should be used during class discussionsas a source of evidence to justify claims in argumenta-tion in an oral rehearsal before writing claims supportedand justified by evidence.

Assessing Student UnderstandingScience notebooks allow teachers to determine the qual-ity of the student's ability to communicate their concep-tual understanding. Notebooks provide a central placefor conversation to take place between the student andthe teacher, both orally and in writing. This further em-phasizes developing the ability to explain in students.In order to stimulate conversation aimed at producingexplanation, teachers may consider asking guiding ques-tions such as:

* What evidence do you have to support your claims?* How does your evidence support your claims?* Is there another explanation for what happened?

These guiding questions are intended to stimulatethe conversation and to require the student to justify theclaims that they have made with evidence supported bytheir recorded observations and data.

Student science notebooks are a special, essentialmeans of communication. The act of writing enhancesthinking and demands that the student organize languageto explain. Student science notebooks used well not onlyprovide stability and permanence to student's work, butalso purpose and form. They become a record of personally

Science notebooks have the

potential to move students beyond

completing the task to making

sense of the task, transitioning

from writing about what they did

during a science investigation to

writing about what they learned

from the science investigation.

valued information. Science notebooks should be anintegral part of all science instruction.

Michael Klentschy ([email protected]) is former Super-intendent of Schools of the El Centra School District inEl Centra, California.

ReferencesKlentschy, M. 2005. Science notebook essentials. Sci-

ence and Children 43 (3): 24-27.Klentschy, M. 2008. Using science notebooks in elemen-

tary classrooms. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

internet ResourcesScience Notebooks in K12 Classrooms

www. sden cenotebooks.orgScientist's Notebook Toolkit

www.ebecri.org/custom/toolklt.html

A free chapter from Michael Klentschy'sNSTA Press book Using Science Notebooks'inElementary Classrooms is available online inthe NSTA Learning Center. Read "What are theessential components of o science notebook?" athttp://leamingcenter.nsta.org.

November 2010 9

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Editorial

By Joseph Krajcik

nowing how to read, interpret, and see trendsin graphs is a critical 21 st-century capability;it is a skill that all learners use throughout

.their lives because it helps judge whether aclaim is supported by evidence. A major aspect of doingscience (in and out of the classroom) is asking questionsabout how the world works and then designing investi-gations to collect and analyze data that will provide so-lutions to those questions (Duschl, Schweingruber, andShouse 2007; McNeill and Krajcik 2011; NRC 1996,2000). But once your students collect data, how can youhelp them make sense of that data?

Young students are capable of asking questions—like,"How many different types of birds come to my birdfeeder?"—designing and carrying out investigations, andthen analyzing data to use as evidence to support claimsthat respond to their questions (Duschl, Schweingruber,and Shouse 2007; Metz 1995; NRG 1996, 2000). Dataorganization and analysis is the process of makingobservations, taking measurements, and sorting out theinformation in ways that facilitate sense-making, allowingpossible patterns to become apparent.

The ability to analyze data is an essential aspect ofscientific literacy and will be critical for young childrenas they grow in a world that is filled with information, Tomake sense of data, scientists transform it into variousrepresentations. By creating tables, graphs, diagrams,or other visualizations, children can transform data intodifferent forms that will allow them, just as it allowsscientists, to see patterns and trends. Helping young childrenseethe value in creating these different representations willbuild important stepping stones to develop tools they canuse throughout their lives. When learners grapple with datato support claims, their understanding of the science contentchanges, and their image of what science is also changes.

An ExampleYoung children often collect tallies or counts of datato answer questions. For example, children in a third-grade classroom might explore what types of birdsvisit their school birdfeeder. The children might makea record of the type and number of birds that visit theirbirdfeeder. A simple list of information might be dif-ficult for children to see a pattern. Children can cre-ate a table to more easily see the pattern. The tablehelps children see the type of bird and how frequentlyeach type visits their feeder. The transformation helpslearners see trends in data—e.g., sparrows arethe mostcommon bird.

