Volume 6, Issue 12(1), Dec International Journal of ...s3-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/ijmer/pdf/volume6/volume6-issue12(1... · Eco Criticism in the Short Stories of Ruskin Bond:A

Volume 6, Issue 12(1), December 2017 International Journal of

Multidisciplinary Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 48-12-3/7, Flat No: 302, Alekya Residency Srinagar, Visakhapatnam – 530 016 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. K. Victor Babu Associate Professor, Institute of Education Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia.

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia

Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering

GITAM University Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram

Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China

Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam

Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh

Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir

Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Dr.Ton Quang Cuong

Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi

Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science University of Pune,Pune

Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER®

Typeset and Printed in India

www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

C O N T E N T S

Volume 6 Issue 12(1) December 2017

S. No

Pg. No

1. Ghats that Never Sleep - Life of Thousands Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Dimpal Singh

1

2. Growth and Trends of Public Spending on Higher Education in India

Sarala Dasari and Ravi Kant

17

3. Teaching English to Rural Students V.Beulah Rani

28

4. M.Srikanth Kumar

33

5. Different Aspects of Assertion of Individuality as Available in the Life of Swami Vivekananda

Subrata Kumar Sahoo

41

6. Agro Based Industries in Andhra Pradesh: A Case Study of Chittoor District

Sannamelam Murali Mohan and K. Jayachandra

62

7. Eco Criticism in the Short Stories of Ruskin Bond:A Critical Study

Pattan Moulali Khan and M. Suresh Kumar

71

8. Social Inclusion of Interstate Migrant Labourers in Kerala and Role of Local Self Governments

Sojin P. Varghese and Sonny Jose

82

9. A Study on Chromatic Coloring and Chromatic Partition N.Kasthuri

95

10. Teachers’ Conception and Practices of Pre-Primary Schools on Promoting and Supporting Children’s Play: The Case of Some Selected Pre-Primary Schools At Mettu Town, Ilubabor Zone, Ethiopia

Kasahun Tadesse

103

11. Gst and its Implications - A Perspective P.Rajkumar Reddy

140

12. Tobacco Industry in India - An Overview G. Sivasankaraiah and C. Sivarami Reddy

153

13. Impact of Self-Help Groups on Rural Women Kurapati Babu

167

14. Reliability and Feasibility of Interest Free Banking in India

Neeru Gupta

178

15. Ict and Gender Bias –Deciphering Barriers G.Raghavendra Prasad

194

16.

200

17. A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility Practices Implemented in Selected Large-Scale Industrial Units

Vrushali Rajaram Kadam and Sachinshripadvernekar

203

18. English Teachers’ Beliefs about Grammar Teaching and Classroom Implementation: Two High Schools in Mettu Town in Focus

Daniel Degefe

221

19. Yoga- A Holistic Approach to Education R.Lakshminarayana

249

20. The Impact of Stress on Work Life Balance of Police Constables: A Study of Visakhapatnam District to Meet the Challenges of Society

Rohini Pogadadanda

256

21. नाटक G. Vijaya Rathna Kumar

278

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit)

Associate Professor, Institute of Education & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia.

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :5.818 (2017)

Index Copernicus Value: 5.16

Editorial……

It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect.

The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action.

The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute

Dr.K.Victor Babu

Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW

www.ijmer.in

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 12(1), DECEMBER 2017

GHATS THAT NEVER SLEEP - LIFE OF THOUSANDS VARANASI, UTTAR PRADESH

Dimpal Singh Associate Professor

Department of Architecture Parul Institute of Architecture and Research

Parul University, Vadodara

Abstract:

Varanasi, one of the oldest existing cities of the world, holds its upmost importance as Hindu Pilgrimage based on River Ganga. Each of 84 Ghats of Varanasi offers the variety - bathing, offering rituals for various ceremonies, retail, recreation & cremation. Besides religion and tourism, Ghats present range of opportunity for locals to generate income through primary and secondary activities. However, the negligence to Ghats and heritage along with is impeding the income. The study concludes that despite the situation is deteriorating with

increased population and river pollution, there is window to discover means to maintain the sanctity and preserve the heritage of the Ghats, enabling locals to earn better livelihood. However, there is ominous need of the people and local government to address the concerns with upmost importance.

Keywords: Varanasi, Ghats, Ganga, Religion, Tourism, Economy

I. INTRODUCTION

Varanasi, one of the oldest existing and throbbing cities of the world, flourished between two rivers, Varun and Assi, It is one of the 72 districts in Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, renowned as religious capital of India. Kashi, in Sanskrit etymology means "To Shine", naming Varanasi as City of Lights. The Holy River "Ma Ganga" flows in upward direction, i.e., from South to North in the city, giving it the name of "Uttarvahini". Varanasi is one of four major pilgrimage destinations

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proliferated on River Ganga - Rishikesh, Haridwar, Prayag and Varanasi. Numerous stories of Lord Shiva and Lord Bhramha are connected with the place, Lord Rama, Lakshman and Sita have travelled in the area, Pandava Kings of Mahabharat had visited the city, and various artefacts around the city are dating to 800BCE, celebrated as one of the most sacred place for Hindus. It is believed that

if one dies in Kashi, then soul attains salvation and freedom from the cycle of birth and re-birth. The city has witnessed the rule of Gahadawala, Marathas, Mughals, Bhramins. Britishers made Varanasi as state with Ramnagar as Capital. With the strong legacy of rulers and city inhabitants, the city stands with its grandeur spread along the Ghats and the core. In 1897, the famous author Mark Twain said of Varanasi, "Benares is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks thrice as old as all of them put together".

With the district population of 36.76laks as per 2011 census, the city invites 60laks domestic and international tourists every year, where Ghats and temples are the major attraction. The paper analyses the present scenario of Ganga Ghats and study of income source generation for city residents on Ghats. The study reveals that the revenue can amplify by planning and managing activities of Ghats. Overcrowding on few Ghats, pollution of river, undesired activities, negligence to

heritage properties, lack of basic amenities, and negligence towards cleanliness are few of the many concerns need to address. The study focuses Assi Ghat to Manikarnika Ghat, which is major visited by tourists.

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View from Assi Ghat, Intangible Heritage Beggar on Ghats, hiding face from Camera

II. METHODOLOGY

2.1. Pre Field Work Identification of the problem- The main objective of the paper was to identify the present condition of Ghats and income source for locals on Ghats. The aim was to study how surrounding communities have found way to generate revenue from different activities on Ghats, their problems and negligence towards

management, maintenance of Ghats, also polluting river Ganga. The secondary data was reviewed from different range of information sources such as research papers, internet search engines, newspaper articles, related magazines etc. All information was collectively used with field work survey to identify problems and probable solutions to solve the issues.

2.2. Field Work: Field survey was conducted to gather primary source data with the help of personal interviews with priests, boatmen, shopkeepers, devotees, tourists, local people, beggars who come here to perform rituals and tourism. Field work enabled to access the situation from a practical view.

2.3. Post field work: After suitable data were collected, qualitative assessment has been carried out to derive appropriate results and solutions.

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III. IMPORTANCE OF GHATS IN VARANASI

There is mystical reference of number 84 associated with Varanasi Ghats. As narrated by Boatmen of the River, a soul gets human life after 84 lakh births and the height of human body is 84 times of ring finger height. 84 Ghats of Varanasi cover the length of 6.8km along the crescent shaped bank of the river. Ganga flows from South to North in Varanasi, before it turns to Bay of Bengal, which depicts the life cycle of death to life. South, the realm of death, Yama and North, the realm of

life, Shiva i.e., Kailash, Varanasi flourished on West of Ganga facing the rising sun. The Ghats are thus one of the most sacred pilgrimage places for Hindus, as believed that last rituals performed in Varanasi lead to Moksha. Ghats are the perfect picture of motion & movement, the viscous circle of life & death, a perfect picture of paradox - hold & dirt, faith & cheat, which co-exist in most pilgrim places, more so at Varanasi.

View of Ghats, interconnecting spaces and connection

with Ganga Narrow inner streets leading to Ghats, housing

worship space in between.

Out of 84 Ghats, only 14 Ghats are more than 350 years old. The five Ghats (Panchtirth) which are considered more sacred than all: Assi Ghat, Dasashwamedh Ghat, Manikarnika Ghat, Panchaganga Ghat and Adikeshav Ghat. Major concentration of pilgrimage is on these Ghats. Most of the other Ghats are named after Gods, renowned rulers and personalities of India like Raja Harishchandra Ghat, Dr.

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Rajendrapasad Ghat, Padmawati Ghat, Peshwa Ghat, Hanumaan Ghat, Jain Ghat, etc. 84 Ghats have their own divisions; most of them are for bathing and offering rituals, few for washing clothes, and two for cremations. There is no starting or ending point of the Ghats, the whole stretch interconnected with few steps up and down, assembling River-Ghats relationship.

IV. GHATS - AN EMPLOYMENT GENERATOR

Though the major economy of Varanasi district is dependent on

Agriculture, industry, retail shops, local crafts, education and tourism, but 45% of workers are still dependent on tertiary sector which is typical of pilgrim town. Few of the many activities are retail shops around the Ghats, on the Ghats, along the roads, in religious complexes, tour operators, religious pandits, guiders, barbers, battery operated rickshaw and cycle rickshaw, wheelchair operators, fish catcher, dhobi, boatmen, helpers, beggars, to name few. These activities represent the journey of life segregated on all the Ghats.

4.1. Way to Ghats

Of the many secondary and tertiary pedestrian and vehicular roads leading to Ghats, most famous among them is Dasashawamedh Ghat Road. Apart from the religious importance of Dasashwamedh Ghat, it also houses the gateway to famous Kashi Vishwanath temple, which has one of the twelve 'Jyotiling' of Lord Shiva. The restriction of 4 wheelers has created lot of opportunities and sources for generating income.

4 wheeler excess is restricted at 500mts from Ghat, at Godowlia Chowk,

compelling most of the tourist to walk to temple and Ghats. With the increased use of battery auto rickshaw and cycle rickshaw, a major source of income is generated. Locals relied on business of wheel chair to take elderly people to Ghats. The average income of auto rickshaw driver is Rs.500 to Rs.1000 per day, high in peak season.

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The road is bursting with food and retails shops on both the sides. The business is flourishing as this is a major pedestrian path leading to Temple and Ghats.

4.2.Boatmen

They are the first, any tourist will come across on their first visit to Ghat. Originally, boatmen belonged to 'Mallah' Caste group, which is now diminishing as many other entering into this profession day by day. The caste traces its origin from story of Ramayan, where boatman named Khevat ferried Lord Rama, Sita and Lakshman across the river Ganga. Their major source of income is dependent on tourist and they are spread between Raj Ghat and Assi Ghat.

The cost of boat varies from 2 - 2.5laks of big sized, 50-60Thousand for medium sized and 20-25 thousand for small size boats. There are 2 to 3 owner of boats on every Ghat, they rent the boats to boatman. The rental rates for boat ferries are very high in peak season, from Rs. 4000 for medium size to Rs. 20000 for big size per ferry. The boating activity is active in early mornings to witness sunrise and bathing on other end of Ghats, and late evenings to witness Maha-arti on Dasashwamedh

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Ghat. Boats are also hired to perform rituals in the river. The boatman also works as local guide for tourists, as additional income.

4.3. Religious Pandits

Pandits and Brahmins performing the sacred rituals of birth, life and death on the Ghats are highly worshipped by the believers. There are hundreds of pandits spread on major Ghats to perform the rituals of Pind Daan, Pooja and Havan for safety and prosperity of family, Morning and evening Aarti, Mundan ceremony, Cremation Ceremony. The rituals are carried for 2 to 3hrs and charged between Rs. 2000 to Rs. 5000.

4.4. Dhobi - Washermen

Despite the restriction of washing and drying clothes on the Ghats, washerman community has thrived their business on Ghats. Many washerman are also residing near the Ghat. This activity is accumulating dirt and sand along the banks, breaking steps and polluting the water.

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4.5. Cremation

It is believed that if one dies in Varanasi, or the body is burned on the Ghat or even if the last rituals are performed here, the soul attains Moksha. The cremation ceremony is conducted on two Ghats - Harishchandra Ghat and Manikarnika Ghat. Manikarnika Ghat is the most used among the two, 24 hours - 365 days the bodies cremated, approximately burning 200 corpses per day. This activity is income

generator for many people associated with the profession. The piles of firewood used to incinerate the corpse are stored in most surrounding buildings. There are different prices for banyan wood and sandalwood. Dead bodies are handled by outcasts known as doms. The dead bodies are carried through the alleyways of the Old City to the holy Ganges on a bamboo stretcher, swathed in cloth. Trained Pandits perform the rituals. There are member of century old untouchable caste that works on the site and handles the cremation. They dispose the burned ashes and throw the half burned body to the river. There are group of boys involved for the cleaning the site and keeping ready for other dead body. The community earns Rs. 2000 - 3000 per corpse for the complete process.

4.6. Miscellaneous

Many other locals have innovated their income source on Ghats. Some have expertise to find out gold from teeth of dead bodies submerged in

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the river. People are engaged into small scale fishing in middle of the river. People have expertise in making boats for boatmen. There are people constructing 'Chatri' shades and renting in afternoon to tourists. Beggars have trained themselves to dress fancily and please tourists to get money. Local imitation jewellery are sold on Ghats. There are playgrounds and open courts on the Ghats, used as Yoga center for

children in morning. Few buildings along the Ghats are used as hotels and restaurants as well.

IV. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Through the primary study and on Ghats, it is quite evident that there is immense varied potential on the Ghats of Varanasi, more than other pilgrim places of India. Varanasi is the only city that offers religion,

relaxation, boating, interaction, bathing, washing, rituals, and cremation - all at one place. However, the present scenario is on stake. The mismanagement of activities, lack of ownership, disputes of properties, and pollution of River, theft & cheat, all are leaving bad sights and examples on tourist and affecting the local business. The present impression of Ghats is dirty, filthy, blind faith, polluted river, unhygienic, where non-religious tourist would prevent to pay a second visit. The river and Ghats are revenue generators for thousands of

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locals. If managed methodically, can be efficient source and attraction point for the state.

V. MAJOR FINDINGS

1. River Ganga - one of the most polluted rivers of World, a few among many reasons are: untreated sewage of city flows in river, factory chemical waste, dirt of rituals, leftovers, washing, cattle bathing, half burned dead bodies are dumped in poor sacred river.

2. There is no provision for changing rooms and toilets on most of the Ghat, and existing one remain uncleaned. Since the Ghats are used for bathing, the provision of shelters for changing rooms should be mandatory.

3. In 1986, according to Government's estimates, about 147 million litres per day (MLD) of sewage and industrial waste generated in Varanasi flowed into the Ganga. Now, over 200 MLD of wastewater is flowing into the river.

4. The cremation activities create maximum pollution to river, by throwing garbage, ash and half-burned corpse into river. The unburned dead bodies of cattles, children, pregnant women, and ill persons are throwing in river.

5. Despite ban of washing clothes on Ghats, Dhobi Ghat is flourishing and government has been unable so far to stop this business.

6. The heritage of old structures along the Ghats is not managed. Most of the properties are either not in use, or not in proper condition and maintained by its users. This creates unused corners and niches, which are used to urinate by men. The temporary structures are erected on extended plinths of buildings, which are used by beggars or kiosks for selling

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artefacts. The terrace of few buildings is used as open restaurants.

7. There are banners, hoardings and written advertisement on most of the walls of properties along the Ghats. No thought about conserving traditional architectural facades.

8. There is problem of overcrowding on few Ghats due to its

religious importance, rest all other Ghats are almost vacant.

9. There is no interruption on entry of cattle, which creates a menace and increases the dung waste on the Ghats.

10. There is no appropriate allocation of dustbins or garbage bins, inturn it encourages people to throw the waste on the Ghat or inside the river. The leftover of all the rituals are dumped on Ghats and in the water.

11. Most of the boats operated in the river are through diesel engine, which spill oil and diesel in the river - one of the major issue overlooked by the present government and development agencies.

12. Lack of appropriate place for informal sector such as vendors, eateries etc. along Ghat.

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VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Government bodies, NGOs and local residents have to actively participate to find innovative means of maintaining the Ghats, and managing appropriate activities, to increase the income source and tourism.

6.1. Clean River Ganga drive

The Ghats and the activities can flourish only if river is pollution free. There are many laws and regulations framed by government under 'Namami Gange' programme of National Mission of Clean Ganga (NMCG) and submitted to Ministry, with the intention to clean the

river by 2019. The budget of $3.06 Billion is sanctioned for the complete project. It has been announced by the Hon' Prime Minister that no untreated sewage and chemical effluent should be allowed to enter the river, without treatment, which is the major cause of the

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pollution. Ganga Action Plan was launched in 1986, under the then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, but came in actual action in 2000. Seven NGOs have joined hands with Varanasi Corporation to clean debris, garbage, cleaning and maintenance of 12 Ghats.

One of the reasons for failure of the NMCG is its top down approach. In its engineering approach, local folks, traditions, cultural practices and

city demands have been neglected. It is extremely important for all the stakeholders to actively participate in the project and provide necessary solutions for the same.

6.2. Riverfront Heritage Zone

There is a Heritage Management Plan for the city of Varanasi, prepared by Varanasi Development Authority, dividing the city heritage into three zones - Riverfront, Old city and Sarnath. There is lack of maintenance of traditional architecture facades of the buildings facing river. Conservation of Heritage structures facing the Ghats becomes very important and should be planned along with riverfront development.

Adaptive reuse of the identified structures for Dharamshalas, hotels, restaurants, guests' house, viewing point etc. will generate employment, attract more tourist and will help to manage the structures. Heritage hotel subsidy scheme can be introduced at local level, which encourages the owner of buildings for reuse.

6.3. Recycling Cremation waste

The ashes of cremated body roughly weighs 4-6 pounds, considering average 450-500 bodies cremated everyday, there is 1200-2400 pounds

of ash, which is presently submerged in the river. There are several studies and patents that reveal that cremated body ash is a source of phosphorous for soil additive or fertilizer. There is biodegradable urn that coverts the ash into fertilizer that helps to grow the tree. The

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system of potential use of ash should be explored and appropriate green belt can be designed along the banks of river. Banyan tree, as an example, can be grown which will stabilize the area and withstand the flooding. This process of reusing ash, in turn will generate employment for people, and in longer run, the concept of urban farming be explored.

6.4. Cleanliness on Ghats

Suitable bathing tanks along the Ghats can be designed, with filtration system so the dirt of bathing does not directly merge with Ganga. The

sanctity of bathing in Ganga is also preserved, without polluting the river. Appropriate toilets should be designed at regular intervals along the Ghats, with the concept of dry-toilets and decomposition pits. Deployable or temporary structures can be used for toilets and bathing tanks, which can withstand floods.

With lot of litter and garbage dumped on banks of river and on Ghats, a proper compost program can be evolved. There is need of proper waste management plant, sited in appropriate location along Ghats treating all types of garbage, and converts into compost. This can further be used for plantations. Variety of furniture can be designed from locally available material, unused plastic tumbler, unused wood of boats, etc., with assistance of local communities and installed along the Ghats. These furniture can be used by pandits, vendors and visitors.

Local communities should be involved, educated and employed for all the drives associated with Ghats. The accountability and responsibility

will reduce the menace created by locals.

VII. CONCLUSION

Varanasi is spiritual, it is colourful and intense, fascinating but the lack of innovations is distressing the river, ecology, environment and purity of Ghats. Creating the concrete embankments along Ghats might disturb the natural beauty and marine ecology of river, but the time

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demands all the stakeholders, with local public and users should join hands to redesign spaces - a new culture, participatory model for solving complex emerging problems. The abstruse meaning of myths, unseen meaning of rituals and stories of sanctity should be conserved for the followers, but that should not be hindrance in innovative development. Collaborative vending, on-site composting, appropriate

technology, use of local material, generating renewable energy sources, greening unused zones, removing pitiable activities, creating public plazas, and conserving the river Ganga will revive the mesmerizing Ghats. Educating pioneering ideas to local people and involving NGOs, encouraging beggars to adopt new source of generating revenue, will provide the healthier perspective of Ghats and Varanasi City.

VIII. REFERENCES

I. Alley, Kelly D. (1994) Ganga and Gandagi: Interpretations of Pollution and Waste in Benaras. Ethnology, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 127-145. University of Pittsburgh, USA.

II. Doron, A 2009, Ferrying the Gods: Myth, performance and the Question of 'Invented Traditions' in the City of Banaras, Sites, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 58-79

III. Eck, Diana L. (1983) Banaras: City of Light. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, USA.

IV. Research article-“Sewage pollution of the River Ganga: an ongoing case study in Varanasi, India” Authors: Hamner, Steve;

Pyke, Damon; Walker, Michelle; Pandey, Gopal; Mishra, Rajesh Kumar; Mishra, Veer Bhadra; Porter, Catherine; Ford, Timothy E; published in, “ River Systems”, an international journal- Volume 20, Numbers 3-4, April 2013, pp. 157-167(11),Publisher: E.Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung

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V. “The Ganga at Varanasi and a travail to stop her abuse” by Veer Bhadra Mishra in “Current Science-a Fortnightly Journal on Research”, vol. 89, no. 5, 10 september 2010.

VI. "Ghats of Varanasi on the Ganga in India, The Cultural Landscape Reclaimed" Report by Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, USA

VII. "Heritage Development Plan for Varanasi" - Report prepared by Architectural Heritage Division, Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) Oct 2011, sponsored by Varanasi Development Authority

VIII. www.varanasi.org.in

IX. http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/ngrba/index.html

X. http://nmcg.nic.in/about_nmcg.aspx

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GROWTH AND TRENDS OF PUBLIC SPENDING ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA

Sarala Dasari Assistant Professor

Centre for Studies in Economics and Planning

School of Social Sciences Central University of Gujarat

Gandhinagar

Ravi Kant Research Scholar

Central University of Gujarat Gandhinaga

Abstract

The higher education sector of India is facing numerous challenges. The challenge of public spending on higher education has been dominant among the other challenges such as equity, quality, privatization and internationalization. This article tries to reflect an overview of trends in the expansion of higher education in terms of growth in public spending. Further, an attempt has also been made to analyze the growth of per capita expenditure on higher education

among the major states of India.

Keywords: Government Higher education, public spending, and per

capita expenditure on higher education

1. Background

It has been widely recognized in all modern economies that development of education is one of the prime drivers of economic growth. Over time, many growth theories see, for example, Lucas, 1988; Romer,1990; Mankiw, et al., (1992) have developed and established the relationship between human capital and economic growth, thereby underlining the importance of education in the growth process. The belief that education promotes growth has led governments of many developing countries to invest in the education sector.Higher education system in India is the third largest in the world after China and United States. The public and private sector the main governing provide the

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education in India and funding body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission that enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps the coordinate between the Centre and state.It has been observed that the spending in education specifically higher education increased significantly after the independence and reached to 3.84 percent in the year 2013 which was low compare to world average

4.68 percent in the same year (Worldbank database). On the other hand, the share of public funded education, in general and higher education in particular in the total outlay is decreasing gradually. This study intends to investigate the trend in growth of public spending on higher and technical education sector in India. The study begins with state of education expenditure and higher education at the world level. The study also presents inter-state analysis on public spending on higher education and also helps to understand the trends and pattern of public expenditure on higher and technical education amongst major states in India. Further, the analysis is done from the year 1990-91 to 2013-14 on the expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP helpful to compare the trend of expenditure in education sector with GDP growth rate.

2.0 Objectives of the study

1. To study the trends of the public expenditure on higher and technical education.

2. To investigate the level and trends of sectorial allocation of Public expenditure on higher education.

3.0 Methodology of the study

We used simple statistical concepts and tools like graphs in the study to understand the relative priorities given to higher and technical education across major states. The Study covers the period from 1990-91 to 2013-14 and primarily base on secondary data from budgetary

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documents. .The study includes estimation of per-capita expenditure, percentage, growth rate on higher education.

4.0 Trends and Growth in Higher and Technical Education Expenditure.

In this section, we discussed about the trends in the higher education through percentages of GDP and GDP at factor cost, composition of sectoral public expenditure in educational in terms of per capita expenditure.

4.1. Expenditure on education and GDP

The analysis of expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP and GDP at factor cost from 1990-91 to 2013-14 reflected in the below figure.

Figure 1 comparison of expenditure on education as a % of GDP and GDP at factor cost

Source: public finance report of various year, EPW research foundation (see table 1 in Annexure)

Figure 10.1 clearly shows that the expenditure on overall education as a percentage of GDP has been stagnant during the period 1990-91 to 2013-14 it has been recorded in the range of 3.5 to 4 per cent. However,

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GDP at factor cost

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on the other hand GDP at factor cost recorded volatile during that period but still at very high relative to expenditure on education except at the time of advent of LPG (Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization) policy.

4.2 Sectoral composition of expenditure by education departments.

Figure 10.2 shows the sectoral composition of expenditure by education department in terms of percentage in Indian States and UTs. it shows the various level of education (elementary, secondary and higher education including technical education) of the period 1990-91 to 2013-

14.

Figure.2 Sectoral composition of expenditure by education departments, in percentage (all states and UTs)

Source: Analysis of budget expenditure on education of various years (see Table 2 in Annexure)

According to above figure, it has been seen that most of resources spend in elementary education. From the period of 1990-91 to 2004-05 the expenditure by the education department on secondary education was recorded high relative to expenditure on university, higher and technical education combined, but after 2004-05, the share of higher

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education compared to secondary education showing in increasing trend.

4.3 Expenditure on elementary, secondary and higher education in per capita terms

The below figures shows the time-series trend of per-capita expenditure on elementary, secondary and higher education includes technical education of the period 1990-91 to 2013-14.

Figure 3, Per-capita expenditure on elementary, secondary and higher education (in Rs. thds)

Source: Calculated by researcher from Analysis of budget expenditure, enrolment figures from EPW research foundation.

In the year 1990-91, the per capita expenditure on higher education was Rs. 5577.63 (see table in appendix) and rose to Rs. 21433.32 in the year 2013-14 with the annual growth rate of 12 percent. In the case of elementary and secondary education, the per capita expenditure

recorded not a such differences in the year 1990-91 but in the period from 1990-91 to 2011-12, per capita expenditure on secondary education significantly rose at annual growth rate of 68.2 percent and per capita expenditure recorded a stagnant growth during this period.

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4.4 Higher education expenditure in Indian States.

Moreover, since education is generally a responsibility of State, and state contributes to majority of the expenditure at all levels of education; it is useful to analyze the pattern of financing education across states. In Figure 5, it is clearly seen which cover the state of higher education across the states/UTs.

The below figure 5 shows the growth trend of State/UTs of India related to per capita expenditure on higher education of the period

2001-02 to 2013-14. The analysis of this trend is useful to understand the growth of per capita expenditure in higher education. As shown earlier that per capita expenditure calculated from analysis of budget expenditure of various years and GER extracted from MHRD reports and database.

The highest growth rate recorded in Assam in terms of the growth rate of per capita expenditure showed significant increase which is 8.44 percent respectively. On the other hand the lowest growth of per capita expenditure in some of the sates in North-eastern region such as Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Sikkim has seen the negative growth in terms per capita expenditure. At the all India level the growth of per capita expenditure in higher education in that period recorded near 6 per cent in higher education which is less than the Assam, Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu.

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Figure 4 State-wise per-capita expenditure on higher education (percentages).

Source: Per-capita expenditure and growth rate calculated by researcher from various year of analysis of budget expenditure and MHRD reports

5.0 Conclusion

The government spending on higher and technical education across major states is much below the desired level. The expenditure on education especially in higher education is still far away from the perimeter prescribed by Kothari Commission and New Education Policy. Lower per capita expenditure in higher education has directly impacted the quantity and quality of higher education in the state. Less

government spending has resulted into lesser availability of quality choices and poor academic infrastructure in states. Inadequate funding certainly would seriously affect the quality and quantum of our higher education, which will have further implications for growth and equity (CABE, 2005). Form this study one could see that there is skewed nature in the public spending on higher education among the Indian state and also has wider gap in terms of quantitative growth in the higher education. With the initiation of economic transformation during 1990s, the allocations budget in higher education has been

-50

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squeezed off and this sector has go through in the dreadful phase. Governmental spending on education as a share of the central government's total budgeted expenditure has been falling for the past three years as compared to 2013-14, when education got 4.57% of the total expenditure; there has been a steady decline to 3.65% in 2016-17 (Economic Survey, 2016-17).

References:

Augusto Franco (1991), Financing higher education in

Columbia, The international journal of higher education research ,Springer.

Anuradha De, Tanuka E (2008) Public Expenditure on

Education in India: Recent Trends and Outcomes. Research Consortium on Educational Outcomes and Poverty.

All India Survey on Higher Education(2015-16), Ministry of

Human Resource Development, Government of India.

Borcherding E and R Deacons, (1972), the demand for the

services of non-federal governments, the American economic review, Vol 62, No 5.

Baldacci, E., M.T. Guin-Sui, and L. deMello, (2004).More on the Effectiveness of Public Spending on Healthcare and Education:

A Covariance Structure Model. Journal of International Development, No-15 (6): pp. 709-725.

Baldaui E, M T G Sui &Mallo, (2002), More on the Effectiveness of Public Spending on Health Care and Ducation: A Covariance Structure Model IMF Working paper

Bhakta, (2014), Impact of public spending on health and education of children in India: A panel simultaneous model, working paper, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai (December)

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Checchi, D. (2003). Inequality in incomes and access to

education: A cross-country analysis (1960-1995). World Institute for Development Economics Research Working Papers: 158. Helsinki, Finland: WIDER.

Central Advisory Board of Education (2005).Report of the CABE

Committee on Financing of Higher and Technical Education, New Delhi: NUEPA.

Carnoy M ( 2006), Rethinking comparative and the

international, comparative education review, Vol 50, University of Chicago press, Chicago, USA

Education Statistics at a Glance (2016), Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi.

Economic Survey (2016-17), Department of economic affairs,

Ministry of finance, Government of India (January).

Gupta S and M Verhoeven (2001), the efficiency of government

expenditure: experience from Africa, journal of policy modeling, Vol 23 (July)

Haddad (1988) Haddad D.W, M.Carnoy, et al (1990), Education

and Development, World Bank Discussion Papers, Washington DC USA.

Kothari Commission on Education (1964), Report of the

education commission (1964-66) education and national development, Ministry of education, Government of India.

Kaur B and S. Misra (2003), Social sector expenditure and attainment: An analysis of Indian states, Reserve bank of India

occasional paper.

Lucas, (1988), On the mechanics of economic development, university of Chicago, Chicago, USA

Musgrave R. and Musgrave P. (1984), Public Finance in Theory

and Practice, 4th edition.

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Ministry of Human Resources Development (2013-14) Analysis

of Budgeted Expenditure on Education from the year 1990-91 to 2013-14.Government of India, New Delhi.

Mankiw N, D, Romer and N, Weil (1992), A contribution to the

emperics of economic growth, the quarterly journal of economics, vol. 107 No. 2, (may, 1992), pp. 407-437.

Peacock, A.T. and Wiseman J. (1961), TheGrowth of Public Expenditure in the UK, in Brown and Jackson (1994).

Pascharopoulos (1977), Blauy (1982), The distributional effects of higher education subsidies economic of education review 2 (3) the perverse effects of public subsidizations of education or how equitable is free education? Comparative education review

Romer .P (1990), Endogeneous Technological change, Journal

of political economy, Vol., 98(5),

Report (2010), Joint report by the economic policy committee

and the directorate-general for the economic and financial affairs, European Union

Schultz (1981), Achievement in higher education (ed) investing

in people, Delhi Hindustan

The Robin’s Report (1963), Higher education report of the

committee appointed by Primenminister under the chairmanship of Lord Robbins, London

Tilak, J.B.G. (1997). The dilemma of reforms in funding higher education in India. Higher Education Policy, 10(1),

Tilak, J.B.G. and N .V . Varghese (1985) "Discriminatory pricing

in education",Occasional Paper No.8, N e w Delhi, NIEPA.

Tilak, J.B.G. (2004), Public Subsidies in the Education Sector in

India, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol-39, No 4, pp 343-359

Tilak, (2005), higher education in ‘Trishanku’: Hanging

between state and market, economic and political weekly, September

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University Grants Commission (2015-16), Report of higher

education in India, New Delhi, University Grants Commission.

.Vaizey J (1962), The economics of educaton, Macmillan, New

York

Wagner R. and Tollison R. (1876), Balanced Budgets,

Responsibility and the constitution, Sanfrncisco Institute, Sanfrancisco, cited in Haddad (1990).

Worldbank database (data.worldbank.orgwebsite accessed on

May 2017)

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TEACHING ENGLISH TO RURAL STUDENTS

V.Beulah Rani Lecturer in English

Hindu College Guntur

Abstract:

Learning English language is highly needed for knowledge, employment and uplift of social status. India is the world’s second largest English speaking country, But India lives in villages.

Especially in Andhra Pradesh rural students join in degree colleges without acquiring basic proficiency in English. So, Indian teachers of English find it difficult to teach English particularly in rural colleges where in the student come from poor families.

Therefore, the teachers should be more realistic than idealistic in teaching English dealing with the area of problems like pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary etc.. so the teacher should morally committed to teaching taking always human values into consideration.

Key Words: Proficiency in English – Spelling, Pronunciation – vocabulary – teaching grammer humourous

Introduction:

English is spreading in India used by 125 millions of people

with varying degrees of competence in spoken and written forms of 1.32 billions population. This is much more than the English speaking population each in Britian, the U.S. and Canada.

India now claims to be the world’s second largest English speaking country. Yet, English is the waterloo as well as the Cinderella of the Indian rural students. India lives in villages , but villages are weeping and cities are laughing just because of English barring the

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other reasons. However, in India English is the lingua franca and the associated official language.

Learning English language is highly needed for knowledge, employment and uplift of social status. Especially in Andhra Pradesh rural students join the degree colleges without the basic proficiency in English and leave the college without acquiring the communication

skills to use in day to day affairs. Therefore the under privileged students in rural A.P. lie on the teachers of English at the degree colleges.