Once students have constructed their tables, theyshould write summaries describing what their tablesmean. In this case, a child might write: "Sparrowsvisited our birdfeeder more than other birds." Suchsummaries are another way to transform data. Studentscould also construct tables for qualitative data thatprovide descriptive rather than numeric (quantitative)accounts (e.g., students could add a column to theirtable that describes the type of chirping the birdmakes).

Children could even create graphs of data to make avisual representation. Graphs show how one variable(dependent) changes or relates to another variable(the independent). Transforming data into graphswill help students see trends in quantitative data. Tocontinue with our bird example, rather than a count ofthe type of birds, students could create a bar graph. Abar graph of the number versus types of birds is mucheasier for students to "read" because it more effectivelyillustrates patterns. In elementary classrooms, studentscan transform their data into pie charts, bar graphs,histograms, and line graphs (NCTM 2000).


When learners grapple with data to support claims,

their understanding of the science content changes,

and their image of what science

is also changes.

Supporting StudentsMaking and interpreting tables and graphs are cognitive-ly challenging tasks for children (Duschl, Schweingruber,and Shouse 2007); however, with the support of teachers,it is within the intellectual capability of all learners. Youcan support children in this important scientific practiceby modeling, giving feedback, and allowing them to cri-tique each other's graphs and interpretations (Krajcikand Czerniak 2007).

Another way to support students is to have themcome up with statements that describe what the graphmeans. Have them look for a pattern or a trend in theshape of the graph. Once students have written theirown interpretation, members of the group can comparethe statements. If your students are too young to write,you can have them sa} what they see. You can furthersupport them in this process by using sentence starters,such as:

The bird that we saw at the birdfeeder most often was a. We saw the at the birdfeeder _

times.

Although such prompts are helpful to start studentslearning how to interpret charts and graphs, you do notwant to use this type of support too often, otherwisestudents could see science as filling in the blanks,

ConclusionProviding opportunities for students to ask questionsabout scientific phenomena they encounter in their worldis a critical aspect of students learning science. Askingquestions leads to students designing ways to collect datato support their claims with evidence. Transforming datainto graphs and charts can help students better see trends

in the data. Crafting such learning opportunities willsupport all students in developing critical scientific prac-tices and developing 21st-century capabilities that theywill use throughout their lives as lifelong learners.

Joseph Krajcik ([email protected]) is a professor ofscience education at the University of Michigan in AnnArbor and currently a visiting professor at Ewha Wom-ans University at the Institute for Global Science, Tech-nology and Society Education in Seoul, South Korea.

ReferencesDuschl, R.A., H.A. Schweingruber, and A. Shouse. 2007.

Taking science to school: Learning and teachingscience in grades K-8, Washington, DC: NationalAcademies Press.

Krajcik, J.S., and C. Czerniak. 2007. Teaching science in -elementary and middle school classrooms: A project-based approach, third ed. London, England: Taylorand Francis.

McNeiil, K.L, and J. Krajcik. 2011. Supporting grade5-8 students in constructing explanations in science:The claim, evidence and reasoning framework for talkand writing. New York: Pearson Allyn & Bacon.

Metz, K.E. 1995. Reassessment of developmental con-straints on children's science instruction. Review ofEducational Research 65: 93-128.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).2000. Principles and standards for school mathemat-ics. Reston,VA: NCTM.

National Research Council (NRC). 1996. National sci-ence education standards. Washington, DC: NationalAcademies Press.

NRC. 2000. Inquiry and the national science educationstandards: A guide for teaching and learning. Wash-ington, DC: National Academies Press.

January 2011 9

Using science notebook entries aspreassessment creates opportunitiestO adapt teaching. Byjeanne Clidas

"Living things move and make a sound. For example, a cat movesits feet to make it go from place to place and it says meow. A treeis a living thing too. So are people, dogs, plants, and bugs."

This is an entry from one of my student's science notebook in which heresponded to my question, "How do you know if something is alive?"Like his fourth-grade classmates, this student brings a wealth ofknowledge to each new science inquiry. The background knowledge

of my students varies depending on their past experiences, but each one usuallyKa£ something to contribute to a new science inquiry. Not all of the ideas pre-sented in their science notebooks are accurate, however, so I wondered how thechildren acquired them and what role they would play in learning.

Although I had always used science notebooks as a place to record observa-tions, data, and conclusions, I decided to add a step that would bring students'existing ideas out for examination. Before each lesson, the children wrote whatthey knew about the topic in a "quick-write." A quick-write entails me askingan open-ended question and having the students write all they know in threeminutes. When the quick-writes are finished, the students discuss their thoughtswith a partner or in small groups.

:>0 Science and Children

As students record what they already know beforeeach science inquiry and then document the inquiryprocess (i.e., data, observations, and questions), thereis opportunity to revisit and reflect on how the old andthe new relate. Science notebooks in my classroom area laboratory of words that support conversations andcontinued inquiry.

Assessing Prior KnowledgeTo assess what students already know, before each in-quiry experience I ask them to do a quick-write consist-ing of a simple question or directive (Figure 1). When westudied the seasons, I asked them to write what they be-lieved caused the different seasons. When we exploredthe ecology of the Norwalk River, I asked them to writewhat they knew about how water moves. I wanted toknow what the students believed and understood, but Ialso wanted to know where the class's knowledge wouldsupport new learning and where it might need clarifica-tion or challenging.

For example, at the beginning of our inquiry intoplants, Tara wrote "A plant is a living thing that does notmove, A plant reproduces itself, A plant is a flower withleaves. Some plants look ugly, some look nice. There are allkinds of plants." In assessing Tara's ideas, I can build onher understanding that a plant reproduces itself when weinvestigate seeds and experiment with other ways plantspropagate, but I need to challenge her idea that plants haveflowers because not all do (Figure 2),

Unfortunately, many of the ideas students bring toscience inquiry are incomplete or incorrect because theyhave never been shared, discussed, or challenged. Thesemisconceptions are tenacious and resistant to change.Because the quick-writes bring the misconceptions outto be examined, they are less likely to interfere withnew learning.

All inquiry starts with a question, but to generatea question a student must have some prior knowledgeabout the subject. Writing one's own ideas offers thelearner time to think, organize, and choose the ideaswith the most personal meaning and connection. Theindividual quick-writes allow me to assess where thesimilarities and differences in student knowledge are.I can also see which students have a deeper under-standing of the topic and which have a more surfaceor limited understanding.

Composing a Quick-WriteStudents first need to know how to successfully com-pose a quick-write. At the beginning of the year, Imodel this process by asking an open-ended questionabout our topic and have the students orally contrib-ute some ideas. I show them how I would write theirideas in sentences and name the process a quick-write.

A student example.

We read the quick-write together and discuss how itstates what we currently know. I point out the key-words and circle them so it is obvious my sentences arespecific and not general. It is important for studentsto know that quick-writes are personal and unique toeach individual, so I give them another open-endedquestion about the same topic and have them sharetheir response with a partner. This gives every studenta chance to contribute. It also encourages discussionand negotiation of key ideas. For example, the follow-ing was overheard as the children shared:

• "Tell me what you know about photosynthesis."(Teacher)

• "It is something plants do. It is also green and needslight." (Student 1)

• "I think it's when plants make food. The food is greenand we can eat it." (Student 2)

• "It needs sunlight. It needs water. Only plants withflowers do photosynthesis." (Student 3)

A student example.

November 2010 6l

'7 discovered I needed open-ended,higher-level questions to use as

prompts for the quick-writes. The bestquestions require more than a simple

"yes" or "no" answer. Explanationsoften occur as a result of good

questions. Open-ended questions alsoallow the students to focus on the

personal connections they can makerather than on the "correct" answer/'

• "Plants do it. They use Sun and water, Flowers can doit too."(Student 4)

• "It's what makes plants green." (Student 5)

Not all the responses will be completely accurate orcomprehensive, but the students are telling me whatthey know. This provides the starting point. I use thestudents' ideas to write a sentence that all the studentscan see and read: "I think photosynthesis is somethinggreen plants do when they use sunlight to make food."This sentence is a model for what they will do. Theclass discusses these ideas and there is often a debateas to whether the sentence is correct. Because there isagreement that photosynthesis has something to do withplants, I asked the students to respond in writing to a newquestion: "What is the relationship between plants andphotosynthesis?" The students are given three minutesto write down their answer. This maximizes the time ontask and time to uncover the most commonly held ideas.Some of the students' quick-writes included:

• "I think photosynthesis is what plants do when theymix sunshine and water to make food."