In India , specially in Andhra Pradesh the classroom is the replica of the society in which we find many clusters of castes, creeds, languages etc. The A.P. state council of Higher Education changed the syllabus of English for degree students stressing the importance of speaking and listening skills. Language labs are established in most of the colleges. English paper has two parts as theory and practicals. In practicals students are tested in speaking and listening skills. Inspite of these there is deficient acquisition of English language skills among the rural students of A.P. in real life situations.

English became the world language born in a small country i.e. , England. It is all because of climatic conditions and International needs. So Indian teachers of English find it difficult to reach English

particularly in rural colleges where in the students come from poor families. Since independence we have adopted democracy and been adopting English, the hallmark of development.

After struggling through high school and junior college, the rural students join degree course with more knowledge of their mother tongue Telugu than that of English .Most of them do not buy prescribed English text books. On the contrary , the teachers go to the classes with textbooks and teach through translation method. The use of mother tongue is useful as for as the better understanding of the

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content of the text but not in acquiring the basic skills of English as teachers are translating and explaining everything in text in the mother tongue. The use of two languages in the classroom can be done in such a way to provide comprehensible input in the target language. Hence, mother tongue should not be used extensively. The teacher should speak 70% English and 30% Telugu , shuttling between them,

should maintain a balance between two. The teacher should deal pleasantly with the importance of English in India as well as in the world. The teachers should also know the familial background of the students.

To teach required skills of English by making the learning interesting , simple stratagies are suggested which include motivating the students by the teachers adopting motivational stratagies.

The teacher should ne more realistic than idealistic in teaching English , He/She should elicit the information from students of how much they have the knowledge of English and their mother tongue with reference to the skills of language , listening , reading, speaking and writing.

The area of problem in teaching English to rural students is pronunciation, which is a Herculean task for Indian English teachers. For that the teacher should depend on the phonetic script and advise

the student to follow the same from dictionaries.

The second problem is with spellings while dictating the notes and in speech. The student writes the abbreviation of example as ‘ex ‘ ( or ) ‘ Ex ’ , but not the correct one e.g. , which is abbreviation of exempligration. It is very difficult to explain them the difference between ’at’ and ‘yet’; ‘our’ and ‘hour’; ‘by’ and ‘buy’; ‘ here’ and ‘hear’ etc…

The third problem is with meaning which is infinite. It is better for students to go for Oxford dictionary for all practical purposes.

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Students should be advised to be alert in their every day conversation by giving them the anecdote like the following. It took place at a dinner in England in honour of Winston Churchill, the then great Prime Minister of England. At the dinner a good painter who was also a good friend of the Prime Minister sat beside him and when Churchill finished his dinner he went to the sink to wash his hands (it was the

habit of Churchill to keep his kerchief on the chair on which he had sat), and in the meanwhile his painter friend drew the face of a donkey on his kerchief which he saw and got irritated but controlled himself and asked in general air who had cleaned the face with his kerchief . The painter kept silent and Churchill got the upperhand. Really the students do not understand the anecdote as it is dealt with an English as usual and so it needs explanation in Telugu.

While dealing with grammar the examples are localized in a humorous way. Increased use of humour in English class enlivens the students. The group discussions are initiated for the overall improvement of students English language skills. Most of the teachers feel shy to use humour in the class consequently, the English language class becomes dull boring and uninteresting. But they should not. For example , while dealing with comma to show the danger of not using it whenever necessary , ask a student in the class to tell his name, say

Srinivas. Then frame the sentence, “Has the dog eaten, Srinivas?” Then the whole class enjoys the example, but the student concerned Srinivas feels a little bit embarrassed. To wipe out his embarrassment and to make them understand that they should use comma perfectly, rewrite the sentence( question) as “ Has the dog eaten Srinivas ? ” . Here , Srinivas is used only to address the person. Grammar is simply taught like mathematical or chemical formulas. Skills can be achieved only through practice, teachers can provide opportunities for such practices.

Pair work and Group Discussions are not often followed in the

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English class fearing that class may become noisy. Language experts say, “ A noisy language class is a good and effective class” .

Finally a teacher should morally committed to teaching , taking always human values into consideration. English teachers , especially those who teach rural students need to be very patient and systematic. They are expected to do miraculous job under adverse conditions. This

is a real challenge. They should not over look the seriousness behind the issue and it would deprive the students opportunities which are mainly attained through communication skills and the specific purpose of teaching English as a communicative tool would get lost.

Bibliography:

1. P.6 “ Teaching of English as a second language by J.A. Bright and G.P. Mc Gregor published by English language books society and Longman group limited. “

2. Adrian Doff , (2003) , Teach English , a training course of teachers , Cambridge University Press.

3. Krishna (2008), English language CS Duvvuri Publications, Machilipatnam.

4. Casper R. (1999) . Laughter and humour in the class room . Effects on test performance University of Nebraska . - Lincoln

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DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF ASSERTION OF INDIVIDUALITY AS AVAILABLE IN THE LIFE OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

Subrata Kumar Sahoo Assistant Professor

Satyapriya Roy College of Education AA-287 Salt-Lake, Kolkata

West-Bengal, India

Abstract:

The purpose of life should be going beyond all sorts of weakening and enervating ideas to make the thought process free from everything negative. Prior to the advent of Swamiji and his preaching in Europe and America, even intellectuals let alone the common run of people had no idea of what is called ‘assertion of individuality’ equivalent to Manliness in connotation. The present study shows how Swamiji introduced this idea all over the World and added a new meaning to life because without this ‘assertion of individuality’-everything is in vain.

Key Words: Manliness, Assertion of Individuality.

INTRODUCTION

It is a fact that in the wake of the rapid spread of Christianity and Papal authority (the recognition that the Pope is the spiritual leader of the Catholic Church and controls the Church’s doctrine or teaching.

Catholics believe the pope to have ultimate power granted by God and believe his decisions regarding faith and morality come from God) specially the doctrine of original sin, a large section of people of

Europe and America not only lost all faith in the religion of Christ but their onward progress was stifled, as it were, by this negative theology full of enervating ideas. The present work, ‘Different aspects of Assertion of Individuality as available in the life of Swami

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Vivekananda’ shows how Swamiji’s bold, unequivocal declaration

‘You are souls immortal, spirits free, blest and eternal’ 1 acted as

the sheet anchor to those huge number of suffering people.

Prior to the advent of Swamiji and his preaching in Europe and America, even intellectuals let alone the common run of people had no idea of what is called ‘assertion of individuality’ equivalent to

Manliness in connotation. The present study shows how Swamiji introduced this idea all over the World and added a new meaning to life because without this ‘assertion of individuality’-everything is in

vain. At present, the word ‘individuality’ has been replaced by

‘personality’, and we all know how vital the role of personality

development in every walk of life is.

a) When the root is FAITH IN ONE’S SELF the sprout is MANLINESS.

b) When the root is MANLINESS the sprout is STRENGTH.

c) When the root is STRENGTH the sprout is FEARLESSNESS.

MEANING OF MANLINESS

The meaning of Manliness is ‘the traditional male quality of being brave and strong’ according to English Oxford dictionary. While the definition of Manliness has been endlessly discussed and dissected in

scholarly tone, the definition of Manliness is actually quite straight forward according to Swami Vivekananda.

He first used the word ‘Manliness’ when he was a wandering monk. In Alwar, Rajputana (Rajasthan) in February 1891 he emphasized the idea of ‘Manliness’ as ‘personal exertion’. As quoted by Swamiji, “what is needed to attain truth is personal exertion. How can God have mercy on one who is devoid of such exertion? He who is wanting in manliness is full of Tamas (inertia). It was because Arjuna, the bravest of warriors, was going to lose his manliness that Shri Krishana

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commanded him to follow the course of life and duty proper to him, so that by fulfilling his duties without attachment of results, he might acquire the sattvic qualities- purity of heart, renunciation of work, and self-surrender. Be strong. Be manly. I have respect even for a wicked person so long as he is manly and strong, for his strength will someday make him give up his wickedness, and even renounce all work for

selfish ends. It will thus eventually bring him to the Truth.” 2

In a subsequent chapter of ‘The Master as I saw Him’ by Sister Nivedita, we find the word ‘Manliness’ used again by Swamiji, “The longer I live”, he( Swamiji) was once heard to ejaculate, “the more I think that the whole thing is summed up in manliness!” 3

The equivalent word of ‘Manliness’ are ‘Manhood’ and ‘Manly’ as used by Swamiji to a letter to Swami Akhandananda on 10th October 1897. “In our country we at present need manhood and kindness”. 4

In another conversation with his classmate Priyanath Sinha, Swamiji has mentioned a similar word ‘Manly spirit’. These words and the corresponding idea has come up again and again in Swamiji’s complete works because it the very basis of his philosophy.

Another reference of the word ‘Manhood’ is found in a letter to Alasinga Perumal from London in 1896: “Strength, manhood, Kshatra-Virya +Brahma-Teja” 5. To analyze this concept we can say that

Kshatra-Virya Physical strength + manhood

Brahma-Teja mental strength + manhood

To understand the word ‘Manliness’ we have also to comprehend the

meaning and connotation of the opposite word ‘unmanliness’, which

is equivalent to ‘cowardice’ in Swamiji’s philosophy. While describing the majesty of the Gita, Swamiji said: ‘That wonderful poem, without one note in it of weakness or unmanliness’ 6. Here the

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word ‘unmanliness’ means the complete absence of ‘personal exertion’ which was taught by Shrikrishana in the Gita.

Similar idea of ‘unmanliness’ is available in the letter of Swamiji to

Balaram Basu on 14th February, 1890---‘May the Lord ordain that your son becomes a man, and never a coward!’ 7

Connotation of the word ‘Manliness’ according to Swamiji is ‘Assertion of individuality’. ‘Assertion’ means ‘a statement that you strongly believe is true’ and ‘Individuality’ means ‘The aggregate of qualities and characteristics that distinguish one person or thing from others’ or ‘An individual or distinguishing feature’.

MEANING OF INDIVIDUALITY ACCORDING TO SWAMIJI

What is individuality? I should like to see it. A baby has no moustache; when he grows to be a man, perhaps he has a moustache and beard. His individuality would be lost, if it were in the in the body. If I lose one eye

or if I lose one of my hands, my individuality would be lost if it were in my body. Then, a drunkard should not give up drinking because he would lose his individuality. A thief should not be a good man because he would lose his individuality. No man ought to change his habits for fear of this. There is no individuality except in the infinite. That is the only condition which does not change. Everything else is in a constant state of flux. Neither can individuality be in memory. Suppose, on account of a blow on the head I forget all about my past; I have lost all individuality; I am gone. I do not remember two or three years of my childhood and if memory and existence are one, then whatever I forget is gone. That part of my life which I do not remember, I did not live. That is a very narrow idea of individuality. We are not individual yet. We are struggling towards individuality, and that is the Infinite, that is ‘the real nature of man’. 8 The above concept of ‘individuality’ can be

represented in the following diagram.

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In ‘The Paper on Hinduism’ 9 read at the Parliament of Religions in

Chicago on 19th September 1893 Swamiji has used two words :-

1) Infinite Universal Individuality

2) Little prison-individuality

The former is the real individuality while the latter is false individuality identified with either the body or some mental concept as shown in the diagram.

Another dimension of ‘individuality’ according to Swamiji is the strengthening, the disciplining of mind and increasing the power of

thinking for ourselves. In this section we can find out the way of attaining individuality in a flow chart.

Infinite = individuality

MM

Infinite = individuality

Physical Body

Habit Memory

MIND

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ASSERTION OF INDIVIDUALITY AS AVAILABLE IN THE LIFE OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

1. Courage coupled with presence of mind: One day, Swamiji

set out with a party by way of the Ganga for the Nawab’s zoological garden at Metiabruz, a suburb of Calcutta. When they were returning, one of the boys became sick and vomited in the boat. The boatmen were annoyed and insisted that they should immediately clean up the boat. They refused to do so, offering instead to pay double. The offer was rejected. On reaching the ghat, the men would not allow the boys to land and threatened then. While the boatmen were abusing the boys, Naren jumped ashore and asked two British soldiers walking nearby for help. In broken English he told his tale of woe. Slipping his small hands

into theirs, he led then to the scene. The soldiers understood the situation, and ordered the boatmen to release the boys. Terrified at the sight of the soldiers, the boatmen set the boys free without a word. 10

2. Strong-mindedness and fearlessness: ‘Even as a boy Naren

was strong-minded and fearless. Before the incident just mentioned, he had been assaulted by another teacher who thought he had made a mistake in geography. Naren insisted that he was in the right. Angered, the teacher ordered him to stretch out his hand. Naren did so and was struck on his palm again and again. He did not murmur. Shortly after, the teacher saw that it was he himself who had been in error. He apologized to the boy and thenceforth held him is respect. On this occasion as well Naren went to his mother, who consoled him and said, “If you are right, my boy, what does it matter? It may be unjust and unpleasant, but do what you think right, come what may.” .......The maxim he had learned, and which he followed always in life was, “Stick to your guns, dead or alive!” 11

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3. Dare-devilry (courage and independence of thought and action):- One day as Narendranath Dutta was swinging from the

Champaka tree, the old and nearly blind grand -father of the house was afraid that the boy might fall, and that he himself might lose his champaka flowers; he called Naren down and told him that he must not climb the tree again Naren asked the reason. The old man answered. “Because a Brahmadaitya (a ghost of Brahmin) lives in that tree, and at night he goes about dressed all in white, and he is terrible to look at.” The old man also rejoined, “And he breaks the necks of those who climb the tree.” Naren said nothing, and the old man went away smiling to

himself in triumph. As soon as he had gone some distance Naren climbed the tree. His friend remonstrated, “The Brahmadaitya is sure to catch you and break your neck. “Naren laughed heartily, and said, “What a silly fellow you are! Don’t believe everything just because someone tells you!” Why, my neck would have been broken long ago, if the old grandfather’s story were true.”

Thus, Swamiji’s dare-devilry evolved out of absolutely free and unbiased enquiry into the nature of Reality be it an individual or a society or a phenomenon with non-belief as the starting point. In this respect, he followed the path of Lord Buddha one of whose very significant utterances he quoted often, one he be believed to be the last message of Lord Buddha “Do not believe in what you have heard,” says the great Buddha, “do not believe in doctrines because they have been handed down to you through generations; do not believe in anything because it is followed blindly by many; do not believe because some old

sage makes a statement; do not believe in truths to which you have become attached by habit; do not believe merely on the authority of your teachers and elders. Have deliberation and analyse, and when the result agrees with reason and conduces to the good of one and all, accept it and live up to it.’ 12

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4. Innate fortitude and the difficulty of intimidation: One of

the teachers of the institution was a man of very ugly temper and given to beating the boys severely when he thought that discipline was needed. One day, as he was severely castigating a boy, Naren began to laugh form sheer nervousness, so revolted was he by the exhibition of brutality. The teacher now turned his wrath on Naren raining blows on him and demanded that he promise never to laugh at him again. When Naren refused the teacher not only resumed the beating, but

seized him by the ears as well, even going as far as lifting the boy up from the bench by them and damaging one ear, so that it bled profusely. Still Naren refused to promise. Bursting into tears of rage, he cried out, “Do not pull my ears, who are you to beat me? Take care not to touch me again. “At this moment Pandit Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar came in. Naren weeping bitterly, told him what had happened; then taking his books, he declared that he was leaving the school for good. Vidyasagar took him to his office and consoled him. When Naren’s mother heard of it, she was greatly incensed. She begged the boy not to return to the school; but he went the following day as though nothing had happened. 13

5. Courage: The incident which ‘revealed the boy as the man in

the making as was when Narendranath Dutta saved a theatrical performance from disruption. Right in the midst of the performance, a bailiff came onto the stage with a warrant to arrest on of the leading actors on some charge. That very moment Narendranath Dutta called out, “Get off the stage! wait until the end of the performance! What do

you mean by disturbing the audience like this?” Immediately a score of voices burst out in support; “Get off the stage ! Get off the stage!” And the bailiff retreated in bewilderment.14

6. Defiant of conventional thought: There used to come to

Narendranath Dutta’s house many of his father’s clients. They would sit together chatting until their turn for consultation came. They were

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of various castes; there was even a Mohammedan, with whom Narendranath Dutta was particularly friendly and each was provided with his own hookah. Caste was a mystery to the boy. Why should not a member of one caste eat with a member of another or smoke his hookah? What would happen if one did?

Would the roof fall in on him? Would he suddenly die? he decided to

see for himself. Boldly he went round the hookahs and took a whiff from each and every one. Just then his father entered. “What are you doing, my boy?” he questioned. “Oh, father! Why, I was trying to see what would happen if I broke caste! Nothing has happened!” The father laughed heartily and with a knowing look on his face walked into his private study.15

7. Extreme boldness (an outcome of manliness) : At the

beginning of February 1891 Swamiji was in the house of Major Ramchandraji, the Dewan of Maharaja Mangal Singhji of Alwar. The Dewan wrote to the Maharaj, who was at that time living in a palace two or three miles away, saying, “A great sadhu with a stupendous knowledge of English is here.” The very next day the Maharaja came to the Dewan’s house, The Maharaja opened the conversation by saying,” well, Swamiji Maharaj, I hear that you are a great scholar. you can easily earn a handsome sum of money every month. Why then do you go about begging?” The Swami replied with a home thrust: Maharaja, tell me why you spend your time constantly in the company of

westerners, go on shooting excursions, and neglect your duties to the state?” Those present were taken aback. “What a bold sadhu! he will repent of this”, they thought. “I cannot say why, but no doubt because I like to.” “Well, for the same reason I wonder about as a beggar”, rejoined the Swamiji. The next question the Maharaja asked was, “Well, Swamiji Maharaj, I have no faith in idol-worship. What is going to be my fate?” Holding the picture of Maharaja, Swamiji asked, “ whose picture is this?” The Dewan answered, “It is the likeness of our

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Maharaja Swamiji commanded the Dewan, “Spit on it”. He continued “Any one of you may spit on it.” But no one agreed to do so. 16

7. (b) Another incident of extreme boldness and fearlessness in the

life of Swamiji took place sometime in 1886-89 when he was in Baranagar Math. It was recorded by Nagendra Nath Gupta, a devotee of Shri Ramakrishna and an editor of Tribune published from Lahore.

Vivekananda with some of his fellow-disciples was living in a suburb of Calcutta quietly pursuing his studies and rendering such small social

service as came his way. One day he met a police officer who was a friend of Vivekananda’s family. He was a superintendent of police in the criminal Investigation Department, and had received a title and decoration for his services. He greeted Vivekananda cordially and invited him to dinner for the same evening. There were some other visitors when Vivekananda arrived. At length they left, but there were no signs of dinner. Instead, the host spoke about other matters until suddenly lowering his voice and assuming a menacing look he said,” come, now, you had better make a clean breast of it and tell me the truth. You know you cannot fool me with your stories for I know your game. You and your gang pretend to be religious men, but I have positive information that you are conspiring against the Government.” “What do you mean?” asked Vivekanda, amazed and indignant, “What conspiracies are you speaking of, and what have we to do with them?” “That is what I want to know” Coolly replied the police officer. “I am

convinced it is some nefarious plot, and you are the ringleader. Out with the whole truth, and then I shall arrange that you are made an approver.” If you know everything, why don’t you come and arrest us and search our house?” said Vivekananda, and rising he quietly closed the door. Now, Vivekanada was an athletic young man of a powerful build ,while the police officer was a puny, wizened creature. Turning round upon him Vivekananda said, “You have called me to your house on a false pretext and have made a false accusation against me and my

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companions. That is your profession. I, on the other hand, have been taught not to resent an insult. If I had been a criminal and a conspirator, there would be nothing to prevent me from wringing your neck before you could call out for help. As it is, I leave you in peace.” And Vivekananda opened the door and went out, leaving the redoubtable police officer speechless with ill-concealed fright. Neither

Vivekananda nor this companions were ever again molested by this man. 17

8. Wonderful display of outspokenness: In outcome of manliness — One day, in the presence of the courtiers of Maharaja of

Shri Chamarajendra Wadiyar of Mysore asked Swamiji, what do you think of my courtiers? “Swamiji boldly answered “Well, I think your highness has a very good heart, but you are unfortunately surrounded by courtiers,”. The Maharaja protested and said, “My Dewan at least is not such. He is intelligent and trustworthy.” “But, your Highness,” said the Swamiji, “a Dewan is one who robs the Maharaja and pays the political agent and courtiers are courtiers everywhere!” came the bold answer. “No, no, Swamiji.”The Prince changed the subject. Afterwards he called Swamiji to his private apartments and said,” My dear Swami, too much frankness is not always safe. If you continue to speak as you did in the presence of my courtiers, I am afraid you will be poisoned by someone.” The Swamiji burst out, “what! do you think an honest sannyasi is afraid to speaking the truth, even though it costs him his very life ?

Suppose, your Highness, your son should ask me tomorrow, Swamiji,

what do you think of my father? Am I to attribute to you all sorts of virtues which I am quite aware that you do not possess? Shall I speak falsely? Never! 18

9. (a) Self respect: From the childhood, Narendra Nath Dutta

knew how to maintain self-respect. He never hesitated to show due

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respect to others; at the same time he was not prepared to stomach unprovoked insult from any one. Narendranath was amazed one day when one of his father’s friends treated him with contempt for no reason at all. He was unfamiliar with such an attitude, for his parents had never considered him to be too young to be treated respectfully. ‘How strange’, he thought, ‘even my father never belittles me this way.’

Then he stood erect like a bruised king cobra and firmly said to the gentleman, “Look, there are many like you who think, age and intelligence are synonymous, but that is not so.” The gentleman readily admitted his error.19

9. (b) Self respect - Swamiji’s demonstrations of manliness before

the English at a time when millions of Indian cowered before the latter as sheep : Once in Rajputana (Rajasthan) Swamiji was sharing a railway compartment with two Englishmen, who took him for an illiterate beggar and began to crack jokes in English at his expense. At the next station they were astonished to hear him taking with the station master in perfect English. Embarrassed, they asked him why he had not protested against their rude words.

With a smile, Swamiji replied, ‘My friends, this is not the first time that I have seen fools!” The Englishmen became angry and wanted a fight.” But looking at the swamiji’s strong body, they thought that discretion was the better part of valour and apologized.20

9. (c) Self respect- Similar incident in which he taught in English

ticket collector a good lesson and instructed Munshi Jagmohanlal to practise self-respect.

At Abu Road station, a Bengali gentleman, and admirer of Swamiji, was sitting with him in the compartment. An English ticket-collector rudely ordered the Bengali gentleman out of the train. The gentleman was also a railway employee. He tried to convince the ticket collector that he had done nothing unlawful. But the ticket collector would not

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listen to him. Then there was a heated argument when Swamiji himself intervened. But the European, taking him to be an ordinary monk, said in an insolent manner, ‘Tum kahe bat karte ho?” which means “why do you meddle?” The Hindi word “Tum’ is used to address intimate friends or inferiors, while the word ‘AP’ denotes either equals or superiors. The disparaging ‘Tum’ angered Swamiji. He said, “What do

you mean by ‘Tum ? Can you not behave properly? You are attending to first and second-class passengers; and you do not know manners! Why do you not say ‘AP’? “Realizing his mistake, he ticket collector said,’ ‘I am sorry, I don’t know the language well. I only wanted this man......”. Swamiji interrupted him. ‘Just now you said you did not know Hindi well. Now I see that you do not even know your own language well. This ‘man’ of whom you speak is a gentleman! The ticket-collector, finding himself in the wrong, left the compartment. Speaking of this incident to Jagmohanlal the Swami said, “You see, what we need in our dealings with Europeans is self-respect. We do not deal with men according to their position, and so they take advantage of us. We must keep our dignity before others. Unless we do that, we expose ourselves to insult.”

Swamiji’s manliness i.e. ‘assertion of Individuality’ consisted not only in ‘self respect’ or ‘Atma Sraddha’ but also give back the lost

individuality of others specially the weaker people made them feel great.21

10. Introspection: One day Shri Ramakrishna was seated in his

room with Keshabchandra Sen, Vijaykrishna Goswami and other celebrated leaders of Brahmo Samaj, Narendranath was also present. In an exalted mood, the Master looked on Keshab and Vijay with a kind gaze. Then his eyes fell on Narendranath, and a bright picture of the young man’s future life suddenly appeared in his mind. The Master compared the advanced lives of Keshab and others with what he had seen of Narendra’s future, keeping his affectionate gaze on

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Narendranath. When Keshab and Vijay had left after the meeting, the Master said: “Keshab possess one power, which has made him world-famous, but Narendra is endowed with eighteen such powers. I have seen the divine light in Keshab and Vijay burning like a flame, but in Narendra it shines with the radiance of the sun, dispelling the last vestiges of ignorance and delusion.” If a weak man devoid of insight

had received such praise from Master, he would have been overwhelmed and filled with pride. But Narendra was different. His wonderfully intuitive mind dived within and began to impartially compare the innumerable good qualities of Keshab and of Vijay with his own mental condition at that time. Considering himself to be unworthy of such praise, he vehemently protested, saying to the Master: “Sir, why do you say such things? People will think you’re mad if you talk like that! Keshab is famous all over the world. Vijay is a saint. I’m an insignificant schoolboy. How can you speak of us in the same breath? Please, I beg of you, never say such thing again!” Pleased, the Master responded: “But what can I do about it, my child? You don’t suppose I’d say such things of my own accord? It was Mother who showed me the truth about you, and so I had to tell it. Mother has never lied to me.”22

The application of the process of introspection was extended by Swamiji in the following manner:

Introspection Plunged within self-Analysis Reject or accept the concept of highest authority in that field.

11. Truthfulness Special application of manliness: Speaking

one’s mind even if it hurt other’s sentiment: Swami Bhramananda formerly called Rakhal Maharaj was closely associated with Narendranath. Narendranath signed the agreement paper of Brahmo Samaj accepting the formless unique belief in God. Influenced by Narenderanath, Rakhal Maharaj also signed the paper. Shortly after this incident Rakhal Maharaj was blessed by the holy darshan of Shri Ramakrishna and his latent longing for worship of God with form was

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awakened. A few months after this Narendranath started coming to Shri Ramakrishna and was glad to meet Rakhal there. After a few days Narendranath observed that Rakhal Chandra was following Shri Ramakrishna and bowed down before the Deities. This was against the Brahmo creed. Narendranath, for whom truth was the supreme goal, was disgusted at this and took him to task severely making him recall

his earlier agreement. He said, “You are charged with falsehood in making pranams to different Deities even after signing the agreement with Brahmo Samaj.” Tender hearted Rakhal was silent and thenceforth was afraid of meeting him. Afterwards Shri Ramakrishna mediated and settled the issue. That was enough for Narendra and he never interfered with Rakshal’s attitude again.23

12. Absolutely free and unbiased enquiry into the Nature of reality be it an individual or a society or a phenomenon with non-belief as the starting point:

From the first it was Shri Ramakrishna’s idea to initiate Narendra into the truth of the Advaita Vedanta. With that end in mind he would ask Naren to read aloud passages from the Ashtavakra Samhita and other Advaita treatises in order to familiarize him with the teaching. To Narendra, a staunch adherent of the Brahmo Samaj, these writings seemed heretical. He would rebel saying, “It is blasphemous, for there is no difference between such philosophy and atheism. There is no greater sin in the world than to think of myself as identical with the creator. I am God, You are God, these created things are God — What can be more absurd than this! The sages who wrote such things must have been insane.” Shri Ramakrishna would be amused at this

bluntness and would only remark, “You may not accept the views of these seers, but how can you abuse them or limit God’s infinitude? Go on praying to the God of Truth and believe in any aspect of His which He reveals to you.” But Naren did not surrender easily. Whatever did not tally with reason, he considered to be false, and it was his nature to

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stand against falsehood. Therefore he missed no opportunity to ridicule the Advaita philosophy.24

13. Swamiji’s manliness i.e. ‘assertion of Individuality’ consisted not only in ‘self respect’ or ‘Atma Sraddha’ but also give back the lost individuality of others specially the weaker people made them feel great.

In December 1892 at Trivandrum, Swamiji came to Prof. K. Sundararama Iyer accompanied by a Mohammedan guide. As recorded by Prof. Iyer: ‘I took him upstairs, entered into conversation, and made him due obeisance as soon as I learnt what he was. At most the first thing he asked me to do was to arrange for his Mohammedan attendant’s meals. The Swami had taken almost nothing except a little milk during the two previous days, and only after his Mohammedan peon had been provided with meals and taken leave would he have any

thought bestowed on himself. 25

Another incident illustrates the same point. In 1892, Swamiji, Prof. Iyer Narayan Menon -friend of Prof. Iyer, Brahmin Dewan Peshkar, his brother Prof. Rangacharya and many others met at Trivandrum club. According to Prof. Iyer, Mr. Narayana Menon had, while leaving the club earlier in the evening, saluted the Brahmin Dewan Peshkar and the latter had returned it in the time- honoured fashion in which Brahmins who maintain old forms of etiquette return the salute of Shudras i.e. by raising the left hand a little higher than the right. Many members of the club had come and gone, and at last five of us were left, the Swami, the Dewan Peshkar, his brother, Prof. Rangacharya, and myself. As we were dispersing, the Dewan Peshkar made his obeisance to the Swami which the latter returned in the manner usual with Hindu monks by simply uttering the name of Narayana. This roused

the Peshkar’s ire, for he wanted the Swami’s obeisance, too, in the fashion in which he had made his own. The Swami then turned on him and said, “If you could exercise your customary form of etiquette in

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returning Narayana Menon’s greeting, why should you resent my own adoption of the Sannyasin’s customary mode of acknowledging your obeisance to me?” This reply had the desired effect, and next day the gentleman’s brother came to us and conveyed some kind of apology for the awkward incident of the night previous. 26

SIGNIFICANCE OF MANLINESS OR MANHOOD IN OUR PRESENT DAY CONTEXT-HOW IT CAN SOLVE PROBLEMS OF HUMAN LIFE:

The Gita requires a little preliminary introduction. The scene is laid on the battlefield of kurukshetra. There were two branches of the same race fighting for the empire of India about five thousand years ago. The Pandavas had the right, but the Kauravas had the might. The

Pandavas were five brothers, and they were living in a forest. Krishna was the friend of the Pandavas. The Kaurav would not grant them as much land as would cover the point of a needle.The opening scene is the battlefield, and both sides see their relatives and friends- one brother on one side and another on the other side……. when Arjuna sees his own friends and relatives on the other side and knows that he may have to kill them, his heart gives way and he says that he will not fight. Thus begins the Gita, For all of us in this world life is a continuous fight…………. Many a time comes when we want to interpret our weakness and cowardice as forgiveness and renunciation. There is no merit in the renunciation of a beggar. If a person who can (give a blow) forbears, there is merit in that. We know how often in our lives through laziness and cowardice we give up the battle and try to hypnotise our minds into the belief that we are

brave.

The Gita opens with this very significant verse: “ Arise, O Prince! Give up this faint-heartedness, this weakness! Stand up and fight!” Then Arjuna, trying to argue the matter (with Krishana), brings higher moral ideas, how non-resistance is better than resistance, and so on. He

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is trying to justify himself, but he cannot fool Krishana. Krishana is the higher self, or God. He sees through the argument at once. In this case (the motive) is weakness. Arjuna sees his own relatives and he cannot strike them-------. There is a conflict in Arjuna’s heart between his emotionalism and his duty. The nearer we are to (beasts and) birds, the more we are in the hells of emotion. We call it love. It is self-

hypnotization. We are under the control of our (emotions) like animals. A cow can sacrifice its life for its young. Every animal can. What is that? It is not the blind, birdlike emotion that leads to perfection----. (To reach) the eternal consciousness, that is the goal of man! There emotions has no place, nor sentimentalism, nor anything that belongs to the senses- only the light of pure reason.27

Swamiji gave the same ides of Manliness in ‘Karma-Yoga’. In reading the Bhagavad-Gita, many of you in Western countries may have felt astonished at the second chapter, wherein Shri Krishana calls Arjuna a hypocrite and a coward because of his refusal to fight or offer resistance on account of his adversaries being his friends and relatives, making the plea that non-resistance was the highest ideal of love. This is a great lesson for us all to learn, that in all matters the two extremes are alike; the extreme positive and extreme negative are always similar----. One man does not resist because he is weak, lazy, and cannot, not

because he will not; the other man knows that he can strike an irresistible blow if he likes; yet he not only does not strike, but blesses his enemies. The one who from weakness resists not commits a sin, and as such cannot receive any benefit from non-resistance; while the other would commit a sin by offering resistance.28

I am trying to illustrate this conception in line graph.

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Negative Positive

A man who cannot resist A man who can resist

Non-resistance resistance (Motive-weakness&cowardice) (Motive-unselfishness& Love)

Commits sin Commits sin

Arjuna interpreted his weakness and cowardice as forgiveness and renunciation. Most of the intellectuals do the same thing. Arjuna was called a coward and hypocrite by Sri krishana. We too belong to the same category. The solution is driving out all sentimentalism by the light of pure reason and this demand manly spirit and will power.

CONCLUSION:

Swamiji’s special purpose of advent in the age was not to preach any-ism or doctrines, nor to put forward any model like ‘art of living’ etc

as has been coined in recent times but to make men out of brutes. Thus we see that the most outstanding aspect of Swamiji ‘s personality and character was Manliness, Manhood, Faith in one’s self, Strength- whatever the term may be and this is what he taught the entire humanity. Swamiji’s Manliness i.e. ‘assertion of Individuality’ consisted not only in ‘self-respect’ or ‘Atma Sraddha’ but also give

back the lost individuality of others specially the weaker people made them feel great. We have to sit at Swamiji’s feet and learn from him how to keep our cool amidst all the tempests of life and the secret is

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this Manliness. This is a character trait which can be practised anywhere by anybody irrespective of caste, creed or sex and if practised sincerely, everybody will get the salutary result.

References

1. Paper on Hinduism: paper read at the Parliament of Religions, Chicago on 19th September, 1893; The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda (henceforth to be called CW), Volume1, page 11.

2. The Life of Swami Vivekananda by his Eastern and Western

disciples (henceforth to be called The Life) Vol.1, Advaita Ashrama, sixth Edition, 1989, page-271.

3. The Master as I saw him by Sister Nivedita (henceforth to be called The Master...), udbodhan, Ninth Edition, 1962 Chapter XII: Half-way Across the World, page-145.

4. Letter to Swami Akhandananda, 10th Oct.1897 CW, Vol.8, page-4. 5. CW, Vol.5, page-148. 6. Notes of some wanderings with Swami Vivekananda by Sister

Nivedita, CW Vol.9, page-370. 7. CW, Vol.6 page-245. 8. CW, Vol.2 ‘The Real Nature of Man’ page-73-74. 9. CW, Vol. 1, page-11. 10. The Life Vol. 1 page-37. 11. Ibid. page-34. 12. Ibid. page 30-31.

13. Ibid. page 33. 14. Ibid. page 38-39. 15. Ibid. page 23-24. 16. Ibid. page 268-270. 17. Reminiscences of Swami Vivekananda by his Eastern and Western

admirers, Advaita Ashrama, fourth Edition, 2004 page 8-9. 18. The Life Vol. 1 page 322-323.

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19. CW, Vol. 4 ,’The claims of religion’, page-173. 20. The Life Vol. 1 page 349-350. 21. Ibid. page 389-390. 22. Sri Ramakrishna and his Divine Play by Swami Saradananda,

translated by Swami Chetanananda, Vedanta Society of St.Louis,1st Edition,2003, page 790-791.

23. Free translation of Shri Shri Ramakrishana Lila Prasanga, by Swami Saradananda Vol.2 chapter 6,2nd section , Udbodhan Karyalaya ,page 78-79.

24. The Life Vol. 1 page 95-96. 25. Reminiscences of Swami Vivekananda by his Eastern and Western

admirers, Advaita Ashrama, fourth Edition, 2004 page 57. 26. Ibid. Page 57-58. 27. “Thoughts on the Gita,” Lecture Gita-II, 2nd Edition,2013, page 54-

56. 28. “Karma-Yoga” page 16-20.

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AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES IN ANDHRA PRADESH: A CASE STUDY OF CHITTOOR DISTRICT

Sannamelam Murali Mohan Research Scholar

Department of Commerce Sri Venkateswara University

Tirupati

Prof.K. Jayachandra Professor


Tirupati Abstract

The Agro-Processing industry in India plays a vital role in the national economic development and has potential to meet the local needs and export requirements. Some estimates suggest that in developed countries, up to 14.00 per cent of the total work force is engaged in agro-processing sector directly or indirectly. However, in India, only about 3 per cent of the work force finds employment in this sector revealing it’s under developed state and vast untapped potential for employment. It helps in processing agricultural products such as field crops, tree crops, livestock and fisheries and converting them to edible and other usable forms. Thus, transformation of agriculture through creating forward and backward linkages with industry has been emerging as an important option to overcome the increasing challenges of creating employment opportunities for increasing labour force and sustaining the livelihood of households in rural areas. Agro-industries confined in both organized as well as un-organized segments were facing variety of problems. The present study attempted to examine the problems of agro processing units i.e., problems raw materials, financial, marketing and others etc. This paper focuses on the Agro based industries in Andhra Pradesh: A Case study of Chittoor district.

Key Words: Agro-Processing industry transformation Development, Expectation Perceptions

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INTRODUCTION

Most important point in the agro-processing is that sizeable portion of raw material processed in them being rural based it has a very high employment potential with significantly lower investment. Further the agro-industry generates new demand on the farm sector for more and different agricultural outputs, which are more suitable for processing. On the other hand, development of these industries would relax wage goods constraints to economic growth by enhancing the supply of their products. In this context there is a need for improving the capacity of the agro-industries to harness backward linkages with agriculture and allied activities in order to efficiently convert part of the output to value added products acceptable to the domestic and international markets. This would generate employment opportunities for different types of skills through food processing, packaging, grading and distribution. At the same time this will transfer a size margin to farmers through market linkages. Considering the importance of agro-processing industries in the development perspectives of overall rural development in general and realizing the expected role of expanding this sector for achieving increasing employment opportunities and income level to overcome the emerging challenges of unemployment and poverty in rural areas of the State. Agro processing industries are facing many problems i.e, raw materials, finance, marketing and others.

The most important long-run economic problem facing by country is unemployment. Particularly disguised unemployment and this problem are becoming increasingly acute day by day in spite of the planned efforts to tackle it. The increase in unemployment has been mainly due to the increase in the labour force unmatched by a similar increase in employment opportunities. This fact highlights the vital importance not only of checking population growth but also of expanding employment opportunities by means of rapid industrialization.1

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DEFINITIONS OF AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES

1. Agro-based industries are those, which are involved in supplying the farm with agricultural inputs besides handling the products of the farm.2

2. Agro-based industries are those industries which have either direct or indirect links with agriculture.3

3. An agro-industry is an enterprise that processes raw materials, including ground and tree crops as well as livestock. The degree of processing can vary tremendously, ranging from the cleaning and grading of apples to the milling of rice, to the cooking, mixing, and chemical alteration that create a texturized vegetable food. Agro industries can be roughly categorized according to the degree the raw material is transformed. In general, capital investment, technological complexity, and managerial requirements increase in proportion with the degree of transformation.4

4. Agro-industrial integration can be defended as an organic link between agriculture and the industries that use agricultural raw materials on the one hand, and the industries that manufacture 27 agricultural inputs and agriculture that uses them on the other. The first are called agro-based industries or processing industries and the second are called agriculture based industries that produce agricultural inputs.5

NATURE AND SCOPE OF AGRO-BASED INDISTRIES

The definition coined by the units nations Industrial Development organization restricts the scope of agro-industries in as much as it includes only those industries which utilize the raw material of agriculture including fisheries and forestry husbandry including dairy agriculture, sericulture, meat and poultry do not specifically come under its purview besides packing industry which is included as agro-allied industry does not

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properly come in the concept as this industry littlies the raw materials mainly from forestry and its end use extends into agro allied industry. Thus a more viable and clear conception needs to be projected to clearly demarcate various areas based on utilization and fictional criteria. This also leads us to some other industries such as compost making were agricultural work is manly utilized for en use as input apiculture sericulture and lace culture which do not directly utilize agricultural production but are mainly concerned with rearing of honey bees skill worms and lace insects respectively and the cold storage which only has the purpose of protection and conservation of produce.

As such Agro-Industries can be defined as those industries which are dependent on agriculture and on which agriculture is dependent. It can be further elucidated as those industries which utilize the agricultural produce for processing or Fabrication of products used in agricultural production or commercial purposes.

Agro-industrial integration, agriculture receives its requirements from the one and supplies its produce to the other. Naturally this involves an integration of agriculture with the other two kinds of industries. In such integration the location of industries becomes important. It must be in the village or at a place very near the village so that the raw materials produced locally might be processed there and the required agricultural inputs may be produced there with all the consequential advantages of generating additional employment income and investment.6

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objective is to study the Agro based industries in Andhra Pradesh: A Case study of Chittoor district.

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METHODOLOGY

This paper is based on secondary data. Secondary data from various reports and existing work on the topic has been analyzed to arrive at certain results in India.

AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Agro-based industries in Andhra Pradesh cover a wide range of activities utilizing farm, animal and forestry based products as raw materials. Due to this wide range of activities, there is a lot of diversity in the nature of problems and issues relating to different agro-based industries in Andhra Pradesh. The agro industry is regarded as an extended arm of agriculture. The development of the agro industry can help stabilise and make agriculture more lucrative and create employment opportunities both at the production and marketing stages. The broad-based development of the agro-products industry will improve both the social and physical infrastructure of India. Since it would cause diversification and commercialization of agriculture, it will thus enhance the incomes of farmers and create food surpluses.

The agro-industry mainly comprises of the post-harvest activities of processing and preserving agricultural products for intermediate or final consumption. It is a well-recognized fact across the world, particularly in the context of industrial development that the importance of agro-industries is relative to agriculture increases as economies develop. It should be emphasized that ‘food’ is not just produce. Food also encompasses a wide variety of processed products. It is in this sense that the agro-industry is an important and vital part of the manufacturing sector in developing countries and the means for building industrial capacities.

The agro industry helps in processing agricultural products such as field crops, tree crops, livestock and fisheries and converting them to edible and other usable forms. The private sector is yet to actualize the full

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potential of the agro industry. The global market is mammoth for sugar, coffee, tea and processed foods such as sauce, jelly, honey, etc. The market for processed meat, spices and fruits is equally gigantic. Only with mass production coupled with modern technology and intensive marketing can the domestic market as well as the export market be exploited to the fullest extent. It is therefore imperative that food manufacturers understand changing consumer preferences, technology, with modernization, innovation and incorporation of latest trends.7

Type of agro based industries in Andhra Pradesh

1. Village Industries owned and run by rural households with very little capital investment and a high level of manual labour; products include pickles, papad, etc.

2. Small scale industry characterized by medium investment and semi-automation; products include edible oil, rice mills, etc.

3. Large scale industry involving large investment and a high level of automation; products include sugar, jute, cotton mills, etc.

AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES IN CHITTOOR DISTRICT

The agro-based industries assume great significance in the context of a developing country like India where agriculture accounts for over 35 per cent of the national income and about two-thirds of the working population. Over three-fourths of Indian population lives in rural areas. Agro-based industries have great priority in the rural areas since they could be instrumental in fostering strong linkages between the agricultural and industrial sectors and in enhancing the employment potential.

The role of ago-based industries is most significant both in respect of employment and value added by manufacture, not only in the developing economies but also in the highly developed economies of the word. The

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ago-based industries constitute the backbone of a developing economy. These industries have become an indisputable weapon in bringing into existence a harmoniously balanced, integrated, socioeconomic order in the world economy.

Agro-based industries mainly depend on agricultural outputs. Based on the availability of products in a particular area, that particular type of agro-based industry is started. For example, where there is more paddy cultivation, in that area we find more rice mills. Different types of agro-based industries comprising dal mills, oil mills, rice mills, fruit pulping, tamarind decoration, cotton ginning mills, tobacco etc., are functioning in Chittoor district.

The total number of ago-based industries in Chittoor district has increased from 383 units in 2009-10 to 695 units in 2014-16 with 81.46 per cent growth rate. The number of ago-based industries in the state has increased from 8,579 units in 2009-10 to 15,843 units in 2014-15 with 84.67 per cent of growth rate. With regard to tobacco industry there is decrease in number of units in Chittoor district and in the State also. But in the case of manufacture of food products and beverages, textile units in Chittoor district and the State, an increasing trend has been observed. In the rest of the categories there is increase in number in Chittoor district and state.8

FINDINGS OF AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES

1. The impact of ago-based industries on the occupational positions of agriculturists was minimal, for very few agriculturists participated in the entrepreneurship of ago-based industries.

2. The establishment of ago-based industries brought about significant changes in the occupational positions of agricultural workers. The role of agro-based industries was vital in improving the occupational status

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of agricultural workers, for they provided seasonal employment to agricultural workers in the non-agricultural season.

3. Agro-based industrial occupations have emerged as a new and important dimension in the occupational structure of the rural areas as a result of the setting up of ago-based industries.

4. A great majority of the workers employed in agro-based industrial units were drawn from the agricultural sector, particularly from the wage-earning occupations. The local agricultural workers took up most of the unskilled, semi-skilled and manual jobs in agro-based industries.

5. There was a shift from non-remunerative and less prestigious agricultural occupations to more remunerative and better agricultural occupations. In rice milling, tobacco processing sugar, the rural population employed earlier in agriculture was substantially benefited. But in the sugar factory, only those employed in unskilled jobs in the season were drawn from agricultural occupations.

6. The shift in or increase in the number of occupations depends upon the nature of employment in ago-based industries.

7. The role of agriculturists is pivotal in starting the khandsari sugar factories and rice mills.

8. The setting up of ago-based industries in or around rural areas influenced the wage levels and occupational structure of the workers in rural areas. This was true for all the four selected villages irrespective of the nature of the agro-based industry situated in each of them.

9. The role of ago-based industries was very significant in increasing the incomes of the households of the workers employed in agro based industries. More significant is the fact that the households o lower income groups benefited much, and that almost all the households were elevated to higher income groups.

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CONCLUSION

The development of agro based industries can help to realise the various linkages or inter-relationships between industry and agriculture. Agro processing industries brings immense benefits to the people to the economy and speed up industrialization process. If the agro based industries are developed it will be possible to reduce regional imbalances and also to realise the essential goal of rural development of generating employment opportunities on a large scale for the weaker sections of the rural society. However it has a significant place in Chittoor District in relation to agriculture production. Therefore, it has great scope for development in the district. Hence it must be promoted extensively; existing units in this sector are found facing many problems which affect their operation. In this context the recommendation are much help to the policy makers of the state who are engaged in framing Agro Processing Industrial policies.

REFERENCES

1. Dr.V. Venkaiah Impact of Agro-Based Industry on Rural Economy. Himalaya Publication Mumbai-1996, P-17-18.

2. India - Famine Enquiry Commission, 1944 3. S N Bhattacharya, - Rural Industrialization in India, B R

Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1980, p 192; 4. India - (Planning Commission) Village and Small Industries Sector

Framework, New Delhi, July 1988, p 7. 5. Ibid - Page No.22. 6. Badar A. Iqbal., (1981), "Agro-Based Industries: Performance and

Prospects", Printwell Publishers, p.3. 7. "The Financial Express", Bombay, June 23, 1975.

DIC in chittoor district 2015-16.

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ECO CRITICISM IN THE SHORT STORIES OF RUSKIN BOND:A CRITICAL STUDY

Pattan Moulali Khan Research Scholar Dept. Of. English

Acharya Nagarjuna University Guntur, Andhra Pradesh

Dr.M. Suresh Kumar Research Supervisor

Dept. Of. English Acharya Nagarjuna University

Guntur, Andhra Pradesh

Introduction:

Ruskin Bond raises many a vital ecological issues in his shorter

fiction. He is a virtuous of the atmosphere that is a mute and a hapless sufferer in guy’s brutal battle with nature. His testimonies are elegies in prose, which record his protest against

the risks of urbanization to the surrounding. Bond’s eco-centric ‘faith’ promulgates the sacredness of nature. His ideology is antithetical to the anthropocentric angle of the west. The

foundation of all evils lies in humankind’s alienation from its unique cohesion with nature. The remedy lies in a reunion among humankind and the environment.

Key Words: Environment; Ecocriticism; Nature; Short Stories; Sensibility and Responsibility; Protection of environment; Mission.

Ruskin Bond’s Ecocriticism:

Environment is the key worry of the contemporary world. Ecocriticism is a method of artistic feedback that expects to think

near the association amongst Ecology and Literature. Inventive essayists and the scholarly world connect with this substantial issue. Ruskin Bond is a standout amongst the most prominent

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contemporary short story, scholars of late circumstances. He dwells in Mussoorie, at the foothills of the Himalayas. The area is

honored with a wealth of regular magnificence, widely varied vegetation. The Bond is on edge about the expenditure of the indigenous habitat at the cost of urbanization and commercial

enterprise. His concerned nervousness is reflected in his short stories. Painted with adoration, his pure, honest characters depict

his affection for nature; they collaborate with creatures, trees, and blooms; they mirror his worry and his energy to protect the earth through tree manner; the stories feature the essential

nearness of his grandfather as a passionate naturalist; the excellence and appeal of the slopes and Tigers frequents him; or more every one of his stories rouse in the peruse a feeling of

responsibility and duty to the earth.

One of the essential points of Ecocriticism is to move human states of mind from human-centric view to bio-centric one. There

is no denying the way that this field of study has picked up significantly today more in light of its interdisciplinary standpoint. Ruskin Bond's works assume a notable role in re-

evaluating our demeanors towards nature. As a social lobbyist, Bond remains against our bleak way of life and battles of sustaining the natural understanding. The picturesque settings

of Dehra, Mussoorie, and Landour in his works perpetually demonstrate his profound established confidence in the recuperating energy of nature.

Bond's actual worry for biological congruity calls forward our social headway methodically. Estok tried to regard eco-criticism as a hypothesis and focused on that the extent of it gets widened

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in light of its capacity to join an assortment of speculations, for example, women's activist, Marxist, post-structuralist,

psychoanalytic and historicist. Other than having confidence in making ‚connection‛ Ecocriticism has learned to think past‚ Nature Writing‛ and guarantees, Estok closes, to offer more

associations, more profound grant, and, in the event that we do it legitimately, better impact in this vexed world. ‛ Unlike the awful

fate of environment in ‚Death of the Trees‛, My Father's Trees in Dehra‛ represent sheer good faith and shared sensibilities. Human holding with trees most likely determines the best

articulation here.

Ruskin Bond, through these stories, asks our support not exclusively, to notice how human and non-human reliance acts,

all the same in addition to noticing out that shielding nature is fundamental from a moral point of sentiment for better and planned future. The writer's important motion to take the role of

an eco-fault finder is plainly obvious through the perusing of these levels. Bond quietly identifies our over ambitious progression and pinpoints the required amendment, puts us

versus an unremarkable reality to reevaluate and comments Nature to influence us to understand that Her beatitude participates as a dynamic member in human instinct interchange.

Ruskin Bond as an upset and concerned author features the issues of the condition. Ecocritics have an indispensable role to act in the assurance of the dry land. The linkage between

exploratory writing, the scholarly community, government and non-government associations demonstrate that there is a brilliant

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covering in the billows of misery. Mission mode must be touched off in every one of the natives of the globe.

Ruskin Bond’s Love of Nature

In Ruskin Bond's exposition fiction, nature dependably is by all accounts well disposed and it leaves a sentiment warmth and

security in the hearts of the per users. Bond has produced a cozy association with the Himalayas. He has focused on progressively the neighborhood components of the Himalayas in his writings.

Bond has caught the gentle fragrance, dispositions and basic honesty of the worldwide population and geology of the Doon

valley, basically in every one of his works. Vast numbers of the Bond‟s stories are in Landour cantonment in the upper scopes of Mussoorie. His books will forever save the unspoiled hush and

quiet of the Garhwal Himalayas and the energy dread and feeling of experience related to the probe.

Bond’s decree of right appointment of nature, of people is the

need of capital importance. Despite the fact that people are subject to nature for their endurance, they should come backwards on right valuation for nature. They ought not to

devour the characteristic assets out of avarice rather ought to apply them as per their demand. Cultivate in Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature Quotes Bukharin to underscore man‟s

reliance on nature accordingly: "Man as a creature frame, and also human culture, are results of nature, some portion of this extraordinary, perpetual entirety. Human beings can never break

loose from nature, and notwithstanding, when he controls nature, he is just making use of the laws of nature for his own particular closures".

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Nature has assumed a vast role in molding Bond the man and the artisan. The slopes and the stream, the blossoms and the trees

have all gone into molds his identity. They work out in his stories regularly and link them together in an instance. Nature has consequently been an overwhelming factor in the stories of

halting the tireless chopping down of trees, which is irritating the sensitive adjust of nature. In "Rain in the Mountains," Bond‟s

reaction to nature is intuitive as is noticeable in one of his rhymes:

Like the rain, I sing Like the leaves, I move Like the earth, I am

still And in this, Lord I do they will.

Subsequently, the Bond’s state of mind in nature starts from straightforward tactile enjoyments and comes full circle into

humanism; his fiction tenderly acquires us back to nature request to recapture our primitive guiltlessness and confidence.

An Eco-Critical Analysis of Ruskin Bond’s Short Stories

One of the essential points of ecocriticism is to move the human dispositions from human-centric view to biocentric one. There is no denying the way that this sphere of study has picked up

significantly today more as a consequence of its interdisciplinary standpoint.

Bond's works in developing eco-basic mindfulness yet, in addition,

to extend the fundamental relationship and trust amongst the steady and physical world and how they form the social agreement and breathe life in the scholarly community in the

light of Estok's sorted out accentuation on biological mindfulness and basic human holding with nature.

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Dust on the Mountain‛ portrays ecocide at slope zones. Bond's actual fondness for trees and unfeeling human exercises are

similarly punctuated. The story starts with Bisnu's like to discover his fortunes at Mussoorie to provide food his family need and his ensuing transport, travel just to get astounded the

disastrous downfall of trees by the backwoods ransacks. Bisnu happened to recognize how the trees twist into a solution of

human benevolence. The brutal judgments which were flourishing at the innocent, rather altruistic nature, is revealed.

In the event that ‚Dust on the Mountain‛ reveals the dark side of

deforestation, The Leopard‛ portrays grim human conduct and scrutinizes human obliviousness of non-human assets. The story requests that we review the treachery acted against an honest

panther. The unlawful chasing for skin, the expansion of overall interest in meat and biomedical research, the inadequacy of natural surroundings and preservation are a portion of the key

ecological issues taken up by Bond, who here inclinations basic reactions from earthy people and social masterminds of differed scholarly fields.

In Death of the Trees, ‛ the frightful picture of deforestation titillates our sense: ‚The inconvenience is, not really anybody (except for the temporary worker who purchases the felled trees)

truly trusts that trees and bushes are necessary‛. The story double-crosses a cold-blooded executing of mountain trees and demonstrates that the absence of natural respectability

strengthens contamination and loathsome results. The lives of trees have been stopped for human helpful vivifies another human-centric method to guarantee dispossessed of any moral

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insights. Bond uncovered how common death specifically influences the creature world, which is unfailingly disregarded by

the Public Works Department (PWD):The blasts that constantly smash the hush of the mountains—as thousand-year-old rocks are dynamited—have scared away everything except the most

valiant of feathered creatures and creatures.

Not at all like the lamentable fate of environment in ‚Death of

the Trees‛, ‚My Father's Trees in Dehra‛ represents sheer good faith and shared sensibilities. Human holding with trees most likely determines the best articulation here. In this touching

story, the storyteller regards his most loved Dehra as an amicable place to trees due to its gainful air. The story hovers around Bond's feeble father's personal partiality with trees to such an

extent that he feels glad and charged at whatever point he is among the trees' easeful organization.

Ruskin Bond, through these stories, asks our investment not

exclusively, to discover how human and non-human reliance acts, yet in addition to finding out that shielding nature is fundamental from a moral point of view for better and planned

future. The writer's vital signal to assume the part of an eco-commentator is obviously unmistakable through the perusing of these stories.

Thematic Concerns Of Ecocriticism in The Selected Short Stories Of Ruskin Bond

The Theme is something that rises up out of the dark framework

the author gives. In an expanded sense, a theme "may just be a trademark perspective of life that overruns a story". It is the

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general vision or life of the more unequivocal recommendation about human experience that writing offers on. Consequently,

topic includes the controlling thought or philosophical subject, which to a great extent decides the choice and association of the textile in a story. This vision or idea is a perfect circumstance

grows from the filth of the author's interest.

Bond's topics are of an astonishing and lovely variety. His

inventive word has been worked around plots drawn from adoration, pets, creatures, vagrants and strange kids, Indianness, nature and contemporary spirit. It is the world as basic as

workmanship and as simple as life. Every story is an investigation of a topic and method.

The Bond's anecdotal world is inhabited with people of any age

having a place in the center and lower classes of the north India. These qualities are shown in various social and household links. Like the universe of Bond's peers, Bond's general public to be

male-overwhelmed yet his sensitivity is dependable with kids and lady characters. Bond's topic constantly focuses on human connections and any they may represent. He puts his characters

in milieus that request multi-faceted connections. To him, family relationship, notwithstanding, is the key piece of life.

Theme of Nature and Animals

Nature is a noteworthy topical occupation in Bond's short stories. He demonstrates the immense fondness amongst trees and men. It is not just a question of nature portrayal as an account

strategy, yet an honest to goodness feeling in the regular world.

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Bond sees man and nature in his own peculiar way. He sees men and ladies as poor animals in light of the fact that the world is

excessive with them. This matter of the impact of nature of the human race is the most imposing part of Bond's world. The vast majority of Bond's titles and depictions rely on nature e.g. "The

Coral Tree", "The Window", "The Prospect of Flowers", "The Cherry Tree", "My Father's Trees in Dehra", "Jaguar's Moon",

"The Leopard", "Sita and the River", "When You Can't Climb Trees Any More", "Demise of the Trees", "The Daffodil Case", "The Funeral", "From Small Beginnings", "It isn't Time That is

Passing", "The Last Tonga Ride", "Clean on the Mountains", "Tiger, Tiger, Burning Bright" and "The Garden of Memories" and so forth. That path, similar to others, Bond's tendency likewise

incorporates slopes and mountains, waterways and spring; lakes and seas, dry land and sky, the wind, downpours, woods, trees, plants and blossoms, the sunlight, the moon and stars and then

forward. However, his standpoint is positively not quite the same as the point of view of others.

The story "Love is a Sad Song" was really composed under the

cherry tree. The stories like "The Coral Tree", "My Father's Trees in Dehra", "When You Can't Climb anymore" are the signs of this affiliation. The legend in "The Last Tonga Ride" comes back to his

old father's house to restore his association with the tree. It's inviting touch, yet after the slip by of numerous decades recharges his heart; The story "A Tiger in the House" is another

moving record of confidence between the grandfather and the fledgling called Timothy. The story "The Last Tonga Ride" restores the sentiment of a Tonga ride on the grand streets of

Dehra, bordered by the rich green land on the two sides."The

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Blue Umbrella" is a less energizing yet an all the more moving account.

Bond expects to spread love and comprehension among all animals of the world and youngsters are the most dynamic beneficiaries of his vision. Bond has faith in the everlasting status

and transmigration of the person. The reality that physical body perishes and blends with the clean from which it springs is

reflected in his accounts. Bond shares numerous Indian originations about nature. His state of mind is not that of a naturalist as it were. On occasion, he is near agnosticism, which

molds a piece of the Indian psyche.

Conclusion

Ruskin Bond as an unsettled and concerned author features the

issues of the environment. Perusers share his nervousness. Eco-commentators have an essential part to play in the security of the earth. The linkage between exploratory writing, the scholarly

community, government and non-government associations demonstrate that there is a brilliant coating in the billows of low. Mission mode must be touched off in every one of the occupants

of the macrocosm.

References:

1. Ruskin Bond, “Prologue”, Rain in Mountains, New Delhi:

Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd, 1996, p. 19

2. Ruskin Bond. The Lamp Is Lit: Leaves from a Journal. New Delhi: Penguin, 1998, p.13.

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3. Bond, Ruskin. Angry River, in The Ruskin Bond‟s Children‟s Omnibus. New Delhi: Rupa Publications India Pvt. Ltd., 1995.

Print.

4. The Complete Story& Novels. New Delhi: Viking by Penguin Books India(P) Ltd., 1996. Print.

5. Bond, Ruskin. ‚Death of the Trees.‛ Dust on the Mountain: Collected Stories. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009. 460-61. Print.

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SOCIAL INCLUSION OF INTERSTATE MIGRANT LABOURERS IN KERALA AND ROLE OF LOCAL SELF

GOVERNMENTS

Mr. Sojin P. Varghese Ph.D. Research Scholar

Loyola College of Social Sciences University of Kerala, Trivandrum

Dr. Sonny Jose Head and Associate Professor Department of Social Work

Loyola College of Social Sciences University of Kerala, Trivandrum

Abstract

The recent trend in the employment sector in Kerala shows a large inflow of migrant workers from other states such as West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, besides the neighbouring states. Working conditions of the inter-state migrant workmen are dealt under the Inter State Migrant Workmen Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service Act 1979. As per the provisions of the Act, the contractor has to obtain a recruitment license from the state from where the workers are recruited (Original State) and an employment license from the state where they are employed (Recipient State). Accordingly the contractor and the principal

employer become liable for ensuring the provisions envisaged in the enactment as an immediate employer and the principal employer respectively. But usually these workers cannot be brought under the purview of the enactment due to lack of statutory ingredients required to attract the ambit of the enactment such as an intermediary third party/contractor between the principal employer and the workmen. These workers are compelled to live in groups in unhygienic conditions near their working place without proper health facilities. These Interstate Migrant Labourers (IML) are engaged in different areas such as agriculture, construction, hotel and restaurant, manufacturing and trade. It is seen that 60% of the migrant workers are engaged in the construction sectors, 8% in manufacturing, 7% under hotels and

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restaurants, 2% each under trade and agriculture and the remaining 21 per cent engaged under other activities (Economic Review, 2016).

Growth of transportation and communication has facilitated easy movement of people from one place to another. Such movements result in substantial social transformation. For Interstate Migrant Labourers (IMLs), Kerala is a better destination offering better economic and

social conditions. Bustamante (2011) points out that “migrants are inherently vulnerable as subjects of human rights from the time they leave home”. The Interstate Migrant Labours (IMLs) hold an influential role in Kerala economy by means of their service in different sectors. Every nook and corner of the state, IMLs are found in the same way as Keralites are found in GCC countries in the Middle East and US and Europe. Though the migrants working in public sectors and IT industries are generally treated well, the IMLs, especially those working in unorganized sectors, are not treated in a desirable manner. In good many cases, they are often exploited.

The access of migrant population in the state to the social security services is almost nil, especially with regard to health care needs and many public care services remain inaccessible to them due to numerous socio-cultural, linguistic and economic barriers. This sudden and large influx of IMLs has triggered apprehensions in the minds of the local

populace. Poor sanitation resulting in epidemic hauling, unhygienic barrack-like accommodation provided to them by the local contractors and employers etc. pose a threat to health achievements of the state. Lack of integration with the local population makes it difficult for them to avail the prevailing local wages, the support systems and other security measures. When language barriers are high and the workers are physically isolated from the surrounding population, the chances of abuse and exploitation increase. Due to language barriers, they are often confined to the worksite, unknown about the prevailing wages and social security measures in the state.

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“Kerala Migrant Workers Welfare Scheme” covers accident and death benefit to the registered migrant worker. “Awaz” is a health insurance scheme and “Apna Ghar Programme” is on its way of implementation which would provide healthy and hygienic housing facilities for the migrant workers. Though these programmes aim at the social security of the migrant workers more comprehensive programme and policy is

the need of hour. The social inclusion of the workers lags far behind. Local Self Governments (LSGs) can act a vital role in integrating migrant labourers, the so-called guest workers into the host society, Kerala. LSGs can take lead role in integrating other departments like health, education, labour, etc. for the security and welfare of the workers and state. Migrant facilitation centres in local bodies with labour bank will enable the workers to identify employers and suitable job which would mandate over fair wage and good working condition and healthy stay. On arrival one time registration of migrant workers at nearest LSGs should facilitate the workers in accessing inimitable social security measures for them in the State. State’s general social security measures including health and education need to be more migrant friendly. This would meanwhile bring security to the state also. “Migrant workers gramasabha” naming Bhai Panchayat and discussions and deliberations on their needs and issues would create a

feeling of oneness among them. Though migrant workers are aliens in the real sense, they contribute to the socio-economic development of the state considerably. Like in the foreign countries, Kerala also need to welcome and receive the guest workers in an inclusive manner protecting their social security and security of the state.

Key concepts: Interstate migration, Migrant worker, Social security,

Social inclusion, Local Self Governments Full Paper

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Introduction

The recent trend in the employment sector in Kerala shows a large inflow of migrant workers from other states such as West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, besides the neighbouring states. Working conditions of the inter-state migrant workmen are dealt under the Inter State Migrant Workmen Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service Act 1979. But usually these workers cannot be brought under the purview of the enactment due to

lack of statutory ingredients required to attract the ambit of the enactment such as an intermediary third party/contractor between the principal employer and the workmen. These workers are compelled to live in groups in unhygienic conditions near their working place without proper health facilities. These Interstate Migrant Labourers (IML) are engaged in different areas such as agriculture, construction, hotel and restaurant, manufacturing and trade etc. It is seen that 60 % of the migrant workers are engaged in the construction sectors, 8 % in manufacturing, 7 % under hotels and restaurants, 2 %each under trade and agriculture and the remaining 21 % engaged under other activities (Economic Review, 2016).

Growth of transportation and communication has facilitated easy movement of people from one place to another. Such movements result in substantial social transformation. For Interstate Migrant Labourers (IMLs), Kerala is a better destination offering better economic and

social conditions. Bustamante (2011) points out that “migrants are inherently vulnerable as subjects of human rights from the time they leave home. The Interstate Migrant Labours (IMLs) hold an influential role in Kerala economy by means of their service in different sectors. Every nook and corner of the state, IMLs are found in the same way as Keralites are found in GCC countries in the Middle East and US and Europe. Though the migrants working in public sectors and IT industries are generally treated well, the IMLs, especially those

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working in unorganized sectors, are not treated in a desirable manner. In good many cases, they are often exploited.

The access of migrant population in the state to the social security services is almost nil, especially with regard to health care needs and many public care services remain inaccessible to them due to numerous socio-cultural, linguistic and economic barriers. This sudden and large

influx of IMLs has triggered apprehensions in the minds of the local populace. Poor sanitation resulting in epidemic hauling, unhygienic barrack-like accommodation provided to them by the local contractors and employers etc. pose a threat to health achievements of the state.

Lack of integration with the local population makes it difficult for them to avail the prevailing local wages, the support systems and other security measures. When language barriers are high and the workers are physically isolated from the surrounding population, the chances of abuse and exploitation increase. Due to language barriers, they are often confined to the worksite, unknown about the prevailing wages and social security measures in the state.

Reason for Interstate Migration

Kerala pays the highest wage among the Indian states to labourers in almost all daily wage jobs in agricultural and non-agricultural sector to both men and women. The state’s average wage is nearly double that of national level. Its average daily wage for agricultural work is more than Rs. 713 while Jammu and Kashmeer Tamil Nadu at the second

position has Rs. 515. States like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha pay around Rs. 200. For non-agricultural work also, Kerala pays high wages. The wages of carpenters, plumbers electricians etc are two times the national wage average. While the average wage rates in other states range between Rs 200 and Rs 300 for these jobs, Kerala pays about Rs. 600 or above. This is the one of the main pulling factors of IMLs into Kerala. On the other hand, Kerala has the highest

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unemployment rate in the country. Kerala has the highest Unemployment Rate (UR) at 7.4 percent, while in other states it is below 4 percent (NSSO Survey, 2011-2012). Though Gujarat has the lowest unemployment rate (0.5 percent), it is also a low wages paying state. It’s interesting to observe that while IMLs are attracted by the daily wages, the natives do not opt for these jobs, higher literacy and

education being among the reasons. Better wage, more opportunities, better socio-economic conditions all contribute to the reasons why the north and north east Indian youth prefer to move out to Kerala.