• "I think plants do photosynthesis to make food."• "I think only green plants use photosynthesis,"• "Photosynthesis is when green plants make food."

When the quick-writes are complete, it is time toshare, analyze, and considerthevalue/accuracy ofwhatis believed. Figure 3 presents the steps for writing andanalyzing the quick-write entries. As I walk aroundand listen, I am able to discern what the class knowsor believes about the topic. I use the information fromthe quick-writes and discussions as the foundationfor future instruction. As our investigation, research,and inquiry proceed, I direct the students' attentionback to this entry so new knowledge and ideas can becompared to what was originally thought or believed.I have found this to be an important step. Remind-

Steps for using science notebooks forassessing background knowledge.

i.

i 2.

3.

4.

Present an open-ended question "or directivest'aternent related to the science topi/:.'

Tell the students to write their response intheir science notebooks. Allow 3-5 minutes.

Have students read their quick-write to a-part- |ner^and compare their ideas. ' ,

Ask students to choose an idea from theirquick-write they think other children also havewritten.

ing the students where their ideas started from helpsthem decide which new ideas to add to their existingknowledge and which ideas in the quick-write can beabandoned or modified.

Composing Writing PromptsI discovered I needed open-ended, higher-level ques-tions to use as prompts for the quick-writes. The bestquestions require more than a simple "yes" or "no"answer. Explanations often occur as a result of goodquestions, Open-ended questions also allow the stu-dents to focus on the personal connections they canmake rather than on the "correct" answer. The stu-dents know there are many possible ideas related tothe question and so feel encouraged to record theirideas rather than what they think the teacher wants.Student's responses to the question, "How does thewater in our river move?" included:

* "The water is strong and so it pushes over the rocksand moves down the river." (Josh)

* "The water in the river comes from a pond up in themountains. It falls out of the pond and flows downthe mountain. Where we see it, the water is goingfast because a lot of water has come together andruns fast." (Mariah)

* "Water moves from high places to low places. At theriver site, we had to walk up a hill to see part of theriver. The end of the trail was lower so I know it wasgoing downhill. It goes fast because of all the rocksthat are in the way." (Dante)


A Laboratory of Words

• "Sometimes the water doesn't move. I think it movesmost when it rains and the river gets full. The waterpushes around the rocks in the water." (Katie)

I know many of their ideas are based on our experi-ence at the river site, which gives me a context intowhich to put our inquiry. I also know which ideas willneed to be explored or examined. For example, I askedJosh to explainstrongto understand more about his idea.One of my favorite questions is "Help me understandwhere your idea comes from?" It is important to knowwhat is behind the students' ideas before judging themas incorrect. The assessment of the students' ideasdrives my instruction and allows me to differentiatebased on the range of correct, incorrect, and incompletenotions.

Using the Quick-WritesAfter listening to students discuss their ideas about howwater moves, I decided to have them revisit the obser-vation notes they wrote during our first two visits to theriver and look for any notes related to the movement ofthe water. They found some interesting ideas:

• The river is fastest and has more bubbles where itgets narrow.

• The wider parts of the river don't look like the wateris moving very much.

• The water moves faster at the bottom of the hill.• There are foam and bubbles around the rocks.• In the winter, the water moves under the ice.

Using the information from the quick-writes and theobservation notes, the students generated the question"What variables affect the flow of water?" An inquiryactivity in which students tested their ideas about thequestions allowed them the opportunity to exploretheir quick-write ideas and their observation notes.Using simple materials, the students created channelsthrough which water could flow. The students testedvariables such as the width or incline of the channel.At this point, it was my role to observe. The students'ideas guided their inquiries. In this way they wereconfirming, challenging, clarifying, and extendingtheir own ideas about the movement of water. Duringtheir inquiry, they recorded their thoughts, questions,observations, and processes.