Vulnerability of Migrants

Migrants are inherently vulnerable as subjects of human rights from the time they leave home to initiate their migration. In other words, any human being is less vulnerable at home than right after he leaves it to become a migrant. The same applies to the sociological extension of the notion of home to a community of origin. The same person that migrates had more resources, both material and human, to defend and/or protect, himself, when he was at home, prior to moving elsewhere, than after the out ward movement had taken place “(Bustamante, 2011). The vulnerability of the migrants that they are not aware about the Government schemes and as they do not possess the required documents most of the employers refused to certify the workers they employ. The migrants who come for seeking work in Kerala has the provision to make Migrant cards, it is an identity

which is given to the migrants who come for employment, and which can be helpful to receive the benefits from the government (Hindu, 2015). Unfortunately only a very few below forty thousand have registered in the scheme (GIFT, 2013).

According to Derose etal (2007), vulnerability is shaped by many factors, including political and social marginalization and a lack of socio-economic and societal resources. Varennes (2003) states that

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"living in host states where they (migrants) may not master the official language(s), are unfamiliar with the workings of the legal system and administration, detached from traditional support and family networks exposed to a society with ways of life or cultures which they may find at times alien, they may face trials that can leave them disoriented and disturbed." Thus, vulnerability of the migrants arise because of living

in a place which is different in culture, language, social settings, legal protection, entitlements and consumption habits from their native places and the loss of the traditional support system they enjoyed before migration. Migrant labours working in Kerala also are often exploited by the contactors and agents as they are vulnerable in the state as per the media reports (Varennes, 2003). One of the major problems that migrant workers face when they reach Kerala is related to the differences in the languages spoken by the migrant workers and that of the host society. Though migration is between regions within the same country, language spoken by the migrants and the local people are different. The official languages of the country are Hindi and English. But Keralites speak Malayalam. This is different from the language spoken by people in West Bengal (Bengali), Orissa (Oriya), Bihar (Hindi) or Assam (Assamese). All these languages belong to the Indo-Aryan language family while Malayalam is a Dravidian language.

Being unable to speak to the local community or the service providers in their language makes them vulnerable on many occasions as may be seen later (Ajith Kumar, 2011). The rate of migrants registered with Kerala State Migrant Welfare Scheme is very low. Only 49,021 labourers are registered under the Kerala Employee Welfare Board (up to February 2015) (Abhishek, 2015).

Schemes for Interstate Migrant Labourers in Kerala

Government of Kerala is a role model to other states having enacted exclusive schemes for IMLs working in Kerala. Besides this different Government organisations and Civil Society Organisations also do

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different programmes among the migrant labourers for ensuring their rights and welfare.

1. Kerala Migrant Workers Welafre Sceheme: It’s a social security scheme for IMLs implemented in the year 2010 which covers the registered workers both accidents and death benefits and retirement benefit.

2. Awaz: Awaz is a recent enacted health insurance scheme and issuing registration card for further consultation.

3. Apna Ghar Praogramme: It’s a programme on to run for ensuring health and hygienic housing for migrant workers on affordable cost.

Inter State Migrant Workmen Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service Act 1979 protects the IMLs though in many of the cases the provisions of the ambit of the Act won’t meet. Kerala State is planning to propose a bill aiming at the security and welfare of IMLs i.e. “The Kerala Migrant Workers Social Security Bill".

Perceived Role of Local Self Government among Intestate Migrant Labourers

In Kerala, the Local Governments have the power to intervene at construction sites and manufacturing units, inspect health, sanitation etc and to ensure water supply, education etc. (Kerala Panchayat Raj Act, 1994). The major problems faced by IMLs include health and sanitation, worksite safety, accessibility to social security measures etc. Considering IMLs as our own citizens and fellow beings, LGs should take steps towards inclusive development and governance.

Implementation Model: For the purpose, In-Migrant Labourers

Welfare Board has to be constituted at the State level. The state level authority will be the nodal agency in implementing programs and ensuring the social security of IMLs. Under this there will be Board Units in every Local Governments.

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Respective LG President will be the Chairman of In-Migrant Labourers Welfare Board. The committee should include Standing Committee Chairman for welfare, CI of Police, Social Worker, Lawyer, a Doctor from PHC, ICDS Supervisor, Principal/ Head Master of a school, Panchayat Secretary, a Professional Social Worker, a Social Activist as its members. The same system can be followed in rural and urban Local

Governments.

Government fund, Plan fund, Registration fee from employees and employers can be utilised for this purpose. A Professional Social Worker has to be appointed for this purpose who is capable of dealing these aspects and who can manage different languages especially Hindi.

The following can the expected initiatives or the possible areas of intervention for LGs in ensuring the rights and welfare of IMLs.

1. Welfare, Safety and Security

To ensure welfare and security of the IMLs, the LSGs can intervene and pro-act in the following areas:

One time on arrival registration of IMLs through concerned Panchayat, Municipality or Corporation on the production of a legally valid Identity Card. The registeration number can be used across the state. And it should be renewed at a fixed interval and moving to a new Local Governments it should be renewed there.

Along with registration, issuance of a photo fixed identity card

with which IMLs can access state’s social security measures such as primary health care services, PDS benefits, education facilities etc.

Consider the concerns and issues faced by IMLs, while formulating the welfare programs and policies. Regular interaction with IMLs will help to understand the needs and

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requirements of them more precisely. Peer participation will be helpful in this regard.

LSGs can initiate facilitation centers for IMLs in collaboration with different departments like transport, communication etc.

To ensure the safety and security especially in emergency like death or any legal enquiry, the state should have some

collaboration with source government. Develop a skill specific data bank of IMLs which can be accessed

across state by different departments. It should be linked with Information Kerala Mission data networks.

LSGs can monitor and provide assistance for NGOs in initiating welfare programmes for IMLs.

2. Employment

To ensure the right to employment, right against atrocities and exploitation of IMLs, the LSGs can initiative the following services:

Creation of a labour bank and a dedicated call centre for IMLs at LSG level to circumvent market imperfection and to address the problems faced by them especially in the areas of job stability, market salary, working duration and averting from local exploitation. But always the priority should go for the local labourers and the excess labour demand should meet with IMLs.

Accreditation of contractors/employers for compliance of labour welfare and security measures and to ensure that labour

legislations are followed in companies. LG may control and monitor the employers and contractors for

ensuring standard wage, better living conditions, occupational safety etc.

Call centre at panchayat for hiring the labour.

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3. Health and Sanitation

Provision of health and sanitation is an important area in which LSGs can intervene to reach to IMLs. The system should give primary focus in the area since the possibility of spreading communicable and other deceases is high as they are diagnosed as the carriers of certain major illness. The following are the few significant initiatives which LSGs can focus with utmost priority:

Detailed initial health screening and check up at the time of

registration and timely monitoring at fixed intervals. Ensure provision for affordable housing with moderate facilities

of electricity, water, toilet, waste disposal. Ensure and monitor provisions for proper sanitation at their

dwelling places Ensuring safe drinking water facility at the worksite and

dwelling place. Details of each health checkup and major diagnosis should be

mentioned in the health card which should be provided at the time of registration.

4. Recreational and Entertainment

The following initiatives can be undertaken by LSGs for IMLs with regard to recreation.

Organise the cultural festivals of IMLs with the support of local community in order to instil brotherhood and fraternity among all.

Formation of CBOs and SHG Groups among migrant workers

who are under contractors Entitlement promotion campaigns. Special meetings of IMLs with concerned authorities of

Panchayat.

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Conclusion

Migration is a social phenomenon happening everywhere in the world. It is a boon and bane process for both source and destination. Therefore it seems that the government may have to play here an effective role in order to ensure the well-being of IMLs without affecting the socio-economy of the State. Local Governments have better reach to IMLs as they are concentrated to their jurisdiction. Kerala Panchayath Raj Act empowers the Local Government Institutions with respect to building

sites, security measures, health and sanitation etc. The in-migrant labourers may be entitled to social security measures of the state as they render their labour for the state and being the citizens of the country. Right to work mean decent and fair work with required benefits and facilities. Local Governments have vital roles to play among IMLs in order to protect their right to work in its real sense. A right based and welfare based approach can be applied in intervening with In-Migrant Labourers by Local Self Governments in Kerala.

References:

1. Ajithkumar,N.(2011,November).VulnerabilityofMigrantsAndResponsiveness of the State: The Case of Unskilled Migrant Workers In Kerala, India., Centre for Socio-economic &Environmental studies. Working Paper No.26.

2. Narayana, Venketeshwara& Joseph (2013). Domestic migrant labours in Kerala.Trivandrum :Gulati Institute of Finance and

Taxation. 3. Interstate Migrant Workmen Regulation of Employment and

Conditions of Service Act, 1979 4. Economic Review, 2016 5. K.S. Surabhi, Kumar N. Ajith (2007), Labour migration to

Kerala-A Study of Tamil Migrant Labourers in Kochi, 16.

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6. Venketeshwara, Ramalingam C.S., Kumar. P. Rajesh(2013), Migrant labourers in Kerala-Community Health Intervention & Scope for Convergence, Gulati Institute of Finance and Taxation, Trivandrum

7. Peter, Benoy. (2013), Migrant Workers and Kerala Society.

8. The Kerala Panchayat Raj Act & Rules, 1994(http://www

.panchayat.gov.in/documents/10198/350801/Kerala%20Panchayati%20Raj%20Act%201994%20and%20Rules.pdf) – accessed on February 2, 2015

9. The Hindu “Steady influx of illegal immigrants into city raises concern”, July 4, 2013, (http://www.thehin du.com/news/cities/ Kochi/steady-influx-of-illegal-immigrants-into-city-raises-concern/article4878162.ece)- accessed on February 10, 2015

10. Abhishek. (2015). The quality of life of the migrant laborers in Trivandrum district, Loyola College of Social Sciences.

11. Bustamante, J., & Bradley, F. (2011). Jean-Marc Bustamante: dead calm. Edinburgh: Fruitmarket Gallery.

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A STUDY ON CHROMATIC COLORING AND CHROMATIC PARTITION

N.Kasthuri Assistant Professor

Department of Mathematics Vinayaka Missions Kirupananda

Variyar Arts & Science College Periyaseeragapadi, Salem

Abstract

Graph coloring is one of the most important concepts in graph theory and is used in many real time applications in engineering & science; various coloring methods are available and can be used on requirement basis. The proper coloring of a graph is the coloring of the vertices and edges with minimal number of colors such that no two vertices should have the same color. The minimum number of colors is

called as the chromatic number and the graph is called properly colored graph. This paper presents the importance of Chromatic coloring and Partitioning in various fields.

Keyword: Chromatics number and Chromatic Partition

Introduction

In the last three decades graph theory has established itself as a worthwhile mathematical discipline and there are many applications of graph theory to a wide variety of subjects which include Operations Research, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Genetics, Sociology, Linguistics, Engineering, Computer Science etc.

The development of many branches in Mathematics has been necessitated while considering certain real life problems arising in practical life or problems arising in other sciences. Such a development may be roughly described as follows.

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Graph theory also has been independently discovered many

times through some puzzles that arose from the physical world, consideration of Chemical isomers, electrical networks etc.

Definitions

Colouring

An assignment of colours to the vertices of a graph so that no two adjacent vertices get the same colour is called a colouring of the graph.

Colour Class

For each colour, the set of all points which get that colour is independent and is called a colour class.

Proper Coloring

Painting all the vertices of a graph with colors such that no two adjacent vertices have the same color is called the proper coloring (or sometimes simply coloring) of a graph.

Properly Colored

A graph in which every vertex has been assigned a color according to a proper coloring is called a properly colored graph.

Chromatic Number A graph G that requires K different colors for its

proper coloring, and no less, is called a K-chromatic graph and the number K is called the chromatic number of G

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Above The Definitions Follows Some Points

1. A graph consisting of only isolated vertices is 1-chromatic. 2. A graph with one or more edges is atleast 2-chromatic (also

called bichromatic). 3. A complete graph of n vertices is n-chromatic, as all its vertices

are adjacent. Hence a graph containing a complete graph or r vertices is at least r-chromatic. For instance, every graph having a triangle is at least 3-chromatic.

4. A graph consisting of simply one circuit with n≥3 vertices is 2-chromatic if n is even and 3-chromatic if n is odd.

EXAMPLE

Note: The above example is 3 –Chromatic

Critical

A graph G is called critical if ᵡ(H) ˂ ᵡ(G) for every proper subgraph H of G. A k-chromatic graph that is critical is called k-critical. It os opvious that every k-chramatic graph has a k-critical subgraph.

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Uniquely Colourable

If ᵡ(G) =n and every n-colouring of G induces the same partition on V(G) then G is called uniquely n-colourable or uniquely colourable.

Theorem: 1

Every three with two or more vertices is 2-chromatic.

Proof:

Select any vertex v in the given tree T. Consider T as a rooted tree at vertex v. Paint v with color 1. Paint all vertices adjacent to v with color 2. Next, Paint the vertices adjacent to these using color 1. Continue this process till every vertex in T has been painted. Now in T we find that all vertices at odd distances form v have color 2, while v and vertices at even distances from v have color 1.

Now along any path in T the vertices are of alternating colors. Since there is on and only one path between any two vertices in a tree, no two adjacent vertices have the same color. Thus T has been properly colored with two colors.

* Note: Red – 1, Blue – 2

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Fig:II 2 – Chromatic Graph is a Tree

Theorem: 2

If G is k-critical, then ᵟ(G) ≥ k-1.

Proof.

Since G is k-critical, for any vertex v of G, ᵡ(G – v) can be extended to a k – 1.

If deg v ˂ k – 1, then a (k - 1) colouring of G – v can be extended to a k – 1- colouring of G by assigning to v, a colour which is assigned to none of its neighbours in G. Hence deg v ≥ k – 1, so that ᵟ(G) ≥ k-1.

Corollary: 1

Every k-chromatic graph has at least k vertices of degree at least k-1.

Proof: Let G be a k-chromatic graph and H be a k-critical subgraph

of G. By G is k-critical, then ᵟ(G) ≥ k-1. Also since ᵡ(H) = k, H has at least k vertices. Hence H has at least k vertices of degree at least k – 1. Since h is a subgraph of G.

Chromatic Partitioning

Independent Set

A set of vertices in a graph is said to be an independent set of vertices or simply an independent set(or an internally stable set), if no two vertices in the set are adjacent.

Maximal Independent Set

A maximal independent set (or maximal internally stable set) is an independent set to which no other vertex can be added without destroying its independence property.

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The number of vertices in the largest independent set of a graph G is called the independence number (or coefficient of internal stability), ᵝ(G).

Chromatic Partitioning

Each n-colouring of G partitions V(G) into n independent sets called colour classes. Such a partitioning induced by a ᵡ(G) colouring of G is called a chromatic partitioning. In other words, a partition of V(G) in to the smallest possible number of independent sets is called

a chromatic portioning of G.

Dominating Sets

A dominating set (or an externally stable set) in a graph G is a set of vertices that dominates every vertex v in G in the following Sense. Either v is included in the dominating set or is adjacent to one or more vertices included in the domination set.

Minimal Dominating Set

A minimal dominating set is a dominating set from which no vertiex can be removed without destroying its dominance property.

Above The Definitions Follows Some Points

1. Any one vertex in a complete graph constitutes a minimal dominating set.

2. Every dominating set contains at least one minimal dominating set.

3. A graph may have many minimal dominating sets and of different sizes. (The number of vertices in the smallest minimal dominating set of a graph G is called the domination number, α (G).)

4. A minimal dominating set may or may not be independent.

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5. Every maximal independent set is a dominating set. For if an independent set does not dominate the graph. There is at least one vertex that is neither in the set nor adjacent to any vertex in the set. Such a vertex can be added to the independent set without destroying its independence. But then the independent set could not have been maximal.

6. An independent set has the dominance property only if it is a maximal independent set. Thus an independent dominating set is the same as a maximal independent set.

7. In any Graph G,

α(G) ≤ ᵝ(G).

Example,

Fig: III Chromatic Partition

For the graph Fig. III set {a,c,d,f}, {b,g} and {a,e} are 3 chromatic

To find Maximal independent sets and the selecting the smallest number of sets that include all vertices of the graph {(a,c.d.f), (b,g), (e)},

{(a,c.d,g), (b,f), (e)},

{(c.d,f), (b,g), (a,e)},

{(c.d,g), (b,f), (a,e)}.

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Conclusion:

The main aim of this paper is to present the importance of graph theoretical ideas in various field applications for researches that they can use graph theoretical concepts for the research. An overview is presented especially to project the idea of graph theory. So, the graph theory section of each paper is given importance than to the other sections. Researches may get some information related to graph theory and its applications in various field and can get some ideas related to

their field of research.

Reference

Narasingh Deo, “Graph theory with applications to engineering and computer science”, Prentice Hall of India, 2011.

Daniel Marx, “Graph Coloring problems and their applications in scheduling”,

Harary, “Graph Theory” , Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, 2001.

Arumugam S. and Ramachandran S., “ Invitation to Graph Theory”, SEITECH Publications PVT .LTD, Chennai, 2012.

A.E. Eiben and J.K. van der Hauw. Adaptive penalties for evolutionary graph coloring. LNCS 1365: 95–106, 1998.

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TEACHERS’ CONCEPTION AND PRACTICES OF PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS ON PROMOTING AND SUPPORTING CHILDREN’S PLAY: THE CASE OF SOME SELECTED PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS AT METTU TOWN, ILUBABOR ZONE,

ETHIOPIA

Kasahun Tadesse Assistant Professor

Department of Early Childhood Care and Education

Mettu University,Mettu, Ethiopia Abstract

Children’s play at pre-primary schools was viewed by educators as a method of teaching and learning, a method by which children communicate their interest, talent, and emotion and a method by which care givers contribute to children’s holistic development. Great emphasis was given on play by Ministry of Education (MOE) at the pre-primary schools levels. This study aimed at assessing teachers’ conception of the importance of play and their practice in making children play; measuring effectiveness of school environment in supporting children play; and finally assessing availability of teaching materials in the selected schools. Cross sectional survey method was employed to conduct the research and data were collected from five pre-primary schools which selected randomly from twelve schools found in

the town. Questionnaire, observation, checklists, and document analysis were used to collect data. The data were analyzed through descriptive statistics. The finding revealed that the mean score of teachers’ conception on the importance of play for children holistic development were above average and many teachers were familiar with different types of play. Moreover, the mean score of participants’ perceived practices were below average in using children’s creative design and in allowing children to play with water. Evaluation of textbook revealed that, none of the text books in each school give

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direction for teachers to allow children learn through movement, through play by construction, through building, through categorizing and ordering, through drama, and through free play. Nevertheless, few of the school have text books which give opportunity for children to learn through drawing, colouring, and by picture books. Based on preschool standards of MOE, the finding showed that in each school

undue attention was given to music center, place for construction block, family corner materials, clinical based play centers and materials, and shop area play materials. But in some schools (4(80%)), there are play materials for mathematics corner with low quality and number. And also there are outdoor places in each school (4(80%)) with low quality and very few in number when compared to MOE standards. In sum, the finding revealed that pre-primary education in the town is below the standard in fulfilling play materials, organizing and preparing play ground, and play books. However, the performance of each school was at good status in recruiting trained teachers. Generally, based on the finding and discussion made, suggestions have been made. It was recommended that training should be arranged for teachers on how to prepare different plays; Schools should be equipped with different plays and this would be evaluated in line with the standard; and harmonized books and teacher guides should be prepared and translated into

regional language. Finally, parents should be trained on basics of child development and importance of play for their development.

Key terms: Children play, Types of play, Children development, School

environment, & Pre-primary

1. Introduction 1.1. Background of the study

More recent research provides discourse on children play and its contribution to children’s learning and development. Play is considered as the way children learn, instrument of learning and development, the

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way children learn to be happy and the way they will be mentally healthy human being (Kernan, 2007). According to White (2012), play presents children with a particularly strong opportunity for growth because it meets the needs of the whole, individual children. All domains of children’s development – cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and language are intricately intertwined. Play benefits each

of these skills directly and indirectly. Cognizant of its importance, educators, researchers, policy makers and experts gave due attention to children’s play.

Early childhood care and education is one of global concern and it is one of priorities of our country, Ethiopia. Although the concept of preschool education of our country in the modern sense dates back to the 20th century, during Emperor Menlik II ( Yalew 2011:13), there is still inadequacy of proper stimulation and care for children. The situational analysis makes clear that the present nourishment, health and stimulation care in Ethiopia are rather poor. Improvement of nutrition, health care, child rights, early stimulation and education will generate clear and important social benefits (MoE, MoH and MWA, 2010).

To overcome the encountered problems, the country has been striving in many ways. For instance, Early Childhood care and education policy and strategic frame work was developed for the first time in 2010

(MoE, MoH and MWA, 2010); Preprimary Education standard was set in 2011 (MOE, 2011), Degree program of Early childhood care and education program was launched in Debre Tabor University and some other universities (DTU, 2014). Beside the expansion of pre-primary education, quality is one of concerns of the country to provide education according to children’s interest. However, there is evidence that the current provision of education at pre-primary schools lacks quality in satisfying children needs according to their interest and ability (MOE, 2011).

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Children’s interest and ability could be addressed through proper utilization of play. Play received due attention in pre-primary education standards of the country (MOE, 2011). According to the standard, daily activity of pre-primary schools should be managed through three directions: Planned and free play, education, socially and individually benefited activities. Moreover, in the standard, play is considered as a

method of teaching learning process. The two major types of play as in the standard were, free play and teacher guided play. Therefore, this study was intended to assess conception and practices of teachers and status of school environment in promoting children play.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Play is the method by which teachers deliver contents for children and the method by which children express their interest, feeling, emotion, and talents. Through play, children develop emotionally, physically, socially, cognitively, and language skills. Thus, play should be promoted in pre-primary education. There is a need for improvement on current status of early childhood care and education in Ethiopia to care for children according to their abilities. Early childhood care and education has become one of the priorities for the education sector of our country as it will be one of the potential inputs to the overall improvement of the quality of education, reduction of dropouts and reputation for latter stages of formal schooling which eventually leads to higher enrolment of girls in particular (MoE, MoH and MWA, 2010). Thus, the

government of Ethiopia has been working on the expansion of pre-primary education by launching O-class at every primary school compound. To assure the proper provision of education for children, Ministry of Education developed pre-primary education standards (MOE, 2011). It was reported that in Ethiopia, there is inadequacy of pre-primary education in quantity and quality (MOE, 2011). Moreover, there is disparity among regions, zones, and schools on expansion, and provision of pre-primary schools (MOE, 2011, MOE, 2015). Beside the

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expansion of pre-primary education, there is problem in adjusting education according to the interests and abilities of children (MOE, 2011). The interests and abilities of children could be addressed by creating conducive learning environments which promotes playing in groups and individually. Therefore, this study was intended to answer the following questions:

1. What is the teacher’s conception level of different plays and their importance for children’s holistic development?

2. To what level do teachers promote and enhance children’s play?

3. To what extent do teaching materials such as textbooks/guides foster children’s play?

4. How much is the school environment conducive enough according to standards of MOE?

1.3. Objectives of the Study 1.3.1. General Objectives To assess conception, awareness and perceived practices of

teaches in promoting children play To evaluate the level of pre-primary school performance in line

with MOE standards in promoting and enhancing children play 1.3.2. Specific Objectives

to assess conception of teachers on the influence of different play on children’s holistic development

To assess the level of teachers’ awareness and their perceived practices in using children play

To evaluate teaching materials: textbooks/guides in line with

different types of play. To evaluate availability and organization of different types of

play

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1.4. Significance of the study

The result of this study would help (1) pre-primary school teachers and principals via giving insight about ways of improving children’s learning through play; (2) curriculum experts by revealing the current status of pre-primary education curriculum in promoting children play (3) policy makers to include children play as one component of children affairs.

1.5. Delimitation of the study

This study was delimited geographically to pre-primary education (both KGs and O-classes) found in Mettu town. Methodologically the study

was delimited to children play.

1.6. Definition of terms

The following basic terms were used in the study accordingly:-

Pre-primary: school for educating children below grade one which include O-class and Kindergarten

KG(kindergarten): type of pre-primary school for children of age 4-6 at separate compound from primary schools

O-class: pre-primary class in primary school compound MOE: Ministry of Education

2. Review of related literature 2.1. Description of Children play

Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on the rights of a child, 1989(CRC) provides the child’s right to play across the world. The article states:

1. Parties recognize the right of the child to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts.

2. Parties shall respect and promote the right of the child to participate fully in cultural and artistic life and shall encourage

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the provision of appropriate and equal opportunities for cultural, artistic, recreational and leisure activity.

As Lester & Russel (2010) examined the article, the article encompasses a range of concepts that carry different meaning: rest, leisure, play, recreation, cultural life, and the arts. The two elements of article highlights three separate but interrelated roles for state parties:

recognizing, respecting and promoting children’s right to play (Lester & Russel, 2010 P. 3).

It is known that parties are not the only responsible bodies to recognize respect and promote children play. Thus, adults, pre-primary schools teachers and principals, parents, care givers, policy makers, and curriculum experts are also responsible in one or other ways.

Educators label the children’s activities as play; in Montessori classrooms, we call it work Lillard (2013). Play is viewed as an instrument of learning and development, as the means by which children learn to be happy, and mentally healthy human beings (Kernan, 2007).

As reviewed by Kernan (2007) the method of using play varies from country to country. For instance there is a country where play is viewed both as early childhood content and method, the means through which children conceive and make sense of the world, feel in control, express

their views, analyze experiences and solve problems. Here, children’s own culture, free play and friendship are afforded high status in early childhood education. In contrast, in countries where the pre-primary or readiness for school model of ECCE dominates play tends to be curricularized with an associated need to identify specific purposes or functions of play in children’s learning and development which are often articulated in terms of specific academic subjects. In such contexts, the role of the adult is more directive than indicated.

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Play theorists and their contribution to the argument that play has a crucial role in children’s learning were reviewed by Curtis and O’Hagan (2003). Among the theorists, Karl Groos argued that play was the means of helping children prepare for life as it provides opportunities for the practice of skills and the possibility of exploring and learning what they will need to know as adults. On the other hand, Freud

believed that play takes the form of wish fulfilment and enables the child to master traumatic experiences. Freud argued that play enables children to express themselves completely, without reservation or reprisal, because children at play feel safe. Likewise, Erikson also refers to the importance of play, calling his third stage of development, from four to six years, the ‘play age’. During this period children need to engage in both solitary and co-operative play as it helps them to develop their initiative and to deal with their disappointments and failures. Susan Isaacs also wrote, ‘play is indeed a child’s work, and the means whereby she/he grows and develops. Active play can be looked upon as a sign of mental health; and its absence, an indication of either some inborn defect, or of mental illness’. For her, it was through play that children can tell us about their emotional state and we can begin to understand their personalities and behaviours. On the other hand, Jean Piaget argued that children are active learners and those two

activities: play and imitation, are important for the development of infants and young children. Piaget considered that play was a product of assimilation, whereas imitation resulted from accommodation. During play, children act out their already established behaviours and adapt reality to fit them in an enjoyable manner. During imitation, by contrast, children are trying to copy other people’s actions in order to understand the world around them.

Jerome Bruner sees play as beneficial to cognitive development for him it is a preparation for the ‘technical social life that constitutes human culture’. He argues that play serves both as practice for mastery in

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skills and as an opportunity to try out new combinations of behaviour in a safe setting. Additionally, play has been considered the characteristic mode of behaviour of the young child, an expression of the natural spirit of childhood and thus a key defining feature of childhood (Kernan, 2007).

2.2. Importance of play for children’s holistic development

According to White (2012), play presents children with a particularly strong opportunity for growth because it meets the needs of the whole, individual child. All domains of children’s development – cognitive,

social, emotional, and physical – are intricately intertwined. Play benefits each of these skills in direct and indirect ways. Children learn and practice cognitive skills including language, problem solving, creativity, and self-regulation. Socio-emotional growth can be seen in children’s ability to interact with others, negotiate, and compromise. They also practice strategies to cope with fears, anger, and frustration. Moreover, blocking building, drawing, running, and jumping all contribute to the development of fine and gross motor skills. When children have the chance to direct their own learning through play, they are able to address their own immediate and developmental needs and find activities that are most conducive to their individual learning styles. Play is also critical to self-regulation and children’s ability to manage their own behaviour and emotions (Singer et.al, 2006). When children are in environments where learning is occurring in a meaningful

context, where they have choices, and where they are encouraged to follow their interests, learning takes place best. The evidence is compelling: play promotes learning, and guided play is a powerful teaching tool (Singer et.al, 2006). Play is often stimulating and rewarding, and that they get a great deal of emotional satisfaction from playing (Sheridan, 1999).

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Playing helps children in their development. Children’s development comprises a complex mixture of progressive changes which can be broken down and categorized as physical, cognitive and symbolic, linguistic and symbolic, emotional and social, and moral (Sheridan, 1999). Here, allowing children to play helps than to explore their immediate environment. They develop self confidence and it evokes

creativity, relaxation. So, early childhood education should be based on teaching through play (G/Egziabher Assefa, 2014).

2.3. Ways of implementing Children play and teachers’ role

Educators’ role is to observe and provide activities that will enable children to learn what they are ready to learn, when they are ready to learn (Morrison, 2004: 88). Froebel compares a child to a seed that is planted, germinated, brings forth a new shoot and growth from a young tender plant to a mature, fruit producing one. He likened the role of educator to that of Gardner. In his kinder garten or garden of children, he envisioned children being educated in close harmony with their own nature and the nature of the universe (Morrison, 2004: P, 88).

Early years practitioners can use their knowledge of the processes and content of children’s play to create content rich environments that provide a wide range of play possibilities, which promote learning and, developing which are challenging engender, a feeling of security and wellbeing, and build a sense of community. A wide range of roles can be assigned to the early years practitioner in relation to supporting children’s play in ECCE settings including: play architect, designer,

manager, orchestrator; organizer, resourcer, observer, assessor, facilitator, mediator, co-player, scaffolder, trainer and advocate (Kernan, 2007)

As Kernan, (2007) explained, Adults’ roles in children’s play can also be viewed as a continuum between indirect planning for play to direct

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involvement in the play. At one end of the continuum, adults adopt the role of manager as they organize the time, space and resources that promote play. When they mediate, or interpret the play that occurs, adults become more involved. Direct involvement occurs when adults adopt an active role in the play, when for example the adult engages in parallel play, co-playing or play tutoring. The task of the early year

practitioner is to make judgments about the most suitable strategies to use based on the knowledge of the individual child, the particular context, whilst also taking account of broader moral, ethical and equity considerations.

In order to put into practice the theories of play, it is mandatory to create conducive learning environment where children access play materials freely must be available. It is clear in Ministry of Education standards that different corners of play are essential: (1) Construction corner, (2) family corner materials such as Coffee pot, Spoons, Dish and others, (3) Clinical based materials such as Apron, Syringe, Stretcher, bed, Bandage, Drug bottle, Stethoscope and the like (4) Shop area such as Balance, Empty pen, Empty match, Different clothes of children, Cork of bottles, Different home materials, Birr and cents from paper and plastics and other available materials (5) Materials needed for science area such as science equipment, (6) Social corner materials

such as cultural clothes, drawings, paper, clay/mud, (7) Language corner materials such as pictures, newspaper and children’s books, (8) Mathematics corner materials such as shapes of different materials: Plastic, paper ,mud ,cloth, (9) Wisdom learning center materials such as clothes, wood, clay, and (10) Music center materials such as locally available musc materials prepared from wood ,strand/string, leather (MOE, 2011 P: 24-26).

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2.4. Types of children play

The major types of play are commonly referred to as physical play, play with objects, symbolic play, pretence/ socio-dramatic play and games with rules Whitbread, et.al. (2012).

2.4.1. Physical play

It was the earliest to evolve and can be observed in human children it includes active exercise play (e.g.: jumping, climbing, dancing, skipping, bike riding and ball play), rough-and-tumble (with friends, siblings or parents/ guardians) and fine-motor practice (e.g.: sewing, colouring, cutting, junk modelling and manipulating action and construction

toys).

Play with objects

Play with objects is also widely observed in humans’ concerns to help children develop exploring, as young scientists, of the physical world and the objects they find within it. Play with objects begins as early as infancy. By the age of four years, building, making and constructing behaviours emerge.

As with all other types of play, play with objects often also incorporates other types of play, as it clearly has physical and manipulative aspects and often, in children, is carried out within a pretence or socio-dramatic context. When young children are making or building, they are also often developing a story or narrative.

2.4.2. Symbolic play

As we have discussed above, humans are uniquely equipped to use a wide variety of symbolic systems including spoken language, reading and writing, number, various visual media (painting, drawing, collage) music and so on. Not surprisingly, during the first five years of life, when children are beginning to master these systems. These aspects of

their learning are an important element within their play. This type of

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play supports their development in technical abilities to express and reflect upon their experiences, ideas and emotions.

2.4.3. Pretence/socio-dramatic play

High-quality pretend play has repeatedly been shown to be very closely associated with the development of cognitive, social and academic abilities. Studies have reported the impact of play world experience on narrative skills in five to seven year olds. O’Connor and Stagnitti, K. (2011) have recently reported on a study of thirty five children aged five

to eight in special schools, some of whom were offered a pretend play intervention. Findings revealed that the children participating in the play intervention, compared to a matched group who did not, showed a significant decrease in play deficits, became less socially disruptive and more socially connected with their peers.

2.4.4. Games with Rules

Young children are strongly motivated to make sense of their world and, as part of this; they are very interested in rules. As well as helping children to develop their understandings about rules, the main developmental contribution of playing games derives from their essentially social nature. While playing games with their friends, siblings and parents, young children are learning a range of social skills related to sharing, taking turns, understanding others’ perspectives and so on.

Based on adults help children play can be categorized as free play and guided play (Lillard, 2013). Free play includes object play, pretend and socio-dramatic play, and rough-and-tumble play, in all of which

children engage without close adult oversight or control. Free play is fun, flexible, active, and voluntary (i.e. without extrinsic reward). Free play also often includes elements of make-believe and also often involves peers. Guided play on the other hand occurs when an adult guides a child towards specific knowledge in a playful, fun, and relaxed

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way. Guided play often involves specific toys with which a child can interact to gain knowledge. A supervising adult observes the child closely and asks questions to help the child learn, but as with free play, respects the child’s own interests and pacing.

Children’s play in a wide range of ECCE settings, the following children’s key priorities were suggested: Construction play, Creating

small spaces, Transporting, Playing with water, Engaging with ‘real’ work, using real tools often engaging whole body movement, Re-enacting social, and culturally valued activities through role play, Being actively involved in story-telling, Being creative when provided with a wide range of open-ended materials, and Having a sensitive adult close by who values play and who can offer support at key moments (IPPA, The Early Childhood Organisation, 2004).

Kernan, (2007) grouped play into three categories: epistemic, ludic and games with rules. Epistemic play, typically associated with children in the first two years of life, refers to exploratory play with objects and materials whereby children gather knowledge about the world through their senses. Ludic play refers to children’s imaginative, fantasy and socio-dramatic play i.e. ‘what if’ scenarios or pretence. In games with rules, children design their own games with negotiated rules and in time. They also partake in more conventional games with ‘external’

rules. Exploratory play: using physical skills and sensations to learn about materials and their properties, what they feel like and what can

be done with them. Constructive play: the manipulation of objects and materials to build or create something using natural or manufactured materials such as blocks, play dough, junk, sand and water. Creative play: using open-ended materials such as art materials and natural materials in ways that encourage fluency, flexibility, originality imagination, embellishment and making novel connections. Pretend, fantasy and socio-dramatic play: includes: role play, pretending with objects, pretend actions and situations, persistence within the

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imaginary play frame to create a play episode or event. When it involves interaction and verbal communication with one or more play partners regarding the play event it is termed socio-dramatic play. Physical locomotor play: activities that involve all kinds of physical movement for their own sake and enjoyment. In this type of play a range of fine or gross motor skills are practiced and mastered. Language or word play: unrehearsed and spontaneous manipulation of sounds, and words often with rhythmic and repetitive elements. As children get older, this kind of play often incorporates rhyme, word play and humour.

The following types of play were identified based on how children play in relation to other children (Sheridan, 1999): (1) solitary/solo play, a play in which the child plays alone; (2) spectator play/‘looking on’ play in which the child is engaged in watching other children but not joining them, (3) parallel play which the child plays alongside other children, but with fleeting interaction with them, (4) associative play The children may be engaged in associated activities in close proximity, but have their own ideas about their play, and (5) co-operative play which the children co-operate with each other over play, ideas and equipment for periods of their play.

2.5. Factors affecting children play

There are two types of factors which influence the extent to which children are playful. These consist of environmental and social factors which support or inhibit children’s natural playfulness and factors

related to provision of opportunities (Whitebread et.al, 2012).

3. Methods of Research 3.1. Population and sample

Out of twelve pre-primary schools (seven O-class schools and five KGs), five of them (three KG schools from private, faith based and NGO, and two O-class schools) were randomly selected. After that, all teachers from the selected group were included.

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3.2. Research design

Cross-sectional survey research was employed for this study. Teachers filled questionnaires regarding their awareness and practice in promoting children play. Moreover, school environment was observed and teaching materials were evaluated.

3.3. Instruments

Data collection instruments were questionnaire for teachers, experts, and observation and evaluation checklists for teaching materials/curriculum and school environment and interview was conducted with some selected teachers. The questionnaire that was

administered to teachers was pilot tested and its reliability was measured using Cronback alpha and it was 0.83 after poor items are discarded.

3.4. Data collection procedure

The researcher of this study adapted the following procedures to collect the data. First questionnaires were distributed to teachers and experts independently. Next schools were observed and evaluated using check lists. Then textbooks and teaching materials were observed and evaluated with prepared rubrics, and finally some selected teachers were interviewed.

3.5. Data analysis procedure

The data analyses passed through the following procedures: (1) coding the collected data, (2) data entry in SPSS software, and (3) producing output result and interpretations.

4. Results and discussion 4.1. Qualification of teachers and educational background

Table 1: Cross tabulation of type of program by education rank

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Education Rank

Complete 10/12 grade

Certificate

Diploma

Total

Type of program

O-class 7 0 3 10

KG 1 13 0 14

Total 8 13 3 24

As the above table indicates, many of pre-primary education teachers are certificate holders. It is known that educational level of teachers influences their performance. It is timely, therefore, to launch degree program in the country. However, as some of the respondents noted, there is no access of institutions to upgrade their education. This

implied that, in addition to the expansion of pre-primary education in the town, creating opportunities for teachers to upgrade their education level is mandatory.

Additionally, the above table indicates that, in O-class there is opportunity to assign teachers of diploma holders. These teachers were graduated with fields other than child care and education as the interview with these teachers revealed. Nevertheless, it has its own drawbacks. Pre-primary schools need teachers with special competency of child care and education. Anyone who is a degree holder in education might not care for and educate children properly. Thus, education for teachers should be available by government and other organizations.

Additionally it is better to organize training and any support/professional development courses for teachers who are working on pre-primary education.

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4.2. Teachers’ conceptions on contribution of children play for their holistic development

Table 2: teachers’ conception on the importance of play for children holistic development

Items N

Scales M

SD

Strongly disagree

Somewhat disagree

Neither agree nor disagree

Somewhat agree

Strongly agree

f % f % f % f % f %

Q1. If play is not included in children’s learning, it can bring mental problem on children

24

0 0 2 8.3

9 37.5

11

45.8

2 8.3 3.54

.78

Q2. If a child’s learning focus on subject matter given in classroom, children can learn many things.

24

7

29.2

6

25.0

8

33.3

3

12.5

0

0

2.29

1.04

Q3. Is children’s learning, play = learning

24

6 25.0

7 29.2

7 29.2

3 12.5

1 4.2

2.42

1.14

Q4. Play has importance for children emotional development

24

0 0 1 4.2

10

41.7

11

45.8

2 8.3 3.58

.72

Q5. Playing is important for

24

0 0 0 0 8 33.3

12

50.0

4 16.7

3.83

.70

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children’s cognitive development

Q6. Playing has positive impact on children’s social development

24

2 8.33

1 4.2

9 37.5

10

41.67

2 8.33

3.38

.78

Q7. Lack of play leads children to mental problem

24

7 29.2

7 29.2

7 29.2

3 12.5

0 0 2.25

1.03

Q9. By using play, a teacher can identify behaviour of children

24

0 0 0 0 6 25.0

13

54.2

5 20.8

3.96

.69

Q10. Play is a method by which children learn new thing.

24

4 16.7

12

50.0

8 33.3

0 0 0 0 2.17

.70

As shown in the table 2 above, teachers were asked to rate the level of their agreement on ten questions on the five likert scales which ranges from 1 to 5. The questions were focused on importance of play for children holistic development. For the first question, most of the respondents (45.8%) were agreed with the effects of lack of play on mental health of children. However, most of the respondents (29.2%) disagree with the equivalence of play with learning as indicated in the

third question. This is in contrast with the idea of theorists that advocates play as an important place for children to learn more (White, 2012). The results in the above table also interpreted based on the mean value of each question. The average score for the above five likert scale is 3 since it ranges from 1 to 5 and the mean score of each question were evaluated in line with this average score. Thus, the result indicates that, the mean score of teachers’ conception on the

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importance of play for children mental health (M = 3.54, S = .78), emotional development (M = 3.58, S = .72), cognitive development (M = 3.83, S = .70), social development (M = 3.38, S = .78) and behaviour (M = 3.96, S = .69) were above average. However, teachers were not equally familiar with the importance of play on children’s holistic development. On the other hand, the mean score of teachers’

conception on equivalence of play with learning (M = 2.42, S = .1.17), effect of lack of play on children’s mental problem (M = 2.25, S = 1.03), and play as a method by which children learn new things (M = 2.17, S = .70) were below average.

As discussed in White (2012) and Sheridan (1999), respondents of this research (teachers) were familiar with the importance of play for children holistic development such as mental health, emotional development, cognitive development, social development and behaviour. However, in considering play as learning method, understanding effect of lack of play on children mental problem, and taking play as a method by which children learn new things, teachers’ conception was not adequate. It was noted that play is an instrument of learning and development, the means by which children learn to be happy and mentally healthy , the natural vehicle by which young children learn, and an equivalent of work and learning (Kernan, 2007,

Singer et.al. 2006).

Practitioners of pre-primary education therefore need to understand the effect of play on children’s holistic development and use different plays as a teaching learning method.

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Table 3: Level of teachers’ familiarity with different types of play

Items

N

Rating Scales

M

SD I never heard of it (1)

I heard of it, but I don't know what it is(2)

I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear for me (3)

I know what it is and I can explain what it is but I don't know how to prepare it (4)

I know what it is, I can explain what it is and when to use it, and I can prepare it (5)

f % f % f % f % f %

Q1. Children’s song 24 0 0 0 0 7 29.2 14 58.3 3 12.5 3.71 .46

Q2. Picture book for children 24 0 0 1 4.2 9 37.5 14 58.3 0 0 3.54 .59

Q3 Construction tools for children play

24 0 0 3 12.5 8 33.3 13 54.2 0 0 3.42 .72

Q4. Children’s play through movement such as: football, climbing, jumping

24 0 0 0 0 3 12.5 17 70.8 4 16.7

3.88 .34

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Q5. Children’s creative designduring play

24 11 45.8 8 33.3 4 16.7 1 4.2 0 0 1.79 .88

Q6. Children’s learning by colouring picture

24 0 0 3 12.5 9 37.5 12 50.0 0 0 3.38 .71

Q7. Children’s play withdrawing picture

24 0 0 1 4.2 9 37.5 11 45.8 3 12.5 3.46 .59

Q8. Children’s learning through drama

24 0 0 0 0 11 45.8 10 41.7 3 12.5 3.50 .59

Q9. Children’s play with block 24 1 4.2 2 8.3 3 12.5 13 54.2 5 20.8 3.71 .95

Q10. Children’s play with water

24 0 0 8 33.3 9 37.5 3 12.5 4 16.7 1.96 .86

Q11. Children’s free play 24 0 0 5 20.8 12 50.0 3 12.5 4 16.7 2.21 1.02

Q12. Children’s cultural play: fable, conundrum

24 0 0 0 0 1 4.2 17 70.8 6 25.0 4.21 .51

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As indicated in the above table, participants were put the level of their familiarity to different types of plays. Among the listed types of play, most of the respondents have knowledge on song (58.3%), picture (58.3%), cultural play (70.8%), physical movement (70.8%), colouring picture (50.0%), drawing picture (45.8%), play with block (54.2%), and construction tools (54.2%). However, they responded that, they don’t

know how to prepare these play types. Nonetheless, most of the respondents have some idea but not detail information about free play (50.0%), play with water (37.5%), and drama (45.8%). Finally, Most of the respondents (45.8%) never heard about children’s creative design.

In the above table, mean score for each question also calculated. Since the questions were based on 5-likert scale, the average score for the likert scale is 3 and the mean score for each question were compared with this average score. Thus, it was indicated that the mean score of teachers’ familiarity with children play by song (M = 3.71, S = .46), picture book (M = 3.54, S = .59), construction tools (M = 3.42, S = .72), physical play (M = 3.88, S = .34), colouring picture (M = 3.38, S = .71), drawing picture (M = 3.46, S = .59), drama (M = 3.50, S = .59), block (M = 3.71, S = .95) and by cultural activity such as fable and conundrum (M = 4.21, S = .51) were above average. However, in all of these types of play, most of the teachers have no ability to prepare each

play. For instance, only 3 (12.5%) of the respondents have perceived ability to create song. None of them have perceived ability to create picture book, construction tools, creative play, and play through colouring picture. On the other hand, the mean score of teachers’ familiarity on children learning through the use of creative play (M = 1.79, S = .88), play with water (M = 1.96, S =.86) and through free play (M = 2.21, S =1 .02) were below average.

A wide range of roles can be assigned to the early years practitioner in relation to supporting children’s play in ECCE settings including: play architect, designer, manager, orchestrator; organizer, resourcer,

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observer, assessor, facilitator, mediator, co-player, scaffolder, trainer and advocate (Kernan, 2007). As noted by Kernan (2007), achieving

positive outcomes for young children is dependent on these skills and competence of early year practitioners. This study revealed that most of the teachers were familiar with different types of play. However, there were skill gaps in designing and creating plays. If teachers are able to design and create plays, they can create conducive environment of learning for children. From locally available materials it is possible to

make different plays. Moreover, as noted by Curtis and O’Hagan (2003), a teacher has to be a model for his/her learners in designing, and creating plays. By doing so, it is easy to stimulate ability and contribute to holistic development of children.

4.3. Availability and Effectiveness of curriculum/teaching materials at pre-primary schools

The following table includes data of document analysis of available teaching materials in each selected schools.

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Table 4: Evaluation of textbooks/teaching guides in promoting children play

Items

N

Scales

M

SD None of them

Few of them

Almost half of

them

Most of

them

Almost

all of them

f % f % f % f % f %

Q1. Text books/guides give direction to teachers to allow children learn through movement

5 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 .00

Q2. Text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play through construction and building

5 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 .00

Q3. Text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play by categorizing and ordering things

5 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 .00

Q4. Text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play by drawing,

5 2 40.0 3 60.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.6 .55

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colouring, and designing.

Q5. Text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play by drama

5 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.6 .55

Q6. Text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play by free play

5 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 .00

Q7. Text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play by picture book

5 0 0 1 20.0 4 80.0 0 0 0 0 2.8 .45

Q8. Text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play by block construction

5 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 .00

Q9. Text books/guides give basic skills such as counting, alphabet, word identification and

so on.

5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 100 0 0 4.0 .00

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The above table presents the status of selected pre-primary schools in using teaching materials which enhances children play. As the table indicates, in all selected schools, there were no textbooks/guides which give direction to teachers to stimulate children learning through play by movement, construction or building, by categorizing and ordering things, by drama, and free play. However, in 3 (60%) of the selected

schools, few of text books/guides give opportunity for children to learn through play by drawing, colouring, and designing. In one of the selected schools (20%), there were few text books/guides which give opportunity for children to learn through play by picture book. moreover in all of the selected schools, 5 (100%) most of the text books/guides give basic skills such as counting, identifying alphabet, word identification and so on. This is also true in the following pictures.

Figure 1. Copies of some of textbook pages from pre-primary school

Appreciating the current improvement and development of pre-primary education in the country through the expansion of O-classes, it is important to note things to be improved regarding curriculum and teachers’ guide. As the finding indicates, there is a serious shortage of curriculum and textbooks or guides. Teachers’ response on open ended questions also revealed that there was lack of curriculum and teachers’ guide in each school. It must be noted that early education is not the

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place where children kept and cared by any assigned person. It is a place where the foundation of later life is established and where holistic development is germinated. Thus, it has to have it own curriculum, guides, textbooks, budgets, and other important resources.

4.4. Conducive school environment for play

The following data in the table were collected through observation checklists. Each selected school was observed and the data were analyzed as follows.

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Table 5: Evaluation result of selected schools environment in line with MOE standards

Items N

Rating Scales absent present with

very low quality and very few in

number

present with some quality and

number

present with

moderate quality and

number

present with high

quality and

number F % f % f % f % f %

Q1. Music center play materials 5 5 100. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q2. Play materials for language corner 5 0 0 2 40.0 1 20.0 2 20.0 0 0

Q3. There is place and blocks for construction

5 5 100. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q4. Play materials for mathematics corner 5 0 0 2 40 2 40 1 20 0 0

Q5. There is art center place and materials 5 4 80.0 1 20.0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q6. Family corner materials 5 5 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q7. Social corner play materials 5 5 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q8. Clinical based play center and materials 5 5 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q9. Shop area play materials 5 5 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Q10. Play materials for science 5 5 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q11. Play materials for outdoor play 5 2 40.0 1 20.0 2 40.0 0 0 0 0

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Each selected school was evaluated in line with pre-primary education standards of Ministry of Education. The result revealed that in all selected schools there is no music center and materials, place and blocks for construction, family corner materials, social corner play materials, clinical based play center and materials, shop area play

materials, and play materials for science. However, play materials for language and mathematics corner were found with poor quality and in limited number in each selected school. Similarly, art center place and materials found only in 1(20%) of the selected schools. Play materials for outdoor games were found in all schools, but in some of the selected schools, the quality and the quantity is not adequate.

School environmental is one of factors which support or inhibit children’s natural playfulness (Whitebread et.al. 2012). Ministry of education of the country (MOE, 2011) also gave due attention to the appropriate spaces needed in pre-primary school compound. However, the finding revealed that low attention was given by practitioners for arranging rooms and places according to the standard set by Ministry of Education of the country. From the following pictures, it is possible to evaluate the classroom structure of some schools.

4.5. Experts Evaluation of Pre-primary Schools in the Town

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Table 6: Experts’ evaluation result of pre-primary schools performance Items

N

Rating Scales Mean

SD very

low attention is given

low attention is given

medium attention is given

high attention is given

very high attention is given

f % f % f % f % f % Q1. How do you evaluate pre-primary education in Mettu town in fulfilling play materials according to MOE standards?

5 0 0 4 80.0

1 20.0

0 0 0 0 2.20 .45

Q2. How do you evaluate pre-primary education in Mettu town in organizing play field/ground according to MOE standards?

5 0 0 3 60.0

2 40.0

0 0 0 0 2.4 .55

Q3. How do you evaluate pre-primary education in Mettu town in recruiting trained teachers?

5 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 80.0

1 20.0

4.2000

.45

Q4. How do you evaluate availability of curriculum of pre-primary education in Mettu town which help children learn through play?

5 1 20.0

3 60.0

1 20.0

0 0 0 0 2.0000

.71

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Q5. How do you evaluate availability of pre-primary education books in number

and types in Mettu town which help children learn through play?

5 1 20.0

3 60.0

1 20.0

0 0 0 0 2.0000

.70

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Experts form education office of the district were given questionnaire to rate the status of pre-primary schools in the town. The finding indicate that the status of pre-primary education in Mettu town was not adequate in fulfilling play materials according to MOE standards (M = 2.20, S = .45), in organizing play field/ground (M = 2.40, S = .55), by the availability of curriculum which help children learn through play

(M = 2.00, S = .71), and by the availability of pre-primary education books in number and types which help children learn through play (M = 2.00, S = .70). However, the schools have been working sufficiently in recruiting available trained teachers (M = 4.20, S = .45).

The above finding also revealed that pre-primary schools did not create conducive environment according to MOE standards (MOE, 2011) and undue attention was given in fulfilling play materials which can support children play and learning. However, teachers recruited at pre-primary schools are trained teachers in required fields.

4.6. Interview Results

Some teachers were asked to explain the importance of play for children’s mental and physical development, practice of promoting play in the school and challenges that they faced during implementation. Interviewees’ responses pointed that, they have the knowledge of importance of play for children development and on the contrary there are many challenges to put them into practice. One of the respondents said that parents were not happy with their children’s dingy clothes

when their children play and returned back to their home. Many of the parents had been complaining regarding the neatness of children’s cloth. Due to this reason teachers were forced to keep children from mud and dust. Moreover, as interview with teachers revealed, parents had been complaining when their children are unable to perform basic skills such as writing, reading and counting numbers. This result indicated that there should be support for parents to understand

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dimensions of holistic development and importance of play for children’s development.

5. Conclusion and Recommendation 5.1. Conclusion The mean score of teachers’ conception of the importance of

play for children’s mental health, emotional development, cognitive development, social development and be saviour were above average. On the other hand, the mean score of teachers’ conception on play as learning, on effect of lack of play on children mental problem, and on play as a method by

which children learn new things were below average. Although teachers know different types of play, most of

them are unable to prepare/create plays for children. In all selected schools, there were no available

textbooks/guides which give direction for teachers to stimulate children’s learning through play by movement, construction or building, by categorizing and ordering things, by drama, and free play. There is few text books/guides in some schools which give opportunity to children to learn through play by drawing, colouring, picture book, and designing. However, in all of the selected schools, most of the text books/guides give basic skills such as counting, alphabet, word identification and so on.

In all selected schools there is no music center and materials, place and blocks for construction, family corner materials,

social corner play materials, clinical based play center and materials, shop area play materials, and play materials for science. However, play materials for language and mathematics corner were found with poor quality and in limited number in each selected schools.

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In organizing and fulfilling play field or ground, play materials, books, and curriculum the status is not adequate. However in recruiting the trained teachers there is good practice.

Parents complain when their children’s clothes are muddy. 5.2. Recommendation

Based on the finding of the study, the following recommendations were suggested:

Training should be organized for teachers on using play as method of teaching to contribute to the holistic development of children

Practical training on creating play should be given to teachers

Schools should be monitored and equipped with play materials as per the standard of the Ministry of Education.

Teaching learning process for children should be beyond teaching basic skills. it should focus seriously on play development and implementation.

Schools should be equipped with different plays and which would be monitored by experts; and harmonized books, and teacher guides should be prepared nationally and translated to regional language.

Parental support on child development and importance of

play should be enhanced.

Reference

Convention on the rights of the child (1989).

Curtis, A. & O’Hagan, M. (2003). Care and education in early

childhood: A student’s guide to theory and practice. London and New york: RoutledgeFalmer

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DTU (2014). Debre Tabor University, Bachelor Degree Draft

curriculum of Early Childhood Care and Education program, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia

G/Egziabher Assefa (2014). Practices and challenges of Early

Childhood Care and Education in Addis Ababa, Arada Sub-City Government Kindergartens. Addis Ababa University: Unpublished paper

IPPA, the Early Childhood Organization (2004), The power of

play (Dublin, IPPA, the Early Childhood Organization).

Kernan,M, (2007). Play as a context for Early Learning and Development: A research paper, Commissioned by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, NCCA. Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework

Lester, S. & Russel, W. (2010). Children’s right to play: An explanation of the importance of play in the lives of children worldwide. Working paper No. 57. The Hague, The Netherlands: Bernard Van Leer Foundation

Lillard, S. A. (2013). Playful Learning and Montessori

Education. American Journal of Play, volume 5, number 2

MOE (2011). Preprimary education standard, prepared by

Ministry of Education and translated to Oromo language by Education Bureau of Oromia, Addis Ababa

MoE, MoH, and MoWA (2010): Policy document for Early

Childhood Care and Education (ECCE). Ultimate printing press.

MOE (2015). ESDP V First Final Draft, Ministry of Education:

Addis Abeba

Morrison, G.S. (2004). Early Childhood Education Today, 9th ed.; Pearson Education, Inc: Merrill Prentice-Hall

O’Connor, C., and Stagnitti, K. (2011). Play, behaviour,

language and social skills: The comparison of a play and a non-

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play intervention within a specialist school setting. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 1205-1211.

Sheridan, M.D. (1999). Play in early childhood: From birth to six

years. London and New York: Routledge.

Singer D.G., Golinkoff, R.M. & Hirsh-Pasek, K., Editors(2006).

Play = Learning: How Play Motivates and Enhances Children’s Cognitive and Social-Emotional Growth, Oxford university press

White, R.E. (2012). The power of play: A Research Summary on

Play and Learning. Minnesota children’s museum, smart play

Whitebread, D., Basilio,M., Kuvalja, M. and Verma, M. (2012). The importance of play, a report on the value of children’s play with a series of policy recommendations written for Toy

Industries of Europe (TIE)

Yalew Zeleke.(2011). Practices, challenges and prospects of provision of kindergarten Education attachment with Government program. MA Thesis. AAU

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GST AND ITS IMPLICATIONS - A PERSPECTIVE

P.Rajkumar Reddy Lecturer in Commerce

Loyola Academy Secundrabad Abstract:

Goods and Services Tax (GST) system of tax is the most preferred tax

at the moment throughout the globe. More than 160 countries have opted for this system of taxation. India is the most recent country to take up an initiative for its implementation. The need for the country to take this system of tax is to remove the hurdles like tax-terrorism, Double taxation, corruption and much more. GST is one of the taxes which will collate all the types of taxes into one tax for charging on both goods and services. This paper attempts to examine the implementation of GST in India and its impact on the Indian economy. It also discusses the various transitional aspects that needs to be looked into and the challenges that the businesses face in doing the same. The analysis of data is done using simple average method. The implementation process may go through a teething phase and therefore a few strategies have been suggested.

Key Words: GST, Tax-Terrorism, Double taxation, Initiative,

strategies.

Introduction::

“A King Should Behave Like A Bee And Collect Honey Without Causing Harm To The Flower” -Sage Ved Vyas

Taxes in India existed since ancient times. India has a complex and unique system of taxation which comprises of a basket of different taxes (25 taxes) such as Income tax, Capital Gain tax etc. To simplify

the tax structure in India and reduce the tax burden on the common man it was proposed to introduce a singular tax. GST is one such comprehensive Indirect tax which is levied on the manufacture, sale

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and consumption of goods at the National Level. Its implementation will serve as a catalyst to move the country forward and help the nation to root out corruption and curb black money. It will also enhance transparency and introduce a simplified tax structure which would reduce the double taxation on Goods and Services.

The current paper analyzes the impact of GST on the Indian economy.

It covers various domains such as history of taxation system, different types of taxes, the need to have a uniform tax structure through the establishment of GST and suggest strategies to overcome the teething problems in the implementation of GST.

Objectives of the study:

To study the present tax structure of India To determine the reason behind the introduction of GST and

the teething problems faced during its implementation. To analyze the impact of GST on the Indian economy.

To suggest strategies to overcome problems in the

implementation process.

Research methodology:

This paper entirely deals with taxation system of India wherein data is analyzed from both primary and secondary sources. The primary source of data is collected through questionnaires and secondary data is collected using books, web sources and blogs. The time for conducting the study was very brief therefore the number of questionnaires were just limited to 50 persons – male and female category. The respondents were asked a number of questions to test their awareness on GST and its implementation.

History of indian taxation:

The history of taxation in India has been enforced in ancient times. The references for the variety of tax measures is taken

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from Manu Smriti and Arthasastra. Manu, the ancient sage and lawgiver expressed that King can levy tax according to Sastras. He laid down percentage according to the different category of people such as 1/5th of profits should be paid by traders and artisans, agriculturists depending on their circumstances need to pay 1/6th, 1/10th of their produce.

Kautilya’s Arthasastra also deals with a different form of payment of tax. They are- Taxes collected by the state on agricultural produce, forest produces, mining of metals and customsduties. The taxes collected by the administration include ‘Vanikpath’ from road and traffic polls, ‘Dvarodaya’ for importing the foreign goods, ‘Yatravetana’ on pilgrims and General sales tax. According to him, the tax payment is not compulsory but it is based on Dharma.

The Income Tax Act 1922 gave for the first time a proper system of administering the tax. Central board and Commissioners of Income tax were appointed in 1940 with a view to exercising effective control over the inspection and progress of Income tax. In this way the progress of the taxation system has been developing.

Types of taxes:

The Indian Economy deals with different types of indirect taxes. They are:

A) direct tax:

1. Income tax: This tax is levied on the income of an individual. This is levied on every individual whoever receives income. Based on the slab rates apportionment will be done.

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2. Capital Gains tax:

This tax is levied on profit i.e., when the asset is sold for more than the purchase price is capital gains. There are 2 types of capital gains tax. They are Short term gains and Long-term gains.

3. Securities Transaction tax: This is applicable on every transaction that will be done in stock exchange. Ex: equity shares, mutual funds etc.

4. Perquisite tax: The non-monetary benefits provided the company comes under this category. All those benefits are taxable.

5. Corporate tax: These are annual taxes payable on the income of a corporate operating in India.

B) Indirect Tax:

6. Sales tax: Sales tax are charged on the sale of movable goods. There are 2 types under this. Interstate sale and intrastate sale. CST is

payable on interstate sale is @ 2%. 7. Service tax:

These are paid on the services which we obtain from a service render. The current rate of service tax is 14.5%.

8. Value Added Tax: This is imposed on the value that is added to the particular product. This is additional to the price of goods.

9. Customs duty and Octroi (on goods): This duty is often payable at the port for the purpose of export and import of goods.

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10. Excise duty:

This is opposite to customs duty. This type of tax is charged on goods produced within the country. The other name for this is CENVAT.

11. Anti-Dumping Duty: Dumping is said to occur when goods are exported from a country to another country at a price lower than its normal value. In order to ratify this, the government imposes the anti-dumping duty.

C) Other Taxes:

Professional tax, Dividend Distribution tax, Municipal tax, Entertainment tax, Stamp duty, Education CESS, Gift tax,

Wealth tax, Toll tax, Swachh Bharat Cess, Krishi Kalyan Cess, Dividend tax, Infrastructure Cess, Entry tax.

The taxes which are subsumed into GST are as follows:

Central level: Central Excise Duty, Additional Excise Duty, Service Tax, Additional Customs duty, special additional duty of

customs

State level: Subsuming of state VAT, Entertainment tax, Octroi and entry tax, Purchase tax, Luxury tax and taxes on lottery, betting & gambling.

Need To Have A Uniform Tax Structure:

The varied tax system in India has always been mind boggling and complex. The tax charged until now had to be paid on levels of production, because of this the ultimate burden would rely on the final

consumer. This is known as the cascading effect of taxes. A few years ago, to reduce the burden of ‘TAX ON TAX’ many traders & manufacturers fixed the prices of goods and other commodity using the VAT system. This system enables to provide for the credit of tax paid at

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an earlier stage against a dealer’s tax liability for the consequent stage. Such other concepts can be seen in central excise duty. MODVAT which is now called the CENVAT credit scheme also follows the above concept. It allowed the payment of credit of excise duty made at the input stage to be set off on the liability of excise at a later stage. From 2004 the traders and dealers were allowed to utilize credit of excise

duty for service tax as well as credit given for service tax for excise duty. This helped in reducing the tax burden. There is a dire need to rationalize the various taxes into one comprehensive tax system, which is simple to comply with, lower the burden on the common man, boost exports and reduce fiscal deficit. Thus it is imperative that we need a uniform tax structure to overcome the aforesaid problems and avoid being taxed at every juncture. Hence we believe that GST will be the panacea for our problems. GST is the country’s best bet to achieve fiscal consolidation.

Impact Of Gst On Indian Economy:

The Constitution Amendment Bill for Goods and Services Tax (GST) has been accepted by The President of India post its passage in the Parliament (Rajya Sabha on 3 August 2016 and Lok Sabha on 8 August 2016) and ratified by more than 50 percent of state legislatures. The Government of India is committed to replace all the indirect taxes levied on goods and services by the Centre and States and implement GST by April 2017. The GST will be a comprehensive tax base covering

goods and services, with minimum tax exemptions. It will be a game changing era bringing in positive reforms which will reduce the cascading effect of tax on the cost of goods and services. It will impact the tax structure, tax incidence, tax computation, tax payment, compliance, credit utilization and reporting, leading to a complete overhaul of the current indirect tax system. Its impact will be far reaching on all sectors of the economy. Its implementation will eliminate multiplicity of taxes, harmonize state and central tax

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administrations of compliance procedures, simplify understanding of the complex tax system and ultimately result in efficiency and effectiveness of the system.

The GST structure would use the destination principle, wherein imports would be subject to GST, while exports would be nil. In the case of inter-state transactions within India, State tax would apply in

the state of destination as opposed to that of origin.

Findings:

The following are the Major findings from the study:

From the study it is found that the impact of GST will be mostly

seen on the necessities. Aviation and IT Sector are the fields where impact of GST will

be more. The tax burden will be mostly on the consumers than on the

manufacturers and retailers. About 80% suggest that there will be an increase in state

revenue.

The greatest benefit for the Indian economy in implementing GST is that it will simplify the tax structure.

Implementation of the gst: challenges:

GST will be the most sweeping reform in the Indian taxation since 1947, but there are many issues for its successful implementation. They are as under:

Being mentally prepared as a nation to accept and grapple with the change: The State and the Union Government should come to a common consensus on its implementation mode. This is a herculean task

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The second success rate factor is to arrive at the Revenue

Neutral Rate (RNR) and fix the threshold limit for GST so as to minimize the “taxing” burden on the people.

A fitting IT network needs to be visualized to ensure technological support for registration, return filing, tax payments etc.

Effective training should be given to the tax administration staff both at the Centre and state for proper implementation of the GST procedure.

Implementation of GST requires a lot of hard work, mental preparation and determination on the part of the Government and the common man. The impact of GST will have vast consequences on all the sectors of the country. It is a known fact that GST is the biggest complex system of tax (in terms of fiscal policies) that Independent India is going to witness. There has been a constant debate as to the benefits that this taxation would have on the fast growing economy like India. The removal of the “cascading affect” is what GST in the 21st century economic India is all about. GST is set to expel the burden of tax, improve the tax governance and reduce the inflationary rate, setting a road map for transparency and progress for the country.

It can also be seen that the GST will lead to the following challenges:

service tax in India is 15% but GST will be about 18 -20% Finalizing the GST transition model

The tax rate should be devised regularly based on the

expenditure of the state.

Re structuring the business model.

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When the Government is ready to answer these challenges, then the GST will be a workable solution to the cumbersome existing tax system.

Strategies to overcome the teething problems:

The implementation of GST calls for an upheaval tax reform as well as a complete business reform. It is like walking on a tight rope which involves changing the historical ways of doing business calls and being ready to take up the challenging mantle with an increased sense of

responsibility as any slip up can also have the business continuity/ survival risks.