Because the notebooks contain quick-writes whichindicate a starting point, observation notes, drawings,diagrams of what was seen or discovered, questions thatarise during inquiry, and summaries, the students havemany opportunities to revisit and compare their ideas.The new information collected through inquiry is addedto their laboratory of words.

Notebooks Become RecordStudents are using the tools of scientists when keep-ing a science notebook. They are also keeping track oftheir thinking and the changes to their original ideas.Because the original ideas are always available forrevisiting, the students can refer to the quick-writewhen they encounter new or different ideas. The stu-dents use their writing skills to play with and learn thescience vocabulary and concepts. Their inquiry is sup-ported by the writing process as the notebooks becomea record of how they developed deeper understandingof new science concepts. &

Jeanne Clidas ([email protected]) is a pro-fessor at Roberts Wesleyan College in Rochester, NewYork.

Print Resources

Ausubel, D. 1968. Educational psychology: A cognitive view.New York: Rinehart and Winston.

Banchi, H., and R. Bell. 2008. The many levels of inquiry. Sci-ence and Children 46 (2): 26-29.

Clidas, J. 1993. The Emerging Scientist: A Case Study of

Fourth-Grade Students' Science Journals. Unpublished dis-sertation, Fordham University.

Doris, E. 1991. Doing what scientists do: Children learn to in-vestigate their world. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Books.

Douglas, R., M.P. Klentschy, K. Worth, and W. Binder. 2008.

Linking science and literacy m the K-8 classroom. Arling-ton, VA: NSTA Press.

Lindsfors, J.W. 1999. Children's inquiry: Using language to .

make sense of the world. New York: Teachers CollegePress.

Marek, E. 1986. They'll misunderstand, but they'll pass. TheScience Teacher 53 (9): 32-35,

Shaw, E., P. Baggett, and B. Salyer. 2004. Kidspiration forInquiry-centered activities. Science Activities 41 [1): 3-8.

nConnecting to the StandardsThis article relates to the following National ScienceEducation Standards (NRG 1996):

Content Standards

Grades K-8Standard Ar.Saence as Inquiry» Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

* Understanding about scientific inquiry


November 2010 63

Students in grades 3~5 explore weight and the nature ofmatter using investigations from The Inquiry Project.

By Sally Crissman

ata are at the heart of science. Within data liesevidence that can be used to support a claim;anchor a discussion or debate; and ulti-mately, answer scientific investiga-

tion questions. A challenge for educators isfinding ways to help young children make-sense of data in the science classroom.

Children typically begin work-ing with data during math activi-ties. They learn to collect, organize,and represent information. Theyare introduced to some con-ventional representationsused in science,such as Venndiagrams, bargraphs, and

line plots. Despite this prior experience working withdata, students often need plenty of time to review dataliteracy concepts and skills when they are asked to applythem in the context of a science investigation. Science"ups the ante" as data are essential for finding answers

to questions—the evidence is in the data!One tool for enhancing students' work with

data in the science classroom is themeasure line. As a coteacherand curriculum developer forThe Inquiry Project, I have

seen how measure lines—anumber line in which the

I] numbers refer to units ofJ measure—help students

not only represent

data but also analyze it in wayshat generate scientific ngure i

and greater understanding of keyscience concepts. The InquiryProject, led by TERG, an educa-tion research organization in Cam-bridge, Massachusetts, and TuftsUniversity, engages children ingrades 3—5 in science inquiry abouttKe nature of matter. To illustratehow measure lines are used in theproject, let's first visit a third-gradeclassroom as the students begin toinvestigate how good their handsare at sensing weight.

Using Measure LinesChildren are gathered in groups around sets ofeight cubes. The cubes all have the same vol-ume, but are made of different materials. Onestudent picks up an aluminum cube in one handand an acrylic cube in the other, moving themup and down in her hands as she tries to feel andcompare the weights.