Finalizing the transition model:

For a business organization, transitional model can be decided based on following models:

1. In – House implementation Model: This is done by developing a core

GST team within the organization.

2. Out – Source implementation model: This is done by outside

professionals who inspects the GST transition from Planning to execution.

3. In House + Outsource implementation model: This is the

combination of above mentioned models.

Formulation of tax rates:

Under the proposed GST, a dual system of tax is being proposed i.e., Central Goods &Service Tax (CGST) and State Goods & Service Tax (SGST). Based on the need, Location and other resources the rate of tax will be differed for each state. Thus enhances equality in the regional trade.

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Business Model Re structuring:

All business organizations need to revamp its structure of the tax system according to the GST models proposed. This will enable the organization to understand the regime of GST and will enable the smooth implementation of the GST system.

In embracing change Communication and connectivity will be the success mantra for businesses, professionals and Government officials. The law making bodies should continually update people about the revamped laws, rules, procedures, formats so that the change

process can be implemented smoothly and quickly. The approval by GST council, will enable each state to come up with its own GST laws so as to set rules, procedures etc. Businesses and professionals need to stay updated with the current rules and procedures of the government by having a continuous learning and training system in place. Some master trainers can be appointed in each department to undertake in-depth training of the changes and impart the same across the organization.

Conclusions:

The Tax system in India is very complex and peculiar as all categories of people were taxed multiple times for the same activity. This led to the concept of being doubly taxed. The emergence of GST is set to overcome these constraints. Since this concept is still in its pioneering stage, it will take some time for it to take off. This subject is vast and there is a lot of scope for its amendment to suit the common man in future. The initiative taken by the government should be based on the

acceptability and satisfaction of the general public. Once the implementation is in on, the system will undergo changes and the path will get smoother and smoother for the growth of the nation. Organizations need to be watchful in order to reap the benefits of the GST. As implementing the system could result in capturing new

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markets, expanding profit margins as every challenge is an opportunity for success. The industry also has homework to do, that is, to prepare for the new tax and be ready for managing the significant changes it will bring from the perspective of information technology requirements and transitioning to the new system

References:

1. The Management Accountant – Journals for CMA’S (12-01-2017)

2. http://www.businessbatao.com/2016/08/gst-bill-advantages-and-disadvantages.html?m=1

3. http://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/government/gst-one-step-towards-simplifying-the-muddled-up-tax-system

4. http://www.ey.com/in/en/services/ey-goods-and-services-tax-gst 5. https://gst.caknowledge.in/gst-india-challenges-success-india/ 6. https://www.taxmanagementindia.com/visitor/detail_article.asp?

ArticleID=7224&kw=Transitional-Challenges-in-GST-implementation.

7. http://www.ey.com/gl/en/services/tax/international-tax/alert--indian-gst-council-reaches-consensus-on-certain-key-issues-in-implementation-of-gst

8. http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cash-flow/gst-demystified/

9. https://www.quora.com/What-exactly-is-GST-How-will-it-

benefit-India

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APPENDICES:

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4

86%

14%

AWARE ABOUT IMPLEMENTATION

OF GST

YesNo

Series10%

100%

IMPACT OF GST WILL BE ON

GOODS THAT GET AFFECTED DUE TO

GST

Kind ofgoods thatgetsaffected 0% 20% 40%

Yes

Partially decrease

17% 25%

33% 25%

WILL THERE BE ANY RAISE IN

LEVEL OF INFLATION

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Figure 5 Figure 6

0%20%40%60%

SECTOR WHICH HAS HUGE IMPACT OF

GST

47%

15%

23%

15%

GREATEST BENIFIT FOR INDIAN ECONOMY

Simplifyingtax process

Curbbingblack money

Improving taxgovernance

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TOBACCO INDUSTRY IN INDIA - AN OVERVIEW

G. Sivasankaraiah Research Scholar


Tirupati

Prof. C. Sivarami Reddy Professor


Tirupati

ABSTRACT

Tobacco is an important cash crop. Tobacco is grown for its

leaves which are used as a cured product. It is smoked as pipe, cigar, cigarette or hookah, used as snuff or chewed as a quid in many forms. India ranks second in the world tobacco production and second in flue-cured tobacco exports. It earns about Rs.10271,55 crores by way of excise revenue and Rs.2022.78 crores as foreign exchange through sale or export of tobacco products. Besides, it provides employment to about 35 millions of people annually in cultivation, curing, grading, factories and cottage industries. An industrial product of considerable importance is nicotine sulphate, which is prepared from tobacco for use as an insecticide. The use of tobacco for other than medicinal purposes was controversial: the Puritans in America believed that tobacco was a dangerous narcotic. Nevertheless, chewing and smoking tobacco became increasingly popular. Cigars were first manufactured in the United States in the early nineteenth century. Hand-rolled cigarettes

became popular in the mid-nineteenth century, and by the 1880s, a cigarette-making machine had been designed. In the twentieth century tobacco use, especially cigarette smoking continued to expand in the United States. This paper focuses on the Tobacco Industry in India: an Overview

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Key Words: tobacco production, industrial, considerable, increasingly,

dangerous

INTRODUCTION

The tobacco industry with several short term multifarious attractive features like, its employment potential, tax earning capacity and its ability to catch up on standard soils has dominated the economy of many developing countries, with low employment, limited tax revenues and low agricultural productivity. Despite several tobacco phobic campaigns and import restrictions by importing nations, the performance of tobacco in the third world countries is commendable.

Tobacco is an important commercial crop all over the world owing to its wide use in one form or the other by the consuming population. Tobacco plant is a native of tropical America. The consumption of tobacco is reported to have taken place during the performance of religious rites of the native Indians in America. Its

cultivation had spread to North America before the arrival of the white settlers. Columbus, after discovering America in 1492, observed the use of tobacco by the native Indian. By 1531, Spaniards were cultivating the crop commercially in West Indies. Initially, it was introduced into Europe in 1556 for cultivation for its ornamental attributes and medicinal uses. Jean Nicot, after whom the plant was named Nicotiana, was responsible for popularizing its cultivation in France. The use of tobacco for smoking has increased since 1586 onwards despite resistance from the governments who levied heavy taxes on smoking tobacco and its products. By 1605, mariners and traders had introduced the tobacco crop into China, Japan and into other countries including those in Europe, Africa, Asia and even Australia. The narcotic and soothing properties of tobacco are due to the presence of an alkaloid called nicotine. Its aroma and flavour account for the essential oils and

other aromatic ingredients, which develop mainly during curing

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process. Of the 65 known species, only two are of commercial importance. Nicotiana tabacum, with at least 100 horticultural varieties is the major source for most tobacco in use presently. Though it was a tropical species to begin with, it has over a period of time, become adapted to sub-tropical and temperate regions. It is an unbranched annual, which grows from 3 feet to 6 feet in height, with large over-leaves. On the other hand, Nicotiana rustica is a smaller and hardier plant. It is believed to have originated in Mexico and still grows in wild in parts of North America. This tobacco species was cultivated and smoked by all the Eastern Indians of North America until the arrival of white settlers. It continues to be grown in some parts of

Central Europe, Asia and Indonesia.

Indian is said to have been introduced to the world of tobacco by the Portuguese sailors in the 17th century. However, the British introduced the cultivation of tobacco at Botanical Gardens in Calcutta for exports purpose. Experiments were conducted in the provinces of Bombay, Madras and Bengal during 1829 with Maryland and Virginia seed from the U.S. Virginia tobacco was introduced in India by the Indian Leaf Tobacco Development Company in 1920, flue curing process in 1928 and the first shipment abroad in 1933. 1

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objective is to study the Corporate Social Responsibility Practices in India: A case study of Andhra Pradesh.

METHODOLOGY

This paper is based on secondary data. Secondary data from various reports and existing work on the topic has been analyzed to arrive at certain results in India.

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STATUS OF TOBACCO CROP IN INDIA

Botanically, the tobacco plant belongs to the family solanacea and genus Nicotiana. The genus embraces over 60 species of which two alone are the cultivated species viz. Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana rustica. The largest area is under Nicotiana tabacum which is grown all over the country whereas Nicotina rustica is confined to North and North Eastern states i.e., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. About 5 to 6 per cent of the total area under tobacco is accounted for Nicotiana rustica varieties. The cultivation of Nicotiana tabacum has countrywide spread and its type alone accounts for more than 80% of the foreign exchange earnings.

Specific types and varieties of tobacco have been developed for use in cigarette, bidi, cigar, cheroot, hookah, chewing and snuff

whereas tabacum types are used for all purpose. The details of types of tobacco grown in India, tobacco quality characters of FCV tobacco and its acceptable limits are as follows.2

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE TOBACCO CROP

India is the second biggest producer of tobacco in the world next to U.S.A and China. Tobacco is the major important commercial crop of India. Tobacco, being a labour intensive crop, provides employment to a large number of people in the field as well as in the factories. For handling and processing the leaf during the season, over lakhs of skilled and unskilled labour are employed. Further, in the tobacco industry, right from the stage of leaf tobacco in the field to that of marketing of the end product, nearly 35 millions of people are provided with employment. Similarly, the bidi, the cigar and chewing and allied industries are contributing their share towards the economy of our country. The immediate and tangible benefits that accrue from tobacco cultivation, manufacture and marketing act as incentives for farmers to

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grow tobacco and for the government to encourage tobacco cultivation and manufacture.

ECONOMIC HISTORY OF TOBACCO

Tobacco has developed from a commodity to which great importance and value were attached (because of its presumed medicinal and evident intoxicant properties), and hence used for barter trade during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, to a cash crop in subsequent periods. The following aspects of tobacco can help in understanding why it has developed as a cash crop.

Tobacco has been contributing substantially to the total

agriculture income.

It yields high net returns per unit of cultivation as compared to

those of other crops.

It provides employment opportunities, both in agriculture and activities involved in the manufacture of tobacco products.

It is a major foreign exchange earner.

There is a considerable domestic and international demand for

tobacco and its products.

It is an important source of revenue, which can be tapped

relatively more easily than many other commodities.

STATUS OF TOBACCO CROP IN ANDHRA PRADESH

The tobacco prices at auctions in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh have been running high so far this year and sales have been progressing briskly, according to a story in the latest issue of the BBM Bommidala Group newsletter. After about 40 days of marketing, the story said, 21.57 million kg of tobacco had been sold for an average of Rs145.53 a kg. The top price had been Rs174 per kg. Bright grades were fetching Rs158.38 per kg while medium grades were selling for Rs138

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per kg. Earlier this year, growers told the Tobacco Board that the average price should not go below Rs135 per kg if they were to ‘scrape through this year after two successive years of heavy losses’. The Board was urged to ensure that growers received Rs160-170 per kg for bright-grade leaf and at least Rs120 per kg for low grades. The Farmers’ Association said that the Board should take into consideration the challenging conditions under which the crop was raised – conditions that included a prolonged dry spell. Andhra Pradesh crop is expected to total about 105 million kg this year, well short of the 130 million kg that were authorised. According to the Indian Tobacco Association, the total crop is expected to comprise 40 percent bright grades, 25 percent

medium grades, with low grades making up the remainder.

Tobacco farmers in India are unlikely to get better remuneration for their produce this year despite low production as demand from global and domestic players have declined due to high taxation in domestic market and availability of better tobacco at competitive rates in other global markets. Production of Flue-cured Virginia (FCV) tobacco, which is used in cigarettes and accounts for 40% of the total tobacco produced in India, is likely to fall by 10-15% this year3

PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

Tobacco was initially grown in the Deccan region (South Central India), during 1605, and later spread to other parts. The Virginia variety of tobacco was introduced in India in Andhra Pradesh in 1920 by the British Officers of the Indian leaf tobacco development company. Sir Forbes Watson’s cultivation and preparation of tobacco in India (1871), said to be one of the earliest publications on tobacco, tells us more about Indian tobacco.

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POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

Although tobacco was grown in many parts of India during the 1950s, the best quality crop was grown in Bihar, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharastra, Punjab and Andhra Pradesh.

IMPACT OF TOBACCO RESEARCH

Sustained research and developmental efforts by the scientists of CTRI have resulted in evolving 90 High Yielding Varieties (HYV) and appropriate agro-technologies, which have made a significant impact on tobacco production, marketing and export earnings. As a result of adoption of HYV and proven production and protection technologies, there has been a quantum jump in the average productivity levels in FCV and non-FCV tobacco types. Improvement in physical and chemical quality attributes of the tobacco leaf including lower levels of harmful constituents like TSNA, tar etc. has made the place of Indian tobacco secure in the international market as ‘quality filler’. Significant

reduction in cost of production achieved through the adoption of improved crop management strategies gave a competitive edge to Indian tobacco in the international market. The different varieties of world tobacco leaf production are presented in table 1.

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Table 1

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF WORLD TOBACCO LEAF PRODUCTION

(Quantity in million kgs)

Year

Variety All

varieties Total FCV Burly Oriental

Dark fire

cured

Dark air

cured

Sun cured Others

2007 4037 771 352 37 191 385 145 5918 2008 3949 724 268 36 180 416 145 5718 2009 3875 616 235 42 190 400 142 5500 2010 4176 734 266 54 183 458 132 6002 2011 4326 831 271 55 183 450 126 6242 2012 4549 760 248 42 248 431 125 6403 2013 4511 797 221 40 234 400 128 6318 2014 4681 567 212 40 231 365 145 6190 2015(P) 4721 683 220 50 207 429 120 6430 2016(E) 4690 755 248 45 220 400 119 6477

Source: Universal Demand & Supply Report 2010 and Feb.2016

Report.E: Estimated, P: Provisional.

The table 1 indicates that variety is the mainly preferred one for production and the world production in the year 2007 was 4037 m.kgs, whereas in the year 2016 it rose to 4690 m.kgs. From the table one can observe that there are ups and down with regard to different varieties

of leaf production from 2007 to 2016

Tobacco is one of the important commercial crops being cultivated all over the world. The major tobacco growing countries are Brazil, India, U.S.A, E.U, Argentina, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malawi; Canada, Zambia, Philippines, south Africa, Thailand, Uganda, China and several others. Export of Tobacco & Tobacco Products is presented table 2

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Table 2 EXPORTS OF TOBACCO & TOBACCO PRODUCTS

Year TOBACCO TOBACCO PRODUCTS TOTAL

Quantity (M.Tonnes)

Value (Rs.Crores)

Quantity (M.Tonnes)

Value (Rs.Crores)

Quantity (MTonnes)

VALUE (Rs.Crores) (MUS$)

2006-06 138159 968.90 24774 393.28 162933 1362.18 305.77 2006-07 142007 1027.52 24862 385.95 166869 1413.47 322.49 2007-08 152618 1241.05 28370 482.37 180988 1723.42 381.54 2008-09 174690 1478.51 30657 544.27 205347 2022.78 502.67 2009-10 197127 2713.28 27740 675.15 224867 3388.43 738.06 2010-11 228214 3631.74 29772 748.95 257986 4380.69 923.81 2011-12 212573 3192.39 39725 1018.02 252298 4210.41 923.94 2012-13 203294 3090.21 3710 1010.09 240395 4100.30 854.94 2013-14 228023 3831.84 35552 1147.21 263575 4979.05 914.43 2014-15 234850 4842.01 29534 1217.30 264384 6059.31 1001.54 2015-16 Na Na Na Na Na Na Na

Source: Tobacco Board Statistics, Guntur, A.P.

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The exports of the tobacco and tobacco products are presented in table 2 They increased by about Rs.4210.41 crores in value terms and in quantity terms 252298 million tonnes and 923.94 MUS$. Tobacco products are increased 5 times in terms of value and two times of quantity and more than 5 times in terms of MUS$. Tobacco Exports by Major Exporters is presented table 3

TABLE-3

TOBACCO EXPORTS BY MAJOR EXPORTERS

(Quantity in tones)

2014 2013 2012 Exporters/Year

566027 678990 579365 Brazil

147028 161850 182263 China

180000 152978 165781 U.S.A.

177630 124895 138000 Malawi

166869 162933 150962 India

120892 134276 114774 Turkey

Source: UN Statistics, Tobacco News-Capsule, March, 2015.

The table 3 presents the world tobacco exports. The major variety of tobacco that enters the international trade is tobacco. The share of Brazil in Worlds export of tobacco was 566027 tones in 2014 and it was followed by China 147028 tones, USA 180000 tons, Malawi 177630 tons, India166869 tons, Turkey with 120892 tones. The above table gives a bird's eye view of international trade in tobacco and tobacco products. World tobacco exports are showing an increasing trend .India and Malawi also recorded notable spurt in the exports.

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Brazil continues to dominate the world flue-cured export market as world’s leading exporter. Brazilian exports suffered, however, as a result of the difficult marketing conditions for 2014 per Brazilian Flue-cured crop. India over took the People Republic of China in 2013 as the worlds second largest flue-cured exporter. China exports decreased straightly in 2014 due to a slightly smaller crop size and strong domestic demand by the China National Tobacco Corporation, US Flue-cured tobacco production in both 2014 and 2015 crop is not expected to aid exports

GOVERNMENT POLICY TOWARDS TOBACCO INDUSTRY

Tobacco is a major source of revenue for the Government and the cigarette industry which is wholly dependent on tobacco is the second largest excise duty contributor to the exchequer (next to

petroleum and petroleum products). Exports of unmanufactured tobacco and its products bring in substantial foreign exchange enabling the country to pay for essential imports, to reduce external borrowing and thus strengthening self-reliance. Recognising the commercial value of the crop, its employment, revenue yielding and export potentials, the Central Government has taken various measures for the cultivation, improvement and development of different kinds of tobacco, to promote integrated development of the industry, to sustain, improve and promote export of Indian tobacco and tobacco products.

The various agencies/organisations set up for the integrated development of the industry such as the Tobacco Board (under an Act of Parliament in 975) Central Tobacco Research Institute (in 947) etc., have already been listed under Chapter-II. In 1956, the Government of India formed the Tobacco Export Promotion Council to sustain, improve and promote export of Indian tobacco and tobacco products.

This Council has its office at World Trade Centre, No. 123, Mount Road, Madras-600023. Apart from these, the Indian Tobacco

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Development Council and Tambaku Vikas Nideshalaya (Directorate of Tobacco Development) have been set up under the Ministry of Agriculture. The Tobacco Development Directorate looks after the development work on tobacco with the assistance of the State Departments of Agriculture. All these Governmental measures have helped the industry grow in an organised manner, regulate the production so as to meet internal as well as international demands etc. The trading wing in Tobacco Board created with the approval of the Government of India (Ministry of Commerce) in 1984 has the responsibility of purchasing all the unsold tobacco in auction platforms at Minimum Support Prices (MSP) fixed by the Central Government

and to stabilise the market to protect the interest of the growers. This trading wing being a price support operating agency of the Tobacco Board is helped by the Central Government by way of margin money for its operations and by way of borrowings arranged by the Central Government at interest rates fixed by the Department of Banking in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India. The Central Government, through the Tobacco Board, strives its best for the maintenance and improvement of existing markets and development new markets outside India by conducting market surveys. It sponsors through the Tobacco Board trade delegations/study teams to different parts of the world. The Tobacco Board participates, with a view to creating awareness in new markets for Indian tobacco and its products, in Trade Fairs/Exhibitions every year.

The Central Government fixes the Minimum Export Price (MEP) for different grades and varieties of unmanufactured tobacco

based on the recommendation of the Tobacco Board to ensure competitiveness of Indian tobacco in international markets. Other measures taken by the Government as well as the RBI to boost the Country’s exports include Cash Compensatory Scheme (CCS), Duty Drawback Scheme and Market Development Assistance Scheme. The

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State Trading Corporation of India (STC), one of whose objective is to undertake price Support and buffer Stock operations in commodities entrusted by the Union Government, has undertaken on Several occasions price stabilization operations in FCV tobacco marketing.

The import-export policy of the Government has been rationalised with a view to increasing exports. It has introduced a policy effective for a period of three years instead of an annual policy in order to provide a more stable framework for exports and industrial growth. Efforts are on to improve transport facilities for exports. Inland Container depots are being established in various depots. Air Cargo complexes functioning at international airports at Bombay, Calcutta

and Madras extend single-window clearance service to the exporting community in the matter of exports by air. Despite all these promotional efforts and policies of the Government to encourage cultivation, growth and export promotion of tobacco and tobacco products, the tobacco industry is facing an uncertain future due to the growing realization the world over that cautions severely that smoking is injurious to the health of both active and passive smokers.4

CONCLUSION

Tobacco is grown for its leaves which are used as a cured product. It is smoked as pipe, cigar, cigarette or hookah, used as snuff or chewed as a quid in many forms. India ranks second in the world tobacco production and second in flue-cured tobacco exports. India ranks third among the major tobacco producing countries of the world. Recognizing the commercial value of the crop, Indian Central Tobacco Committee was established in 1945 to improve and develop this crop. Later in 1956 Tobacco Export Promotion Council was formed and the Central Tobacco Research Institute was established in 1965. Andhra

Pradesh tobacco is raised in Prakasam, Guntur, East Godavari and YSR Kadapa districts .Tobacco products have been marketed in Andhra

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Pradesh at a set of platforms in the state on auction basis. However, in spite of the increasing tendency of area and production of tobacco, Andhra Pradesh state continues to be the largest tobacco producing and transacting organized market in the country.

REFERENCES

1. The Production of Tobacco by Wightman W. Garner. PH.D, SC. D, 1951, P.3

2. Anil Kumar Chojar, “Tobacco Cultivation and Marketing”, Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., F-159, Rajouri Garden, New Delhi-110027, (2002), p.1.

3. Tobacco Control in India, Historical Overview of Tobacco in India, pp.20-21

4. Status paper on Tobacco, Directorate of Tobacco Development

Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, Shastri Bhavan, Chennai, pp.8, 21-26.

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IMPACT OF SELF-HELP GROUPS ON RURAL WOMEN

Kurapati Babu Research Scholar

Department of Economics Acharya Nagarjuna University

Abstract

The objectives of the present study include (i). To examine the reasons for joining SHGs; (ii). To know the attitude of the family members and (iii). To discuss the impact of SHGs on the sample women. The study found that majority of the sample respondents have joined SHGs to get loan. Family members of huge percentage of the sample respondents are encouraging them to work in the SHGs. Majority of the sample respondents got improvement in decision making power in the family after joining SHGs. Self-confidence is improved in the case of largest percentage of the sample respondents. There is an improvement in awareness about the importance of education after joining SHGs in the case of majority of the sample respondents. It is found from the study that the entire SHG members are not taking up income generating activities. About half of the sample respondents only reported improvement in awareness about

income generating activities after joining SHGs. About one third of the sample respondents reported no change in awareness about the income generating activities even after joining SHGs. There is significant improvement in the awareness about government programmes and schemes after joining SHGs in the case of largest chunk of the sample respondents. There is an improvement in the nutrition food expenditure only in the case of about one third of the sample respondents after joining SHGs. Overall financial status of the sample households is improved after joining SHGs in the case of more than four fifths of the sample. On the contrary, negligible percentage of the sample respondents reported no change in financial status after joining

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SHGs. Thus, the study shows that SHGs helped the women to have awareness about various issues and also at the same time improved their financial status.

Keywords:- rural women, SHGs, reasons, impact

Indian women as a whole, were much worse off than men. The women were less literate, more unemployed, less visible in the authority structure, more prone to diseases and suffered more from barriers of customs and patriarchal norms and values. The participation of women in the national economy both as producers and consumers is very limited. Either their economic contribution to GDP

is ignored or treated as invisible. Women are the backbone of the society. They are its conscience keepers, so to say. They have kept moral and cultural values alive. They have a strong sense of responsibility and have avoided strife even at the cost of their own welfare.

The invisibility of many of women's economic activities is noteworthy. Women remain responsible for most housework, which goes unmeasured by the prevailing system of national accounts. The daily time a man spends on work tends to be the same throughout his working life. But a woman's working time fluctuates widely and at times it is extremely heavy as the result of combining paid work, household and childcare responsibilities. Two thirds to three quarters of household work in developed regions is performed by women.

Self-help groups (SHGs) have grown to be an effective organization that ensures the overall development of the community

and village: a bank at home, a friend in emergency, a protector from money lenders, a landmark of communion, a workplace of enterprise development, and a platform of planning. These groups ensure the participation of people in the development process and promote savings habit among the backward section of the people and also fulfil the loan

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aspiration of these people. The self-help groups have become the focal point of the banks, national and state governments and the non governmental agencies. In the years to come, self-help groups could develop into an alternative scheme for the existing loan schemes. Therefore, examining the impact of these SHGs on rural women is noteworthy.

Against this background, the objectives of the present study include (i). To examine the reasons for joining SHGs; (ii). To know the

attitude of the family members and (iii). To discuss the impact of SHGs on the sample women. The study is based on primary data. Data is collected using simple random sampling method from 125 SHG women using interview schedule from Kanteru village of Guntur District, A.P. Frequency tables are drawn to analyze the data.

Results and Analysis

Reasons for joining Group

Sample respondents are asked to state the reasons for joining Self-help Groups (SHGs). Distribution of the sample respondents by reasons for joining SHGs is given in Table – 1. It is noticed from the table that majority of the sample respondents had joined SHGs to get loan (71.20), while 16 per cent of the sample respondents reported that they joined SHGs to inculcate savings. On the other hand, nearly 13 per cent of the sample respondents are found to be joined SHGs to have awareness about various things.

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Table – 1

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Reasons For Joining Shgs

Frequency Percentage

To get loan 89 71.20

To have awareness 16 12.80

To inculcate savings 20 16.00

Total 125 100.00

Source: Computed from the Primary Data.

Attitude of family members

An attempt is made in the present study to know the attitude of family members towards the women working in the SHGs. Table – 2 shows the distribution of the sample respondents by attitude of family members after joining SHGs. It is deduced from the table that family members are encouraging the women to work in SHGs in the case of huge percentage of the sample respondents (87.20 per cent), whereas merely around 13 per cent of the sample respondents reported discouragement from the family members.

Table – 2

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Attitutde Of Family Members After Joining Shgs


Encouraging 109 87.20

Discouraging 16 12.80

Total 125 100.00


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Decision making power in the family after joining SHGs

The study made an attempt to examine the impact of SHGs on the sample women. Distribution of the sample respondents by decision making power in the family after joining SHGs is given in Table – 3. It is inferred from the table that decision making power in the family is improved after joining SHGs in the case of nearly 69 per cent of the sample respondents, while about 15 per cent of the sample respondents reported improvement to some extent. As against this, 16 per cent of the sample respondents felt that there is no change in decision making power in the family after joining SHGs.

Table – 3

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Decision Making Power In The Family After Joining Shgs


Improved 86 68.80

Improved to some extent 19 15.20

No change 20 16.00

Total 125 100.00


Self confidence after joining SHGs

Sample respondents are asked whether their self confidence is improved after joining SHGs. Table – 4 shows the distribution of the sample respondents by improvement in self confidence after joining SHGs. It is noted from the table that self-confidence is improved in the case of largest percentage of the sample respondents (84 per cent),

while 16 per cent of the sample respondents reported no change in self – confidence even after joining SHGs.

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Table – 4

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Improvement In Self Confidence After Joining Shgs


Improved 105 84.00

No change 20 16.00

Total 125 100.00


Awareness about the importance of education

The study made an attempt to examine awareness of the sample

respondents about various issues after joining SHGs. Table – 5 presents distribution of the sample respondents by awareness about importance of education after joining SHGs. It is observed from the table there is an improvement in awareness about the importance of education after joining SHGs in the case of about 86 per cent of the sample respondents. A meagre percentage of the sample respondents stated improvement to some extent, whereas around one tenth of the sample respondents reported no change in awareness about the importance of education even after joining SHGs.

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Table – 5

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Awareness About The Importance Of Education After Joining Shgs


Improved 108 86.40


No change 11 8.80

Total 125 100.00


Awareness about income generating activities

In fact, the one of the concepts of SHGs is to encourage women to take up income generating activities with the SHGs loans. In practice, it is found that the entire SHG members are not taking up income generating activities. When asked about the awareness about income generating activities, about half of the sample respondents only reported improvement in awareness about income generating activities after joining SHGs. On the other hand, about one third of the sample respondents reported no change in awareness about the income generating activities even after joining SHGs (Table – 6).

Table – 6

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Awareness About Income Generating Activities After Joining Shgs

Frequency Percentage Improved 64 51.20 Improved to some extent 18 14.40 No change 43 34.40 Total 125 100.00


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Awareness about government programmes and schemes

Sample respondents are asked to state whether their awareness on government programmes and schemes is improved after joining SHGs. Table – 7 shows the distribution of the sample respondents by awareness about government programmes and schemes after joining SHGs. It is noted from the table that there is significant improvement in the awareness about government programmes and schemes after joining SHGs in the case of around 85 per cent of the sample respondents. It is observed that the Government is making use of the SHG members to create awareness about various welfare programmes

of the Government to the general public.

Table – 7

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Awareness About Government Programmes And Schemes After Joining Shgs


Improved 106 84.80


No change 5 4.00

Total 125 100.00


Changes in nutrition food expenditure

The study made an attempt to know whether there is any change in nutritional intake after joining SHGs. Distribution of the sample respondents by changes in nutrition food expenditure after joining SHGs is depicted in Table – 8. It can be seen from the table

that there is an improvement in the nutrition food expenditure only in the case of about one third of the sample respondents after joining

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SHGs (36 per cent), whereas around 42 per cent of the sample respondents reported improvement to some extent. As against this, about 22 per cent of the sample respondents stated that there is no improvement in the nutrition food expenditure after joining SHGs.

Table – 8

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Changes In Nutrition Food Expenditure After Joining Shgs


Improved 45 36.00


No change 28 22.40

Total 125 100.00


Financial status of the family

Sample respondents are asked to state impact of joining SHGs on the overall status of the family. Distribution of the sample respondents by financial status of the family after joining SHGs is provided in Table – 9. It is delineated from the table that overall financial status of the sample households is improved after joining SHGs (87.20 per cent), while about 11 per cent of the sample respondents reported improvement to some extent. On the contrary, negligible percentage of the sample respondents reported no change in financial status after joining SHGs.

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Table – 9

Distribution Of The Sample Respondents By Financial Status Of The Family After Joining Shgs


Improved 109 87.20


No change 2 1.60

Total 125 100.00


Conclusion

In conclusion, majority of the sample respondents have joined SHGs to get loan. Family members of huge percentage of the sample respondents are encouraging them to work in the SHGs. Majority of the sample respondents got improvement in decision making power in the family after joining SHGs. Self-confidence is improved in the case of largest percentage of the sample respondents. There is an improvement in awareness about the importance of education after joining SHGs in the case of majority of the sample respondents. It is found from the study that the entire SHG members are not taking up income generating activities. About half of the sample respondents only reported improvement in awareness about income generating activities after joining SHGs. About one third of the sample respondents reported no change in awareness about the income

generating activities even after joining SHGs. There is significant improvement in the awareness about government programmes and schemes after joining SHGs in the case of largest chunk of the sample respondents. There is an improvement in the nutrition food expenditure only in the case of about one third of the sample

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respondents after joining SHGs. Overall financial status of the sample households is improved after joining SHGs in the case of more than four fifths of the sample. On the contrary, negligible percentage of the sample respondents reported no change in financial status after joining SHGs. Thus, the study shows that SHGs helped the women to have awareness about various issues and also at the same time improved their financial status.

References:-

1. Anupam Hazra (2011), “Empowering Women in Rural India: Exploring The Current Dynamics”, Kurukshetra, Vol.59, No.11,

September, pp.3-5.

2. Jerinabi U (2006), ‘Micro Credit Management by Women’s Self Help Groups’, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, pp.5-6.

3. Suguna B (2006), ‘Empowerment of Rural Women through Self Help Groups’, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, pp.10-11.

4. Sushama Sahay (1998), ‘Women and Empowerment – Approaches and Strategies’, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, pp.3-8.

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RELIABILITY AND FEASIBILITY OF INTEREST FREE BANKING IN INDIA

Neeru Gupta Research Scholar

G.D.Goneka University Gurgaon

Abstract:

Banking only financial establishment that uses money deposited by customers for investment, pays it out when required, makes loans at interest, and exchanges currency, supports business or commercial activities but also imparts obligations towards society for development of nation.

Islamic banking is based on the principles of Islamic law (sharia) and guided by Islamic economies. IFB system depends upon the two principles which is sharing of profit and loss. It prohibits the collection of interest, which is not permitted under Islamic law. Contrary to popular belief, Islamic banking is not just for Muslims. This system does not have any religious connotation. It aims to lay the foundations of an ethical and fair financial system, which consequently

affects the socio-economic conditions of the market it is implemented in. Islamic banking provides services to everyone irrespective of religious beliefs, wealth, ethnicity, caste.

Introduction

Banking only financial establishment that uses money deposited by customers for investment, pays it out when required, makes loans at interest, and exchanges currency, supports business or commercial activities but also imparts obligations towards society for development of nation.

Islamic banking is based on the principles of Islamic law (sharia) and guided by Islamic economies. Two basic principles behind

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such a banking system are the sharing of profit and loss and significantly; it prohibits the collection of interest, which is not permitted under Islamic law. Contrary to popular belief, Islamic banking is not just for Muslims. This system does not have any religious connotation. It aims to lay the foundations of an ethical and

fair financial system, which consequently affects the socio-economic conditions of the market it is implemented in. Islamic banking provides services to everyone irrespective of religious beliefs, wealth, ethnicity, caste.

The object of this paper is to understand the concept of interest free banking and study the scope and challenges of IFB in India.

Need of IFB

When most businesses in the finance sector are struggling to survive. Islamic banking is based upon the principle that the use of interest is prohibited. This prohibition is based upon Sharia ruling.1 Since Muslims cannot receive or pay interest, they are unable to conduct business with conventional banks. To service this niche market, Islamic financial institutions have developed a range of interest-free financing instruments that conform to Sharia ruling, and therefore are acceptable to their clients. Despite the prohibition of interest by four of the world’s major religions (Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, and

Islam), today’s international economic system is based on interest. However efforts are going on to replace the conventional interest-based banking system with the interest free banking and finance. Apart from religious dimension, the case against interest has been examined by many researchers.

The idea of Islamic banking goes back to as early as the 7th century, but it was only commercially implemented in the last century. There is

1 .Abdul – Gafoor,A(2003), Islamic Banking, A.S.Noor Deen, Kuala Lumpur.

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a common understanding among business management researchers that, the rapid growth of Islamic banking at the time when the ethical banking movement is gathering new momentum is not a matter of sheer coincidence. Most researchers are of the view that Islamic banking actually rides on the crest of the world’s renewed interest in

the ideas of ethical banking. They contends that Islamic banking has shown that it is financially sustainable because it is recording phenomenal growth rates across the world at a time

Modern Islamic banking was started way back last decades of 19th century with establishments of some interest free banks in Egypt. These organizations are not so successful due to various reasons.

In first half of 20th century there are various academic initiatives by different scholars across the globe to explore the concept of Islamic banking.

Some of them have also proposed an interest free banking system based on the concept of profit and loss sharing. A substantial literature on individual consumers’ attitudes towards conventional banking and services is already in place, especially concerning selection criteria (or patronage) and customer satisfaction.

The Islamic banks did not significantly differ from conventional banks in the benefits and costs of bank products and services and that Islamic banks equaled conventional bank in terms of staff competency and speed of the services. However Investment in Islamic bank is generally based, on a religious motivation.

Principles of Interest free banking:

Murabaha (cost plus financing) It is the most widely used financing mode under interest free banking. Under murabaha financing, the customer approaches the bank with a request to procure a product /asset. The banks

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procure the asset from the third party seller and sell the same to the customer on deferred or immediate payment. The bank adds a “mark –up” on the asset, from which it drives its profit. In other words, banks get a profit on the sale of the asset by charging a pre-declared amount on the actual cost of the asset.2

Mudarabah (Profit sharing) It is an Islamic equivalent to the conventional venture capitalism.3 Under mudarabah, bank

enters into a partnership with the customer to finance a project or commodity on profit sharing basis. The essence of mudarabah lies in the equity partnership it creates, where the parties mutually agree to share a definite proportion of profit from the investment. General principles governing a mudarabah contract are: A. The investment comes from the first partner – rabb-ul-mal,

while management and labour is the responsibility of the other partner-mudarib.

B. Mudarib has the right to manage a mudarabah venture.

C. Rabb-ul-mal has no right in the management of the venture but have a right to access to reasonable information concerning the venture.

D. Profit is shared on the basis of pre agreed proportion.

E. Loss is shared solely by the rabb-ul- mal since he is the sole

investor.4

2 Interest –free banking system uses this mode for trade financing purpose for their customers. In these transactions the bank takes the title to the asset to be procured at the request of the customer and therefore assumes the risk, which entitles it to profit from the transaction. 3 The investor provide all capital and the borrower manage the venture and puts up sweat equity. 4 Under a mudharabah contract , loss takes place only in the capital.

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F. Mudaraib is not liable for any loss unless such loss is caused

due to the mudaraib’s misconduct, negligence or breach of specified terms.

Musharakah (Equity partnership) Muskharakah is a joint venture financing between two or more parties, where profit and loss is shared by the partners in pre agreed proportion. Musharakah is similar to mudarabah. However in musharakah bank is not only the investor for entrepreneur. General requirements for musharakah based are as follows: A. All partners contribute capital. B. Profit sharing is based on an agreed ratio whereas loss

bearing is based on capital contribution ration. C. Capital is not guaranteed. However, a guarantee may only be

given to cover cases of negligence and breach of teams of musharakah agreement.

Ijarah (Lease/ Hire –purchase) Ijarah as per fiqh means ‘to give something on rent’. In an Ijarah contract, bank purchases an asset or product desired by the customer and leases it to the customer on monthly commitment. Under the Ijarah transaction, the banks owns the assets and customer pays the rent.

Bai Salam (Forward Contract)

One of the basic principles of Islamic lending is that there must be an underlying tangible asset in existence. However, the general rule is subject to certain exception, one being the forward contract or Bai Salam. In a bai salam , payment is made in advance for asset to be delivered at a future date. In such financing, price is paid in cash and delivery is deferred. In a bai salam contract, the buyer is called the rabb-us-salam and the seller is called muslamilaih.

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Sukuk (Participation securities)

Salam is very useful in reducing agricultural sector poverty easily by enabling the banks and farmers to contract with each other of the crops and to get finance at appropriate time.

Statutory Document and Development for Interest free banking in India:

Anand Sinha Committee Report (2005) In 2005, RBI appointed a

working group committee under the chairmanship of Anand Sinha to examine the prospectus and feasibility of interest-free banks in India. However, the committee in its report concluded that the interest free banks were not feasible in the present legal and regulatory framework of India. The committee further reported that introduction of interest free banking in India would require amendments in the banking

regulation Act and separate rules and regulations may have to be framed in the light of unique financing modes involved. Under the governorship Dr.D.Subbarao , RBI maintained that IFB under the present statutory and regulatory framework was not possible since interest was a major component of banking in India.5

Deepak Mohanty Committee on Medium Term Path on Financial Inclusion(2015)6The most recent development which gave

a fresh impetus to the cause of interest-free banking in India was on December 28, 2015, when a RBI appointed panel under the chairmanship of Deepak Mohanty (Executive Director, RBI) recommended the opening of interest-free banking window within the conventional banks. The committee primarily appointed to inquire in

5 . See Edited transcript of RBI Governor’s post-policy conference call for media held on Oct.30.2012 available at :http://www.rbi.org.in//Scripts/bs_viewcontent.aspx?Id=2602 6 Reserve Bank of India, Report of the committee on Medium Term Path on Financial Inclusion(2015)

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to the issues in financial inclusion , dedication an entire chapter on interest-free banking

Raghuram Rajan Committee on financial sector reforms (2009) The committee highlighted the need for financial inclusion of the disadvantages groups of society. The committee observed as follows: Another area that falls broadly in the ambit of financial infrastructure for inclusion is the provision of Interest –free banking. The non –

availability of interest-free banking denies India access to substantial sources of savings from other countries in the region.7

The committee recommended that interest-free banking should be allowed with appropriate regulatory safeguards as a measure of financial inclusion. In this regard the committee made following observations:8

While interest free banking is provided in a limited manner through NBFCs and Cooperatives, the committee recommends that measures be taken to permit the delivery of interest- free finance on a large scale including through the banking system. This is in consonance with the objectives of inclusion and growth through innovation. The committee believes that it would be possible, through appropriate measures, to create a framework for such products without any adverse systemic risk impact.

Why Interest free banking in India:

1. Vast Muslim Population: Interest free banking is not limited to

the Muslim community, but open for all irrespective of one’s religion. But the Muslims are the dominant consumer of Interest –

free banking. India is the third largest country in terms of Muslim population with Indonesia and Pakistan being the first and second

7 Government of India Report of the Committee on Financial Sector Reforms (Planning Comm.. 2009)at 72. 8 Ibid

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respectively.9 With around 172 million (2011 Census of India) Muslims living in India. According to a study by Pew Research Organization, with a high population growth rate, it is estimated that by 2050 Muslim population in India will be 311 million, overtaking Indonesia and Pakistan.10 With such a vast Muslim

Population, interest-free banking, with Shariah complaint product and services, has the immense potential to tap in the financial as well as the human resources of the Muslim community channelize them into mainstream of the Indian economy.

2. Financial inclusion: In recent years the importance of financial

inclusion has become priority for the policy makers in India. The attainment of 100% financial inclusion of society serves two purpose: Firstly It inculcates a habit of saving and investment among the citizenry a country and secondly, it circulates crucial financial resources in the economy of a country. According to 2011 Census, it is estimated that only 58.7% of households have access to banking service.11 After the launch of PMJDY things have changed for better and millions of bank accounts have been opened.12 But the problem of financial exclusion still available reason for that Muslims are not participated in banking system because they believed in Interest free banking. According to the Sachar

Committee report, the access of Muslims to bank credit was low and inadequate.

9 . According to Statistics Indonesia ( Badan Pusat Statistik), Population Census 2010. 10 . Pew Research Study on Global Muslim Population, (Jan.27,2011) available at: http//www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27 the-future-of-the-global-muslim population. 11 Registrar general &Census Commissioner, Census of India 2011(Ministry of Home Affairs,2011) available at http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-common/NSDI/Houses_Household.pdf. 12 . As of Apr.2,2016,nearly 21.51 crore bank accounts have been opened under the PMJDY. See progress report available at : http://www.pmjdy .gov.in/account.

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2001-2005, Bank Credit (Amount outstanding) %13

Parameters all districts in India

Public Sector banks Private sector banks

Muslims Other minorities

Others

Muslims Other minorities

others

No.of accounts (%of total) 12.2 8.1 79.7

11.3 10.5 78.2

Amount outstanding(% of total

4.6 6.3 89.1

6.6 7.9 85.5

Amount outstanding per account(rs/account)

19837 40686 59055

111634 201840 274911

Share of population 13.4 5.6 80.9

13 .Summary of Sachar Committee report, retrieved form sachar committee.co.in/sachar_report _summary.html.

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According to this report, it is clear that the other minorities share of Muslims in the amount outstanding is only 4.6% compared to as a high share of 6.3%.

The committee report state:-“The financial exclusion of Muslims has for reaching implication for their social –economic and educational upliftment. Step should be introduced to specially direct credit to Muslims, create transparency in reporting of information.

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2009, According to RBI annual report, deposits/ credit rations by Schedule commercial banks (SCBs)

Total aggregate deposit with SCBs

Estimated Aggregate deposits with SCBs by Indian Muslims

Total credit extended

By SCBs

Estimated credit extended by SCBs to Indian Muslims

National average credit Deposit ratio at SCBs, for all communities

Desired extended amount of credit by SCBs, to Indian Muslims

Average credit deposit ration by SCBs to Indian Muslims

Estimated credit loss to Indian Muslims as percentage of their deposits

Estimated amount of credit loss by Muslim Community

3,834110

Cr.

2,91,392

Cr.

27,75,54

9 Cr.

1,30,451

Cr.

72.39% 2,10,942 44.77% 22.62% 80,491cr.

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According to RBI record 2009, approximated amount credit damage 80,491 crores because they don’t really have confidence in formal bank operating system.14

From the above discussion it is clear that Interest free banking could be an innovative and welcome step for solving the problem of financial

exclusion.

3. Poverty alleviation: India is the second most populous

countries of the world with an estimated 30% population living below the poverty line.15 Despite years of poverty alleviation measures by the government, India has one of the largest population in the world which lives below poverty line. Apart from general poverty in India, the status of Muslims living in India is also deplorable. Every government statistics, reports and surveys show poor human development index among Muslim in India. Whether it is literacy,16 employment, education, access to banking service and products etc. IFB can contribute a great deal in developing an effective poverty alleviation strategy through its social welfare and inmclusive agenda.

We have working model of IFB in India itself some report shows that about the development of IFB. Report of parliamentary committee headed by Mr. Rehman Khan, the Deputy chairman of Rajya

Sabha to create a shariah compliant mutual investment fund for Hajj pilgrims: “Through Prime ministers Recommendation, a high level committee was set up by Mr. Rehman Khan in July 2006,” Khan

14 .Reserve bank of India and financial exclusion of muslims,www.radianceweekly.com>story-details. 15 . The estimate of poverty in India is based on the Rangrajan Committee formula which is submitted its report in June 2014. According to this report nearly 29.5% of the population is below the poverty line. 16 According to 2001 Census the literacy rate among Muslims was 59.1% below the national average (64.8%).

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suggested GOI that there should be shariah complaint investment for the Hajj pilgrimage as in the case of Malaysia. Through this speculation it is guaranteed to give offices to Hajj journey identified with their convenience, stay and voyaging etc. In this manner Khan proposed that shariah complainant investment institution may permit setting up as a

test and if this analysis succeed then undeniable Islamic banks can be presented in whole India.

Islamic financial institution launched by the Govt. of Kerala : Al-Barakah Financial Services Ltd. Kochi was incorporated on November 30, 2009 to function as Shariah compliant NBFC, with an equity contribution 11% by the state owned NBFC i.e. KSIDC. This equity contribution was challenged in the Kerala HC through writ petition.17 The main contention of the petitioner was that a secular government and state were lending support to a particular religious faith and thereby discriminating amongst religions. Dr. Subhramanium Swamy v. State of Kerala, (2011) The RBI was impleaded by

the HC suo motto. In its judgement dated February 3, 2011, the HC dismissed the writ and observed that they had no objection to KSIDC carrying on a business that was Shariah compliant in addition to fulfilling with the laws of the country.18 The court upheld the Kerala govt.’s decision to setup a Shariah compliant financial company. The court further said that although the

institution was based on purely commercial reasoning.19

17 W.P(C ) 35180/2009 By Dr. Subhramaniam Swamy and W.P (C) 10662/2010 by R.V.Babu. 18 .Dr. Subhramaniam Swamy v. State of Kerala, (2011) SCC Online Ker.3692. 19 . Ibid

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Challenges of interest free banking in India:

In India the functions of banking system is based on Banking Regulation Act1949, Negotiable Instrument Act, 1881 and Reserve Bank of India 1934. Since the present legal framework is based on conventional banking system, interest-free banking may come in conflict with several legal provisions. Some of the major legal provisions which are impediments in the introduction of interest-free

banks in India are as follows:

Section 21, BR Act- Policy determined by the RBI, under section 21, makes charging of interest on advances mandatory. 20This is contrary to the fundamental tenet of interest free banking which prohibits interest on advance.21

Section 5(a), BR Act- which define ‘banking ‘as “accepting, for the purpose of lending or investing, of deposits of money from the public, repayment on demand or otherwise, and withdrawal by cheque, draft, or otherwise” goes against Profit loss sharing model of interest free banking.

Section 8, BR Act – specifically provides that “No banking company shall directly or indirectly deal in buying or selling or bartering of goods.” This provision is contradictory to Murabaha concept of interest free banking which allows banks to enter into sale and purchase agreements.

Section 9, BR Act- prohibits bank to own any immovable property except for its own use. This is against with Ijarah(house finance).

Section 19(2), BR Act- the restriction imposed on a banking

company with respect to holding shares in another company may come in conflict with musharakah agreements.

20 .See Venkiteswara Rice Mill v. Union Bank of India.(1988) 21 See RBI Master Direction(interest rate on advances) Directions.2016

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Conclusion:

To conclude, in few words we would say that the future of interest free banking in the hands of government and the hands of people of India, especially the Muslims. Because India is the second largest country of Muslim population all over the world. Muslims in India has not been participating in the conventional banking system because they believed in interest free banking. If interest free banking starts in India

than Muslims will participate and socially -economic condition of Muslims also improved. This will affect the economic and financial condition of our country.

References:

1.Abdul-Gafoor, A. (2003), Islamic Banking, A.S. Noor Deen, Kuala Lumpur.

2.Akhter, J. and Akhter, A. (2011), “Awareness and attitude of University Employees towards Islamic banking in India”, International Journal of Business Swot.

3.Bley, J. and Kuehn, K. (2004), “Conventional versus Islamic finance: student knowledge and perception in the United Arab Emirates”, International Journal of Islamic Financial Services, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 17-30.

4.De Jonge, A. (1996) ‘Islamic law and the finance of international trade’, Monash University Working Paper,Melbourne.

5. De Jonge, A. (1996) ‘Islamic law and the finance of international

trade, Monash University Working Paper, Melbourne.

6. El-Gamal, M. (2000), A Basic Guide to Contemporary Islamic Banking and Finance, available at: www.witness-pioneer.org/

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7. Erol, C. and El-Bdour, R. (1989), “Attitudes, behavior and patronage factors of bank customers towards Islamic banks”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 7 No. 6, pp. 31-7.

8.Zaher, T. S. & Hassan, M. K. 2001. ‘A comparative literature survey of Islamic finance and banking’, Financial Markets, Institutions and

Instruments, 10(4): 155 – 199.

9. Zineldin, M. (2002) "Managing in the @ age: Banking service quality and strategic positioning", Measuring Business Excellence, Vol. 6 Iss: 4, pp.38 – 43

10. Salahuddin, Sajid(2014). Potential of Interest free banking system in India: An exploratory study. Global Journal of Business Management vol.8 No.2.

11. Salahuddin, Sajid(2014). Potential of Interest free banking system in India: An exploratory study. Global Journal of Business Management vol.8 No.2.

12. According to Statistics Indonesia ( Badan Pusat Statistik), Population Census 2010 .

13. Pew Research Study on Global Muslim Population, (Jan. 27,2011) available at :http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27the- future-of-the-

global-muslim population.

13 Registrar General &Census Commissioner , Census of India 2011( Ministry of Home Affires,2011) available at : http//censusindia.gov.in/2011-Common/NSDI/House_Household.pdf.

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ICT AND GENDER BIAS –DECIPHERING BARRIERS

G.Raghavendra Prasad Assistant Professor

Amity University Chhattisgarh

Abstract:

ICT must be considered in terms of computational thinking, not just programming e.g. stats, neurology, science. About 7 million people around the world work in the ICT sector; out of that only 30% are

women. A mere 6% of CEOs at the top 100 global tech companies are women. ICTs can change the equation of women’s contribution in the field of business, governance, education, health as well as in vernacular sectors. The scope of development should be deeply looked into due to the challenges, hurdles and restrictions faced by women. The reasons for those are variable including cultural stereotypes, social, economic and geographic dividends. Though in the recent past mobilephones and internet has contributed towards the upliftment of the soceity, still lot’s to be done. The view point of the society should be rewritten with clear strategies and well defined principles which is still suffering under th influenze of gender discrimination. ICT enabled sectors are indifferent from that viewpoint either. The gender gap is observed more across the entire ICT ecosystem.Globally Women and girls are less likely represented to work in digital sector. The launchpad and

thoughtprocess ivolved in ICT as a platform should be revisited in order to establish women’s rights and empowerment and make them to takepart in ICT enabled education and employment.

Keywords: Gender Bias, ICT, gender-bias, education,empowerment.

Introduction

There is a need to remove the obstacles for women’s participation and contribution in ICT. In order to do that we have to understand the

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factors which are causing the Digital Discretion with respect to the gender. According to the Information Soceity Report 2016 there was an increase in gender between 2013 and 2016. The difference between the internet user penetration rates for males and females had increased to16.8 % in developing countries and to 30.9 % in least developed countries. The largest digital disconnect were observed in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa [2]. The gender discrimination exists not only in terms of access to and use of ICT but also extends to studying and employment in the digital sector. The mobile broadband access gender gap of 45 % in sub-Saharan Africa, and of up to 50 % in some parts of rural Asia [3]. Globally, women hold only 24 % 18 of all digital sector

jobs, and in developing contexts, men are 2.7 times more likely to work in the digital sector. 19 Men are also 7.6 times more likely than women to hold occupations that require specific ICT skills[4]. This gender gap also increases with seniority. There are far fewer women in senior leadership roles than men in the digital sector. Although little data on this phenomenon from developing countries exists, a 2014 Center for Talent Innovation study found that 32 % of women from the US, 22 % from Brazil, 30 % from China and 20 % from India stated that they were likely to leave their job in an SET field within a year because of the significant gender bias and discrimination they experienced in their workplaces. [5]

Destitution, absence of education, absence of PC proficiency and dialect boundaries are among the components obstructing access to ICT framework, particularly in developing countries.[6] Another impediment relates to ICT is absence of its entrance to women. In our

general public the flexibility of ladies to look for work outside the family is a noteworthy issue. This flexibility is denied in many societies what’s more, this demeanor in itself is a genuine infringement of ladies' freedom and gender equality. The nonappearance of this flexibility

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militates against the financial strengthening of women, with numerous different pernicious consequences[7].

Basic Education and ICT

In order to eradicate this gender discrimation and other hidden factors we should look into the root cause of such things which enables the digital voidance.The genuine reasons along with typical cultural barriers imposes developmental barriers over women.Indian villages are still chasing the developed cities in trems of their digital development. There is an urge to inspect and revert this gender discrimination . The root cause can be decoded when we analyze the Education pattern in India.According to the UNESCO data sheet released recently[8], the numbers indicate that both in secondary and tertiary education women tend to fill the gap in terms of

percentage.But in reality ICT is far away from reality for many in India.

Figure 1: UNESCO Report for Secondary Education

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Figure 2: UNESCO Report for Tertiary Education

Lack of adequate infrastructure and other amenities along with the societal pressures make women to refrain from the actual reach which they can attain.Most comman challenge for women to attain infrastructure facilities when it is readily not available to learn and

excel is the cultural constraints which do not allow women to travel outside their existing location for the purpose of learning. The basics of structured education tends to happen at school level but for a person to improvise ICT enabling skills compulsory requires internet which enables to learn by self.Internet becomes the gateway to break the barrier of learning and developing skills by practicing themselves. Ownership is one of the biggest barriers, especially for women, to become digitally literate. Accessibility is a major issue when it comes to ICT for women at rural grounds. Hence the basic education statistically may not reflect the actual gap existing between ICT and women.

ICT, a Glittering Hope for Women

Women in recent history started to mark their place in terms of attaining noticeable positions across the globe in various organizations. But still the gender biasness overrules all other facts and still ruling

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over women across the world. India’s corporate sector sees only four percent women at senior positions compared to the average of 11 percent in Asia as per reports. In India, the number of women at the root level it is about 25 percent and in the mid-level management, it comes down to 16 percent. At senior management level there is a prickly drop to four percent. According to a report generated by Financial Times in Asia only Banks disclosed the data for the region, had just 6.9 per cent female representation at their most senior levels.Variable sources suggests that Women’s participation at senior levels is about 18%, nearly half the number at middle management (5-10 years of experience). There is a bias against women in leadership

roles that they cannot spend dedicatedtime towards organization because of family commitment[9]. Exclusion of women is easily done in our system. If righteous opportunity is provided ,may be Hope of a million and even more will reflected in the country’s page for development.

Conclusion

The current trend in industries are vivid to respond towards technological developments.The core application areas of ICT like Robotics, IOT, Bigdata, Artificial Intelligence and other Information Technology aspects are changing the work atmosphere altogether. The implication of ICT can have an impact over technology on future jobs making it as ‘gender-neutral’. The rise of an era is slowly unfolding through ICT.

References

[1]World Bank, World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends, 2016.

[2] Measuring the Information Society Report, ITU, 2016

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[3] Alliance for Affordable Internet, 2015; Web Foundation, Women’s Rights Online, 2015.

[4] World Bank, World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends, 2016

[5] Center for Talent Innovation, 2014

[6] http://ics.leeds.ac.uk/papers/ks/exhibits/78/w2000-09.05-ict-e.pdf.

[7] Use of ICT for Women Empowerment in India,Praveen Dalal

[8] http://uis.unesco.org

[9]https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Digital-Inclusion/Women-and-Girls/Girls-in-ICT-Portal/Documents/deloitte-uk-women-in-stem-pay-gap-2016.pdf

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A STUDY OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY PRACTICES IMPLEMENTED IN SELECTED LARGE-

SCALE INDUSTRIAL UNITS

Vrushali Rajaram Kadam Assistant Professor

Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Pune

Yashwantrao Mohite Institute of Management, Karad

SachinShripadVernekar Dean FMS, Director,

Institute of Management and Entrepreneurship Development, Pune

Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University Pune

Abstract

Indian corporations have changed their attitude towards disposing their responsibility to the society. CSR is moving from mere charity and donation to a more strategic framework.The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to an organization’sobligation to function in an ethical way taking into account the 3 P’s i.e. Profit, People and Planet.Every contribution of the company towards Social

Responsibility is important and provides a number of benefits to both the community and business. Contributing and supporting Corporate Social Responsibility does not have to be always costly or time consuming. But the benefits derived from social initiatives are far more enrichingand satisfying than anything else.The CSR concept applies to all size organizations,but this studytends to focus on large organizations because they are more visibleand have more power. And, as it is observed that, with power comes responsibility. This paper also aims at CSR practices implemented by selected large scale industrial units before and after amendment to the Companies Act, 2013 and the benefits derived there from.

Key words: Responsibility, CSR, Corporations

Introduction

India is the first country in the world to make CSR spending mandatory. Corporations are social entities so they must take care of all stakeholders, particularly those that operating in rural areas. Many of

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the companies have already started with their social initiatives much before the Government compulsion. While some companies have started engaging in CSR after the Amendment to the Act.

When an organization invests in the society, it is expected to reap its fruits in the form of enhanced reputation, high employee satisfaction, customer loyalty and many more. Companies that engage in CSR will

attract more and more investors, thereby increasing the business access to capital. The paper therefore concludes that organizationswhich carry out corporate social responsibility initiatives have a lot to benefit.

The Companies Act, 2013 came into force from 1st April 2014. Section 135 of this Act on Corporate Social Responsibility has made it mandatory for boards of qualifying companies (those whose net worth is deemed to be Rs.500 crores or more; if the turnover of the company is Rs.1000 crore or more; if the net profit of the company is five crore rupees or more) to establish a CSR policy, constitute a CSR committee at the board level, and allocate 2% of its average net profits of the three preceding financial years for CSR initiatives.It is also the duty of the Board to ensure that theCSR activities are carried out as per mentioned in the Schedule VII.[10]

Literature Review

VineetTandon [2007], in his article has highlighted how CSR is an important tool in the hands of PR and how it can be used for creating companies social image. He also highlights the advantages of CSR like

building positive corporate image, improved employee loyalty, attracting right talent, etc. He has also given some points to be followed while building a CSR Campaign like Do not support too many causes, Do not change the cause you support frequently, select a cause that fits with the overall core business, promote the cause you select and work with organizations that support your cause and create communication messages that reach out to all the stakeholders and not just a few. [1]

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Another research has found out that a company engages in CSR in order to increase economic performance, gain a competitive advantage, improve the reputation and image of the company and satisfy its customers. Companies participate in different CSR activities which include the areas of environmental protection, charity work and sponsorship. This participation will affect the company’s performance

positively as customers value CSR activities. It also improves the company’s reputation and company image which could result in increased sales. Even the customers have started to demand CSR active companies.[2]

Anupam Sharma and Ravi Kiran[2013], states that earlier there were a very few organizations who focused on Economic, Philanthropic and Legal responsibilities. But now-a-days with the changing market situation this focus is shifting more specific areas like Environment, Education and Health responsibilities. Development of CSR Framework is also the need of the hour. Still, there is no proper universally accepted definition, scale to measure its multifaceted impact and a universal framework for the CSR concept.[3]

In an article by Premlata and A. Agarwal [2013], the authors have focused on why CSR is important for corporations? Why should they contribute for Country's Economic Development? They say that CSR is

an important component of development because companies need to look after their communities in which they operate, particularly those that are operating in rural areas. CSR can help the corporations to build their goodwill, differentiate themselves from their rivals by taking social initiatives, enhance access to capital and markets, increase sales and profits, improve brand image and reputation, enhance customer loyalty and also improve employee job satisfaction level.[4]

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Objectives of the study:

1. To study the Corporate Social Responsibility Practices implemented in Large-scale Industrial Units before and after amendment to the Companies Act.

2. To know the benefits derived from the Corporate Social Responsibility practices implemented by the Large-scale enterprises.

Hypothesis Of The Study:

H01: The CSR practices implemented and the benefits derived by the organization are independent of each other.

Ha1: The CSR practices implemented and the benefits derived by the organization are not independent of each other.

Data Collection Methods

The primary data was collected through a detailed interview schedule and a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was mainly based on open ended questions as well as partly on closed ended questions. Statistical data regarding Large-scale Industrial Units from Satara, Kolhapur and Sangli Districts was collected.

The secondary data was collected from relevant literature like books, magazines, library of EBSCO online database, various Journals, Proceedings of Seminars and Conferences, Research papers, Annual Reports of Selected Organizations, Company’s Act 1956 and the Amendments made in the Act, etc.

Information from the official website of the Companies was also used for the study by the researcher.

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Data Analysis

CSR Activities undertaken by the Organisation before and after Amendments made in the Companies Act, 2013.

Table No. 1 Eradicating Hunger, Poverty & Malnutrition

Interpretation:

The above table shows that 38.46% companies in Kolhapur District have undertaken CSR Initiatives on Eradicating Hunger, Poverty and Malnutrition before Amendment to the Act, 30.77% companies have

undertaken this initiative after Amendment and 30.77% companies have not undertaken this initiative up till now.In Satara District, 35.71% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment, 7.14% have undertaken after Amendment and 57.14% have not undertaken it all.In Satara District, 37.5% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment, 12.5% have undertaken after Amendment and 50% have not undertaken this initiative uptill now.

It is interpreted from the above analysis that majority of the companies have not undertaken this CSR initiative up till now.

38.46 35.71 37.5 30.77

7.14 17.14

30.77

57.14

45.71

0102030405060

Kolhapur Satara Sangli

Eradicating Extreme, Hunger, Poverty & Malnutrition

Before Amendent After Amendment Activities not undertaken

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Table No. 2Health Care

Interpretation:

The above table depicts that 92.31% companies in Kolhapur District have undertaken CSR Initiatives on Healthcare before Amendment to the Act, 7.69% companies have undertaken this initiative after Amendment and there is not a single company which has not undertaken this initiative up till now.In Satara District, 57.14% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment, 21.43% have undertaken after Amendment and 21.43%

have not undertaken it all.In Sangli District, 87.5% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment, 12.5% have undertaken after Amendment and there is no such company which has not undertaken this initiative uptill now.

It is interpreted from the above analysis that majority of the companies have undertaken this CSR initiative before Amendment, few have carried out this initiative after Amendment and very few have never carried it out up till now.

92.31

57.14

87.5

7.69 21.43

12.5 0

21.43

0 0

20

40

60

80

100


Health Care

Before Amendent After Amendment

Activities not undertaken

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Table No. 3 Education

Interpretation:

The above table indicates that 84.62% companies in Kolhapur District have undertaken the Education Initiative before Amendment to the Act, 7.69% companies have undertaken this initiative after Amendment and 7.69% companies have not undertaken this initiative up till now.In

Satara District, 85.71% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment, 7.14% have undertaken after Amendment and 7.14% have not undertaken it all.In Sangli District, 50% respondents have undertaken this initiative before Amendment, 37.5% have undertaken after Amendment and 12.5% respondents have not undertaken this initiative uptill now.

The above analysis interprets that majority of the companies have undertaken this CSR initiative before Amendment, few have carried out this initiative after Amendment and very few have never carried it out up till now.

84.62 85.71

50

7.69 7.14

37.5

7.69 7.14 12.5

020406080

100


Education



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Table No. 4 Environment Protection

Interpretation:

The above table shows that 92.31% respondents in Kolhapur District have conducted various CSR Activities for Environment Protection, before Amendment to the Act, and only 7.69% respondents have never conducted this CSR activity.In Satara District, 85.71% respondents said that they have conducted this initiative before Amendment and remaining 14.29% said they have conducted it after Amendment.In Sangli District, 50% respondents said they have conducted this initiative before Amendment, 25% have conducted it after Amendment and rest

25% respondents have not carried out this initiative uptill now.

It is revealed from the above analysis that majority of the companies in all the three districts have conducted this CSR initiative before Amendment, some of them have carried out this initiative after Amendment and the remaining respondents have never carried it out up till now.

92.31 85.71

50

0 14.29

25 7.69

0

25

0

20

40

60

80

100


Environment Protection



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Table No. 5 Sports (Rural Sports, Olympics, Paralympics, etc.)

Interpretation:

The above table indicates that only 23.08% respondents in Kolhapur District have undertaken CSR Initiatives for Promotion of Sports including Rural, Olympics and Paralympics Sports before the Amendment to the Act, 7.69% respondents have undertaken this initiative after Amendment to the Act and 69.23% respondents say that they do not undertaken this initiative.

In Satara District, 21.43% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment, 7.14% have undertaken it after Amendment and 71.43% have not undertaken it earlier. In Sangli District, 50% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment and 25% respondents have undertaken it after

Amendment and rest 25% have not undertaken this initiative uptill now.

It is interpreted from the above analysis that there are more respondents who have not undertaken this initiative till now.

23.08 21.43

50

7.69 7.14

25

69.23 71.43

25

0

20

40

60

80


Promotion of Sports



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Table No. 6 Rural Development

Interpretation:

The above table depicts that 92.31% respondents in Kolhapur District have undertaken CSR Initiatives for Rural Development far before the Amendment to the Act, whereas rest 7.69% respondents have undertaken this initiative after Amendment and there is not a single company left which has not undertaken this initiative.In Satara District, 57.14% respondents said they have undertaken this initiative before Amendment and remaining 42.86% have undertaken this initiative after Amendment. In Sangli District, 100% respondents are carrying out this initiative much before the Amendment.

It is interpreted from the above analysis that majority of the companies have undertaken this CSR initiative much before Amendment, and the remaining few are carrying out this initiative after Amendment.

Testing Of Hypothesis:

The data required for testing of hypothesis was collected by the

researcher from different large-scale industrial units.

92.31

57.14

100

7.69

42.86

0 0 0 0 0

20

40

60

80

100

120


Rural Development

Before Amendent After Amendment Activities not undertaken

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Multiple regression analysis was administrated to test the hypothesis relationship between independent and dependent variable i.e. for hypothesis 1. Chi square test was administrated for testing the hypothesis 2.

The Average score of the multi- items for a construct (Wang and Benbasat, 2007) was computed, since a single construct in the

questionnaire was measured by multiple items and score was used to further analysis regression analysis.

H01: The CSR practices implemented and the benefits derived by the organization are independent of each other.


Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .916a .839 .752 .16883

a. Predictors: (Constant), Slum Development, Promotion of Rural Sports, Environmental Protection, Contributing to Government Funds, Protection of National Heritage, Art & Culture, Armed Forces Veterans, Senior Citizens & Orphans, Rural Development, Eradication of Hunger and poverty, Gender Equality and Women Empowerment, Health Care, Promotion on Education

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ANOVAb

Model Sum of

Squares df Mean

Square F Sig.