Each group in the class tries to order the cubesby "felt weight." Later they use a pan balanceto check their order. The results yield somesurprising results and a discussion ensues on thereliability of felt weight. The discussion leads toquestions about how much each cube weighs andthe students begin to see tKe need for establishinga unit of weight measurement.

Students first weigh the cubes using non-standard counterweights (paper clips, wash-ers, counting bears) and then use grams. Theyrecord their data in a table.

A strip of adding machine tape marked inincrements from 0-200 and labeled grams isrolled out on the floor to use as a measure line,Students represent the same data by placingeach kind of cube the measured distance fromzero grams on the gram weight line (Figure 1).With the cubes in place, students find that theweight line shows vividly and graphically thedifferences in weight of same-sized samples ofsome woods, plastics, and metals in a way thatthe same data represented in a table does not.

With their data displayed on a weight line,students look for evidence to make claimsabout how much heavier a same-size cube ofone material is than another. We promptedstudents with "We've seen the same data ina table. What more can we learn when we

Each kind of cube on the gram weight line.

Fiqure 2.

Written critiques of four different weight lines.

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Dear Darwin,I'm gsing to tel! you wh<it I tMtvf; it good or not-w-good abtwit each character'snuTibar line. You'll sen o stor" by th« one I thln^ li bait io uco.

Leila's Mn.. VJO^ 0,K jn A^W^f V)fj^ ^H

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January 2011 33

display the materials cubes on a weight line?"Let's review some of their ideas:

"Cubes that weigh almost the same are veryclose together on the line—like pine and oak,or PVC and acrylic. The copper cube is muchheavier than pine, so there's lots of space be-tween these cubes." (Joshua)

"I can see that the aluminum cube is abouttwice as heavy as the plastics and about 4times as heavy as the wood. Copper is reallyheavy! About three times heavier than alu-minum." (Jose)

"The data table has lots of detailed informa-tion but I like the weight line because youcan put the real thing next to the numberthat's its weight and the spaces between things helpyou compare." (Sal)

What Do the Data Say?In a fourth-grade Inquiry Project class, students con-tinue to study matter and they investigate the question:When the volumes are the same, are the weights the same?They use the now-familiar measure line to display theweights of same-size samples of four kinds of earth mate-rials: water, mineral oil, sand, and soil. Seated around theweight line with the actual materials located on the ap-propriate numbers, students refer to their data to discussthe property they call heavy for size (that is, the weightof a material for its size—e.g., Styrofoam is light for itssize whereas a rock of the same size is heavy). Their ex-perience with weights and volumes of different materialsforeshadows the important concept of density that willbe addressed in middle school.

Once again, the measure line proves to be an effectivetool for highlighting how the data provide supportingevidence for some important ideas in the study of mat-ter. The visual display of the data along the measure lineprovides students with immediate information about theweights of each object and how they relate to each other.

Figure 3.

Ordering Plasticine on a weight line.

Students used a pan balance to compare weights.

It contains the ingredients for evidence-based claims andinsights into patterns and relationships in a way that ismuch more accessible than a table of numbers.

As they examine the data to make claims about whichmaterials are heavy for their size and which are not, theirobservations also raise questions. Students begin to won-der about the nature of materials and seek explanations:Why are 40 cc of gravel and sand so close together on theweight line and, therefore, so similar in weight? Why do40 cc of oil weigh less than 40 cc of water even though oillooks so "thick?"

As they continue their investigations of matter, theseand similar questions will continue to be raised. More ex-perience with materials and time to test their ideas enablestudents to construct their own explanations.

Developing CriteriaIn addition to being able to use and read data displayedon measure lines, students should be able to critiquemeasure lines and describe their advantages and disad-vantages. The Inquiry Project uses a "concept cartoon"(a cartoon-style drawing; see NSTA Connection) to en-gage students in developing a set of criteria for "good"weight lines. Students write critiques of four different

weight lines; three of themflawed in some way (e.g., oneline is missing a zero). In ad-dition to engaging students indeveloping criteria for "good"weight lines, these written re-sponses provide the teacherwith formative assessment data(Figure 2, p. 33).

Armed with these criteriaand their earlier experiences,


Measure Lines

students are now ready to construct their own weight linesand use them to compare equal volumes of four differentsamples of earth materials. Observing students at workand listening to their conversations is another formativeassessment opportunity.

Do Very Tiny Things Have Weight?Children initially think of weight in terms of felt weight,or how light or heavy something feels. The following as-sumption is that if you can't feel it, an object doesn't haveweight. The student who believes that an eraser shavingor piece of thread or a grain of salt doesn't have weightwill surely have difficulty with the idea that matter ismade of particles too small to see and each of those par-ticles weighs something.

The weight line plays a critical role in helpingstudents wrestle with the idea of smaller and smallerpieces of matter weighing less and less, their weightsgetting closer and closer to zero grams (but never quiteweighing nothing!). A discussion of these ideas can beanchored by a firsthand experience.

Students investigate the question: Do very tiny things haveweight? They are given an 8 gram piece of Plasticine (a typeof modeling clay) and a desktop weight line labeled from 0to 4 grams. They begin by dividing their piece of Plasticineinto two equal pieces and place one of the pieces on the4 gram mark on the weight line. They divide the other4 gram piece into two equal pieces and place one of these onthe 2 gram mark on the weight line. The other 2 gram pieceis halved, one piece placed on the 1 gram mark.

Now the fun begins! The remaining 1 gram piece isdivided in half and students must grapple with where toplace the half-gram piece on the weight line (Figure 3).Where does half of the half-gram piece go? And half ofthe one-quarter-gram piece?

As fine motor skills limit the size of the pieces studentscan continue to subdivide, a thought experiment is posed:Imagine you had microscopic hands and tiny little scis-

Connecting to the StandardsThis article relates to the following National Science

Education Standards (NRC 1996):

Content StandardsGrades K-8Standard A: Science as Inquiry• Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry• Understanding about scientific inquiry .


sors and could keep cutting the pieces of Plasticine in halfas many times as you want. In their discussion studentsdebate questions such as:

* Would you ever run out of Plasticine?* As the pieces of Plasticine get smaller and smaller, will

you ever get to zero on the weight line?• Can you ever have a piece of Plasticine—no matter how'

tiny—on the other side of zero on the weight line?• Do you think objects have weight even if we can't feel

the weight?

Anticipating the Coordinate GraphData tables and measure lines are two of a set of rep-resentations that elementary students can use to rep-resent data in science. Students also learn to use Venndiagrams, bar graphs, line plots, box and T-charts,and of course, coordinate graphs. Coordinate graphsare challenging. However, students who are expe-rienced with representing data on measure lines arepoised to understand that the x-axis or a ji-axis areboth measure lines that start at zero.

Children compare magnitudes all the time—thisplant is shorter; or copper is much heavier for size thanplastic. In science we encourage students to be morespecific as we ask them how much shorter or heavier?After choosing appropriate units of measure and areliable method for measuring, representing data onmeasure lines provides students with a clear view of thedata. When the same-size materials cubes are placedon a weight line, no matter what the volume, woodscluster closer to zero grams than plastics and steeland copper will be more than 10 times as heavy as thewoods. Using a weight line, we can see that as long asthe volumes are the same, oil will always weigh a littleless than water and much less than sand or gravel.In their science investigations, the simple, versatilemeasure line helps students use the data they collectto gain more insight into their world. •

Salty Crissman ([email protected]) taughtscience for more than 40 years. She is a senior scienceeducator at TERC in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and amember of The Inquiry Project development team.

Internet ResourceThe Inquiry Project

http://inquiryproject.terc.edu '

NSTA ConnectionFor more information about concept cartoons,visit www.nsta.org/SCT101.

January 2011 35

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Vwi ^m - Math Journeys · PDF filering binders for flexibility because students can add and move both teacher-created materi- ... ever the day's lesson ... ing also help English language