1 Regression 3.276 12 .273 9.577 .000a

Residual .627 22 .029

Total 3.903 34

a. Predictors: (Constant), Slum Development, Promotion of Rural Sports, Environmental Protection, Contributing to Government Funds, Protection of National Heritage, Art & Culture, Armed Forces Veterans, Senior Citizens & Orphans, Rural Development, Eradication of Hunger and poverty, Gender Equality and Women Empowerment, Health Care, Promotion on Education

b. Dependent Variable: Benefit from CSR

Coefficientsa

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

t Sig. B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 1.786 .354 5.039 .000

Eradication of Hunger and

poverty

.032 .031 .120 1.037 .311

Health Care .115 .056 .245 2.064 .050

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Promotion in Education

.125 .044 .339 2.822 .010

Gender Equality and Women

Empowerment

.190 .054 .393 3.542 .002

Senior Citizens & Orphans

.070 .053 .146 1.342 .193

Environmental Protection

.145 .044 .387 3.317 .003

Protection of National Heritage,

Art & Culture

.017 .041 .039 .407 .688

Armed Forces Veterans

.014 .191 .008 .071 .944

Promotion of Rural Sports

-.094 -.037 -.249 -2.522 .019

Contributing to Government Funds

-.052 .050 -.113 -1.031 .314

Rural Development -.042 .034 -.131 -1.222 .235

Slum Development -.035 .030 .000 -.002 .998

a. Dependent Variable: Benefit from CSR

The coefficient of determination was (R square =0.839) which explains that variables accounted 83.9% of variance. The relation is positive and

significant at (p<0.001). Thus, the 12 factors significantly account for 83.9% in the benefits derived by the organization while doing CSR.

The result of multiple regression analysis shows that in table no. 2, the F value 9.577 was significant at (sig. F< 0.01), thus confirming the fitness for the model.

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The coefficient of determination was (R square = 83.9%) which explains that variables accounted 83.9% of variance. The relation is positive and significant at (p<0.001). The R- square indicated the predictive power of this model and suggested that there is a significant effect of independent variable on dependent variable. Thus, the 12 factors significantly accounted for 83.9% benefits derived by the organization while doing

CSR.

The result shows that health care (β = 0.245; t = 2.064, p = 0.050), promotion on education (β = 0.339; t = 2.822, p = 0.010), Gender equality and women empowerment (β =0.393; t = 3.542, p = 0.002), Environment protection (β = 0.387; t = 3.317, p = 0.003), Promotion in Rural Sports (β = -0.249; t = -2.522, p =0.019), have impact on benefits of organisation when doing CSR practices.

Table:-5.4.2E Summary of regression result for benefits from CSR

Sr.No. Variables of CSR Practices Impact on benefits

1 Health Care Yes

2 Promotion of Education Yes

3 Gender equality and women empowerment Yes

4 Environment protection Yes

5 Promotion in Rural Sports Yes

6 Eradication of Hunger and poverty No

7 Senior Citizens and Orphans No

8 Protection of National Heritage, Art & Culture No

9 Armed Forces Veterans No

10 Contributing to Government Funds No

11 Rural Development No

12 Slum Development No

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Results indicate that Health care, Promotion in education, Environment protection, Promotion of Sports, Gender equality and women empowerment are the most contributing factors for benefits derived due to CSR practices.

Conclusion: So, as per the finding Null hypothesis is rejected and the

alternate hypotheses is accepted. This infers that the Corporate Social Responsibility Practices implemented and the benefits derived by the organization are directly dependent on each other.


FINDINGS:

1. It is found that majority of the companies have not undertaken the CSR initiative of Eradicating Extreme Hunger, Poverty and Malnutrition up till now.

2. The number of companies undertaking the CSR initiative of Healthcare before Amendment is more, as compared to companies who have carried out this initiative after Amendment. There are few companies which have not ever carried out this initiative up till now.

3. It is evident that the percentage of companies undertaking the Initiative for Education before Amendment is high. Very few companies have not carried out any activity in this area up till now.

4. There are companies which are working for the Protection of Environment even before Amendment, while some of them have started this initiative after Amendment. But still there are some companies who have not yet worked on this initiative.

5. It is found that more than 50% respondents have not

undertaken any initiative for Promotion of Rural Sports, Olympics and Paralympics till now.

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6. It is interpreted that majority of the companies have undertaken the initiative of Rural Development much before Amendment, and the remaining few are carrying out this initiative after Amendment.

7. Results indicate that Health care, Promotion in education, Protection of Environment, Promotion of Sports, Gender

equality and women empowerment are the most contributing factors for deriving the benefits after adoption of these CSR practices.

8. Improvement in relations with Community, Improvement in Employee Job Satisfaction and Enhancing Company’s Reputation are the major benefits derived by the companies from adoption of CSR Initiatives.

Suggestions:

1. Out of the 12 areas which were taken for the study, majority of the companies concentrate more on only five areas viz., Education, Healthcare, Gender Equality and Women Empowerment, Environment Protection and Promotion of Rural Sports. It is therefore, advised to also undertake the other areas which have been overlooked.

2. To reap maximum benefits from CSR activities companies should incorporate CSR into their vision, strategy and operations.

3. Government is trying to bring uniformity in corporate social responsibility practices through the new law (Company Act 2013). Hence, instead of taking it as compulsion, companies should undertake CSR positively as an investment.

4. Integrated external engagement with NGO’s, Citizens and Government will help the companies to achieve good results.

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Conclusion:

Government perceives that legal compliance of CSR will make the corporationsmore responsible towards the societyand its stakeholders. CSR can make way for the corporations to contributein various activities which directly or indirectly help in bridging the gap between developed and under-developed. As we know that corporations being socialentities must take care of all stakeholders. Teamwork between government and corporations can bring dramatic changes inthe society

at large.

References:

1. Vineet Tandon (Sept, 2007), “PR with CSR – Commitment Pays”, TheIcfai University Press, pp. 46-48.

2. Johanna Carlsson& Richard Akerstom (2008), “Corporate Social Responsibility – a case study of Ohrlings Price Water House Coopers, A thesis submitted to Lulea University of Technology.

3. Anupam Sharma and Ravi Kiran (2013), “Corporate Social Responsibility: Driving Forces and Challenges”, International Journal of Business Research and Development, vol. 2, no. 1, pp 18-27.

4. Premlata and Anshika Agarwal (Dec. 2013), “Corporate Social Responsibility: An Indian Perspective”, Journal of Business Law and Ethics, vol. 1(1), pp. 27-32.

5. Herman Aguinis and Ante Glavas (2012), “What We Know and Don’t Know About CSR: A Review and Research Agenda”, Journal of Management, vol. 38, no. 4, pp 932-968.

6. Rajesh Timane and Prof. Tushar Tale (2012), “A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility in India “, IJRIM, vol. 2, no. 12.

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7. Christine Hemingway (2002), “An Exploratory Analysis of Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions, Motives and Values”, Research Memorandum, The University of Hull Business School.

8. Survey by ASSOCHAM’s CSR Team and the world’s leading consultancy KPMG, A White Paper on “Corporate Social

Responsibility – Towards a Sustainable Future”, in.kpmg.com

9. Handbook on Corporate Social Responsibility in India, PWC

10. G.S.R, 130(E).-In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (l) of section 467 of the Companies Act, 20l3 (18 of 2013), amendments to Schedule VII of the said Act.

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ENGLISH TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT GRAMMAR

TEACHING AND CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION: TWO HIGH SCHOOLS IN METTU TOWN IN FOCUS

Daniel Degefe Department of English Language and Literature

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanity Mettu University, Ethiopia

Abstract

The study aimed at exploring teachers’ beliefs about teaching grammar and their actual classroom practices. A descriptive research was employed in this study. Semi-structured interviews, grammar lessons observations and analysis of sample grammar tasks in grades 9 and 10 student’s textbook were used for data collection. Data were collected from 15 English teachers who were teaching at the two high schools found in Mettu town by the time. Eight teachers were conveniently selected and then their grammar lessons presentations were formally observed. Moreover, four teachers whose grammar lessons were observed and others four teachers were conveniently selected for interviews. Majority of the respondents believe that grammar should be taught implicitly to help learners to develop both grammar knowledge together with communication skills in English but their classroom practice is completely dominated by traditional and formal grammar

instruction. Teachers’ beliefs about teaching grammar implicitly (context-based) are based on little knowledge and skills. It is recommended that teachers should know their existing teaching beliefs and practice accordingly because it is the need of the hour to improve educational standards by making positive changes in the teaching of gramma

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Introduction

Background of the Study

This study aimed at exploring English teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices of English grammar. According to Johnson (1994) cited in Thomas, & Farrell (2005:1, 2) teachers are active decision makers in classrooms and they are mainly responsible for what goes on. It seems necessary to explore certain issues regarding their beliefs. Educational researches on teachers’ beliefs share three basic assumptions: (1) Teachers' beliefs influence perception and judgment, (2) Teachers' beliefs play a role in how information on teaching is translated into

classroom practices and (3) Understanding teachers' beliefs is essential to improve teaching practices and teacher education programs. Similarly, Richards, (1998) as cited in Yirgalem Bekele (2009:12) addressed that for a language teacher, one of the determining factors is his/ her beliefs- the information, attitude, values, expectations, theories and assumptions about teaching and learning that teachers develop overtime, and bring with them to the classroom.

As causes for different beliefs that teachers have, Tudor( 1996) as cited in Rohani,S. (2007:3,4) pointed the educational curriculum or policy they passed through as students, cultural background and individual views toward learning theories can be a source for the beliefs that teachers reflect and practice.

Even though there are different grounds for teachers’ beliefs about grammar teaching, their beliefs possibly fall between the structural and communicative views and still others share both views. The structural’s

see knowledge of language itself as it is constituted of syntactic structure of sentences. They assumed that, if teachers provide this input (constructing syntactic structure of sentences) then the learner will face no challenges in dealing with the actual use of language. They focus on explanation of how grammatical rules of language work. They

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argue in favour of the importance of explicit grammar teaching.

On the other hand, many ESL professionals such as Krashen and Terrell (1983) as it was addressed in Celce-Murcia, M. (1988:1) and. Krashen and Terrell (1983) as cited in Hassan, N. (2013:15) have new assumption that second/foreign language learning is very much similar with first language acquisition. Their point of view is that providing

“comprehensive input” is all that important and foreign or second language teachers can or should do to facilitate acquisition. They reason out that grammar teaching does not facilitate second language acquisition as they say, “we prefer to avoid oral grammar instruction in classrooms because they take time away from acquisition activities”. Similarly, (Brimful and Jonson) favoured implicit grammar teaching and opposed structural views in a sense that teaching learners how to construct grammatical sentences doesn’t enable them to produce real-life discourse. This implies that learners eager to communicate meanings within real contexts and creating chunks of language than a single sentence Brimful, C.J and Jonson, (1979) cited in Ur, P. (1996: 78).Moreover, Harmer, J. (2001) states grammar rules that are learnt subconsciously help the learners to create infinite number of sentences. According to Richards (1985) cited in Celce-Murcia, M. (1988:1, 2) there is basic assumption that “communicative classroom” provides a better

exposure for second or foreign language learning than structure based (formal) instruction. They argue that structure based instruction is not sufficient on its own to facilitate communication activities.

As it was already introduced, still others professionals share both structural and communicative views in common. Ur, P. (2009:98) indicated that having both implicit and explicit (eclectic approach) knowledge of grammar is important because one cannot be effective unless he/she knows how to put words together in acceptable sentence or phrases structure. He believed that it is helpful to teach grammar systematically based on the syllabus provided. Although there are cases

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that demand the teachers to give an emphasis on the form of a particular linguistic item, it is highly recommended to deliver a grammar lesson through meaningful context, which require the teacher to integrate form, meaning and use of grammar (Atkins, Hailom and Nuru, 1995)

Statement of the Problem.

The researcher got motivation to undertake this study based on his every day questioning about college students: English focus trainees’

grammar knowledge gap that contributed to their very poor/weak command of English. To make it clear, English courses offered at college focus on communication skills considering grammar items that assumed the trainees already learnt when they were both at elementary and secondary schools. Then teachers design different activities such as self-introduction, asking for and telling direction, apology and excuse, visiting sick person, hello Dr (TV programme) story-telling etc, in order to expose the trainees to language use in the artificial setting of the world: classroom contexts but the students fail to do so because they neither know how English language works (knowledge of grammar) nor able to express themselves in English.

Widdowson (1990:113) pointed that effective communication in a foreign language would severely be hampered, without the ability to put grammar into use in different contexts.

There are many local studies conducted in the areas of teaching grammar. For example; Dereje, Tadese (2001), Yirgalem Bekele (2009) and Getachew, (1984) are some of the researchers from Addis Ababa University who had conducted a study that concerned with teaching and learning grammar based on Ethiopian contexts. As Dereje, Tadese(2001) studied this topic from the angle of students’ beliefs about grammar learning, in his finding, he addressed that learner’

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views of EFL grammar is overwhelmingly mechanic or static one. He added EFL learners hold erroneous beliefs about grammar and insist on inadequate teaching approach. He concluded that students are poor both in grammar knowledge and weak in commanding English because they are engaged in poor and limited learning strategies, feel a lot of anxiety, demotivated and low self-efficacy about their learning.

Moreover, Yirgalem Bekele (2009) also studied the same topic: teachers’ beliefs about grammar teaching and classroom practice. She employed data gathering instruments such as questionnaire, classroom observation and interview. Her finding revealed that most English teachers believed about the importance of grammar in language teaching, and paying greater attention to the pedagogical grammar teaching strategies proposed by scholars. She concluded that teachers were not putting into practice their pedagogical beliefs in most cases. She addressed that time factors, problem of textbook, syllabuses, bad classroom environment and lack of students' interest, lack of facilities and lack of students' language competence were some of the factors influenced their grammar teaching practice. However, she didn’t analyze the nature of grammar tasks in the students’ textbook to check whether it could be factor for the mismatch of teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices or not.

Therefore, the researcher was very interested to study this topic considering Mettu Teachers’ Education College, English language trainees grammar knowledge and communication skills gap as a ground and the gaps observed in the researches previously done in order to explore teachers’ beliefs about teaching English grammar and assessing how grammar is being taught at high school.

Basic Research Questions

More specifically, the study tries to seek answers to the following basic questions:

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1. What are beliefs of English teachers about grammar teaching?

2. What do teachers classroom grammar teaching practice look like?

3. Which grammar teaching method is being reflected in student’s English textbook?

4. To what extent teachers’ beliefs and grammar teaching practice are related? Is there any factor influencing the relation?

Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is exploring English teachers’ beliefs and

classroom practice of grammar. Therefore, the following objectives guide the research to:

1. -explore teachers’ beliefs concerning English grammar presentation.

2. -evaluate teachers’ grammar teaching practice in relation to their beliefs.

3. -assess factors which may influence the relation between teachers’ belief and practice.

4. -assess the extent to which grammar activities in the student’s English textbook encourage presenting grammar activities in context.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

As mentioned in the preceding chapter, the main objective of this research was to explore secondary school EFL teachers’ beliefs about English grammar teaching and their classroom practices. To achieve the intended objectives, data collection instruments namely, interviews, classroom observation and grammar tasks analysis were employed.

In other words, descriptive research method was used to reveal the current information about the study based on the nature of the tools

that were employed by the researcher to gather data. The relevance of this method for the study has been noted by Creswell, (2003:153), “.....a

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descriptive design provides descriptions of trends, attitudes or opinions of population by studying a sample of population”. Data are gathered at a particular point in time with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards against which existing conditions can be compared, or determining the relationships that exist between specific events (Abiy Zegeye et.al. 2009).

Participants of the Study

English Language teachers in the two high schools: Mettu Senior

Secondary and Abdi Bori Senior Secondary School, in Mettu town were the participants of the study. The high schools in this town were conveniently selected specially to minimize time constraints during interview and class observation sessions because the researcher was busy in dealing with teaching career in parallel with undertaking this study. There are 17 English teachers serving in the schools. Eight of them are in Mettu Senior Secondary School and the rests (9) are in Abdi Bori Senior Secondary High school. Since the total number of English teachers in these high schools is manageable for collecting data and analysis, comprehensive sampling was employed for this study.

Data Collection Tools.

Interview, classroom observations and analysis of sample grammar activities in both grade 9 and 10 students’ textbooks were tools that were used to collect the data. These three instruments were used both as main tools and to triangulate the data in order to increase the credibility of the final finding.

Interview

This study used semi-structured interview. That is, as Dornyei (2007)

states, in semi-structured interviews the interviewer designs pre-planned guiding questions or prompts that encourage interviewees to express their ideas on certain issues in an elaborated manner.

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Eight English teachers were conveniently selected i.e. 4 from each school. In order to create conducive condition the researcher made the purpose and the contribution of the study in improving English Language teaching and learning process clear.

Conducting the Semi-Structured Interview

First of all, the researcher asked the teachers to cooperate him for group interview but they were not volunteers because they usually

available in the school only at the time they have class contact. Therefore, the researcher consulted each teacher, in general, eight interested teachers for interview sessions mostly soon after their class contact and interviewed each of them individually. Finding a convenient place for conducting the interview was a great challenge since all of the teachers had no office for individual use. Thus, we decided to conduct the interview at vice-director office where there was relatively free of noise.

Observation

Classroom observations were employed for data collection in order to address the teachers’ actual classroom practices in relation to their beliefs about grammar teaching. Therefore, non-participatory observations were employed and it helped the researcher to have insight into how teachers were dealing with grammar presentation in classroom in relation to their belief. It was used as a main data gathering tool. From the 17 English teachers in the schools, 8 teachers were selected based on their willingness for the observations.

Conducting Classroom Observation

From the eight teachers conveniently selected for class observation, four teachers who were involved in the interview session were also considered. The researcher consulted each of the teachers to get

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permission for observing their classrooms. All of the teachers agreed to let the researcher conduct observations mainly because they were aware of the purpose of the observation. The researcher also promised to the teacher that the classroom observation had no relation with their evaluation of efficiency conducted by the school principals.

Moreover, the researcher promised them that all information would be

kept confidential and their names would not be disclosed in the data analysis and discussion. Thus, the researcher adjusted observation programs with the teachers’ classrooms and grammar lessons. Since the main purpose of observing classrooms was to explore the extent to which teachers’ beliefs about grammar teaching and their classroom practice related, the researcher observed twice each teacher’s grammar lesson in order to see if they probably make vary their method. Even though selection of classrooms for observation was based on the teachers’ convenience, at least one day earlier, the observer (researcher) informed each of the teachers before getting into their classrooms. Then the actual classroom observations were carried out for a month and half. Only sample teachers’ presentation was captured by video camera and stopped because students’ attention was attracted toward the video than the lesson going on. Then critical analyses were made based on checklist used at hand, variables jotted down and

sample grammar lesson transcripts done.

Analysis of Grammar Activities in the Textbook.

The nature of some sample English grammar activities in grades 9 and10 student’s textbook were analysed from two angles. The first one was analysing what approach (structural or communicative) of grammar tasks being focused in the student’s textbook. Secondly, it focused on analysing to what extent the activities are designed in contextualised ways. The checklist was prepared considering how the grammar activities are designed; what objectives are intended to be

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promoted and the nature of activities provided in order to achieve the objectives. In other words, grammar tasks analysis was employed in order to assess the extent to which the tasks follow communicative-based grammar learning.

Data Collection Procedure.

In the data collection procedures, the researcher first accomplished observing sample teachers’ grammar lesson presentation and then interview sessions followed. This was done deliberately because the

teachers might modify their classroom behaviour, and the actual classroom practices might be turned to artificial. During observation, checklists were used. In addition, observable variables that were not included in the checklist were jotted down. Sample lessons were also captured by video-camera. Analysis of the nature of sample grammar tasks in the grades 9 and 10 students English textbook together with teacher’s guide were considered during observation in parallel.

Data presentation and Analyses Procedures.

The collected data were analyzed qualitatively. Data gathered through classroom observations were described independently. Next, data gathered through interview were organized according to their categories and then analyzed in separate section. In addition, data gathered through class observations and interviews were narrated in an intermingled when important. Similarly, grammar tasks analysis was made in separate section and also intermingled way with data gathered through class observation and interview when necessary. Based on the gathered data, teachers’ belief toward English grammar teaching was

explored. Teachers’ classroom grammar teaching practice and the relation between their beliefs and practice were clearly discussed in the summary of the findings. Based on the findings, conclusions were drawn and, recommendations were addressed to the concerned bodies.

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DATA PRESENTATION ,ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of Interviews

Interviewees’ Grammar Definition

Most (6) interviewees defined grammar as a set of basic rules and structures of a language for written and spoken communication i.e., forming words and sentences, and understanding the language. They expressed that grammar is the mother of a language on which the total methodology of how language works. Other (1) interviewees defined grammar from the angle of parts of speech, tenses, punctuation etc. He also defined grammar as it is the science of every language or it is the scientific study of a language. One interviewee defined grammar in terms of methodology to learn how to speak and write. She excluded

listening, reading and micro skills.

Role of grammar in English language teaching and learning

The interviewees believe that grammar plays significant roles in language learning. They believe that, without knowing grammar, the whole process of learning English as foreign language becomes vague and impossible. They expressed that it is important to know grammar because having too much vocabularies without knowing their categories in a sense that parts of speech, results in communication breakdown. Collection of words or groups of words may not be meaningful unless they are arranged based on the rules. One interviewee expressed, “Grammar learning enhances students’ comprehension and communication skills. Grammar helps the learners to arrange words in a way that they carry the intended meaning”. He added that it is important to have grammar knowledge as it facilitates communication both through speaking, writing and reading. For the question addressed by the interviewer whether grammar should be considered or

not in any method teachers may use to teach grammar. Most of the interviewees agreed that grammar should not be ignored in any method

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of language teaching. On the contrary, one interviewee said, “It depends on the students’ language learning background”. She explained that teachers can decide when to focus on form or communication based on the objectives to be achieved. The other interviewee became neutral. He shared neither grammar should be given attention in any method of grammar teaching nor to be ignored.

The interviewees were asked their focus in teaching English language, all of them expressed they believe that grammar knowledge and communication skills as well, are important in English language learning. They claimed that grammar knowledge at absence of communication skill does not confirm the reality of language learning.

Promoting both grammar knowledge and communication skills

The interviewees were asked which grammar teaching method they think would be as effective as possible in order to help learners develop knowledge of grammar together with communication skills. The majority of the interviewees believed that both grammar knowledge and communication skills can be achieved through context-based grammar teaching. They explained that grammar (rules) is easily mastered through interaction.

On the other hand, one interviewee reflected that form-based grammar teaching as it can promote both grammar knowledge and communication skills. He reasoned out that students can produce correct sentences if only they know English grammar. He expressed that teaching grammar rules explicitly helps students to have the detail

knowledge of tenses. He explained that students have no confidence, feel shy because they don’t know English grammar. He assumed that lack of grammar knowledge is a cause for student’s poor confidence and shyness in speaking in English.

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Teachers’ perspectives about context-based grammar teaching.

Some of the interviewees believe context-based grammar teaching lead learners to improve their speaking skills. They explained that accuracy (grammatically correctness) obtained through practice. They noticed that context-based grammar instruction does not lead learners to develop grammatically non-sensible (fossilized error) communication. This implies that the stance made to master both grammar knowledge and communication skills should begin when the learners did not know both. At absence of practice of language use having knowledge of

grammar alone cannot help students share information through communication. On the other hand, one of the interviewees expressed, he has the assumption that encouraging learners to practice communication when they did not master grammar knowledge as it leads the learners develop grammatically non-sensible communication and wastage of time to do so. He was reasoning that students must master grammar and then communication practice follows. Another interviewee remained neutral. She responded,” I have no idea”.

Teachers’ Grammar presentation Methods

The interviewees were asked the procedure they follow in grammar presentation. In other words how the interviewees begin and finish grammar lesson presentation. Majority of them (6) explained, first they describe what tense, when to use the tense and the form or structure. Then after, they support the description with examples and make some explanation about examples. In the next step, instructing students to do some activities like constructing sentences based on descriptions and

examples given so far. They claimed that teaching grammar in communicative way is important in principle, but the realities in the classroom; for instance, they reasoned out it is hardly possible to engage the students in activities such as role-play, talking about their

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habitual activities etc because of large class size challenges and time constraints.

What was observed during grammar lesson observation was actually similar with the procedure that interviewees explained. The observed lessons were mainly teacher-centred. Teachers explained and instructed and then asking questions and eliciting responses from the

students on their knowledge of grammar items. They were writing definitions of grammatical concepts on the board and making the students to copy them in their notebooks. Filling the gaps with grammatical concepts was the most widely used activity in their classes based on the rule description provided.

On the other extreme, two interviewees expressed that they use implicit method of grammar teaching. The interviewees said that they organize their classes in group and/or pair. Then engage the learners in activities like group discussion, talking in pairs, etc. However, frankly talking, during class observations done by the researcher, teachers actually own traditional/structural teaching approaches but due to some illusion they may have about communicative way of language teaching they try to modernize themselves in front of others as these two interviewees said that students should be made to work out rules.

Teachers’ beliefs and classroom grammar teaching practice.

The interviewees were asked about their grammar presentation in relation to their beliefs. Most of the interviewees indirectly explained

students like teachers’ rules explanation because English is not their mother tongue. They don’t know English. They are poor in speaking English. As they expressed, only few students came from private schools had class participation but most students came from government schools have no motivation and usually passive. They said this as a reason for teaching grammar explicitly. One of the interviewees was asked whether her belief about grammar teaching and

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the way she presents grammar is similar. She said, “Not this much similar”. She claimed that using contexts to teach grammar is important and effective to improve students’ communication skills but number of students in a class, their English background (few students have interest to participate) majorities like lecture given about grammar rules.

Another interviewee said, “I can use different ways but most of the time explicit method. It depends on situation. Students’ grammar knowledge background decides the method to be employed. I think explicit way of grammar teaching is important to help students improve their speaking skills”. The interviewee also expressed that she organizes her class in group (1:5) having one clever student among the members i.e. she engages the learners in communicative activities”. It was understood from her expression the interviewee has not clear understanding about ‘explicit and implicit’ grammar teaching. Perhaps, she gave this response on the base of principle and denying the reality of her classroom practice because data collected during observation confirmed that classes were dominated by formal grammar teaching.

Factors influencing Teachers’ beliefs about grammar teaching

The interviewees were asked what factors may be influencing their beliefs about grammar teaching. Most of them raised learner’s purpose for learning English grammar as a main factor influencing their grammar teaching practices. They discussed that students have their

own purposes for learning English. For example, they addressed that majority of the students have poor grammar knowledge background. As a result, they attend the lesson attentively when teacher lecture grammar rules. They told that students’ main purpose of learning English is targeting on how to do tests or exams and specially to score good grade in national Examination rather than working for effective use of the language. One interviewee expressed different issue. She

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said, “Even students cannot understand me when I explain in English. As a result, sometimes I explain the concept in Afan Oromo or Amharic”.

The interviewees were also asked whether their past experience of English learning as student may influence their grammar teaching practice. One interviewee expressed that one of her English teacher,

when she was at high school, is her model teacher for the way she presents grammar. She said her model teacher used to explain grammar rules briefly. She said, “I never learnt how to use English in my daily life. Teacher show us; teacher taught us what the meaning of tense. So, this affects my present teaching style”.

In addition to this, the interviewees were asked whether the nature of grammar tasks (activities) in the student’s textbook is affecting their grammar presentation or not. Some of the interviewees appreciated the textbook only for its colourfulness and having different pictures. They expressed that the text focuses on rules learning. They were talking in favour of explicit way of grammar teaching. One of the interviewees expressed that she presents grammar based on the procedures given in the textbook. She also told that she has additional note about tenses from her own grammar books. Similarly, the analysis made on sample grammar activities in grade 9 and 10 student’s English textbook

indicates that the objectives of grammar lessons are set targeting on constructing syntactic structure of sentences than exposing the learners to use the structure to communicate in real life situations. Grammatical descriptions that strongly focus on rules in grammar lesson are available there in the textbook, i.e. the rules are always presented preceding the activities. This has a strong power to influence teachers’ grammar presentation to focus on forms or structure.

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Analysis of Grammar lesson Observations

Classroom Interaction

The teachers began the lesson by asking students about what they discussed in the previous period but very few students were trying to respond. Therefore, teacher directly went on giving explanations about the last day’s lesson in the form of revision. They gave the students answer key for the previously given home work. They introduced the new lesson for the day. They began questioning, “What is the form of x tense?” They were encouraging the student to discuss the form. Rules learning were the main focus of the lesson. Teachers wanted the

students discuss the form, and the functions. Much of the classroom teacher-student interaction was teachers’ questioning and lecturing but very few students’ responses. Almost all the students were passive. The teachers talked too much as compared to students (teacher-dominant interaction). The following lesson observation transcript indicates this:

T: Who can tell us what did we learn in previous lesson?

Ss: (silent)

T: We learned about....we categorized the three groups of people congratulate each other.

T: I am going to give you correction on the given homework...page 221 (telling answers from a piece of paper).

Ss :( writing the correct answer)

T: Our today’s lesson is about present perfect and past tense.

First we discuss about present perfect. We are familiar with the present perfect form (page 200).What is the form of present perfect tense?

Ss: (Silent)

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T:I need your participation...please form pair and discuss. Use your previous knowledge....recall in your mind.

Ss :( students see each other but no discussion...)

T: Moving and observing.

T: (Back to the front....) First write like this.(form= ( writing on the board)

1st person singular and plural

I+ have+ v3 we + have +v3 (Teacher speaking)

Ss :( copying....)

T: What is the purpose of present perfect? Discuss...share your experience with your...

Ss:( waiting for teacher himself explain the question)

T: To show an action that began in the past and still going on(Writing on the board....)

Who can give us example......?

Ss: (Copying .... no response to the question)

T: You have started to learn English in 1999.Still you didn’t finish.

Ss: (copying and listening )

T: Who can add one example?

No need of fearing....is free. Can you try X?

Ss: (No response)

S: We have lived in Mettu.

T: Ok.We have lived in Mettu. We can say....Kebede has lived in Mettu for 10 years.(Meaning =he is still living in Mettu.( Teacher explained).It show duration of time.

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....and the second purpose is what..?...to show an action began in the past and..What...? has just finished(talking and writing on the board)..you start an activity which performed before. For example in the fifth period you learned what...?

S: Physics

T: Physics. You can say ..What...? We have just learned Physics before

20 minutes ago. An action not continued. You only performed for only what.....?

S: 40 minutes (others kept silent and copying)

T: 40 minutes. You started at 4:55 and finished at 5:35.

Generally, it was observed that almost all classroom activities and exercises were developed from the existing textbook. The teachers also focused on working out the textbook activities with a few volunteered students. Almost all were typical conventional teacher centred classes but students were practicing neither grammar rules memorization nor communication.

Analysis of sample grammar activities

In the English textbook for grades 9 and 10, the grammar lessons are presented in every chapter under sections named ‘Language in focus. The attempts were done to see whether the objectives of the grammar lesson and the activities have any influence on the way teachers’ belief that grammar presentation would be effective. Here, are sample page scanned from Grade 10textbook.

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As it can be observed from the sample scanned page, the way in which grammar is presented could decide whether the pupils are most likely to learn the forms of the language, or being exposed to authentic language use practice. English textbook for grade 9 and 10 are

consisted of 12 and 13 units respectively. In each unit grammar lessons available are labelled “Language in Focus” with some more repetitions. In these textbooks the objectives of grammar lessons are set targeting on constructing syntactic structure of sentences than exposing the learners to use the structure to communicate in real life situations.

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Grammatical descriptions that strongly focus on rules in grammar lesson are available there in the textbook, i.e. the rules are always presented preceding the activities. This has a strong power to influence teachers’ grammar presentation to focus on forms and structure. Regarding the manner in which the rules are presented, the lessons (the activities) are perhaps the most deductive approach dominated.

The aim of learning grammar, which had been at the core of many language-learning theories in the past decades, is to help learners use the language. Here, however, the traditional, i.e. knowledge transmission method is still at work in the text. The pupils are required to fill the blanks based on rules already described at the very beginning of the lesson introduction. Thus, the pupils may find the answers without necessarily understanding how to use them in real communication. The activities work well at the conceptualisation stage, but it is necessary that the pupils get more practice in how to use verbs appropriately in real life communication. If the activities are well designed, they may help the teacher to create contexts for learning language use, which is after all the goal of teaching language.

SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of the Findings of the Study

The major findings using these techniques are reported below.

1. Concerning teachers’ beliefs about English grammar teaching, the results of the study indicated that teachers believe in the importance of teaching grammar. They agreed that grammar should not be ignored in any method teachers’ use in their classes. From the point of view of

learning English as a foreign language, these teachers also believe learners should have grammar knowledge together with communication skills. They also agreed that grammar plays significant roles in English Language learning. They expressed learning grammar

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helps the learners to know and arrange words in the way meaning is intended to be communicated. Students should know parts of speech and their function. Similarly, Richards and Renandya (2002:152) pointed that knowing how to build and use certain structures makes it possible to communicate common types of meaning successfully. Without these structures, it is difficult to make comprehensible

sentences. He insisted on that teachers must, therefore, try to identify these structures and teach them well. These writers also added that in some social contexts, serious deviance from native-speaker norms can hinder integration and excite prejudice- a person who speaks badly may not be taken seriously, or may be considered uneducated or stupid. Students may therefore want or need a higher level of grammatical correctness than is required for mere comprehensibility

For the controversial issue of how grammar knowledge together with communication skills should be promoted, these teachers addressed that they believe grammar should be presented implicitly(using contexts) in order to help the learners produce both grammatically correct and sensible sentences when they use English in any aspects: oral or written. Nunan, D. (1998:103) also suggested that grammar instruction would be more effective in classrooms where students get exposure to practice sample authentic language through which they are

engaged in tasks designed to make transparent the links between form, meaning and use. According to Richards (1985) as cited in (Celce- Murcia 1991:1), it is basically assumed that “....communicative classroom provide a better environment for second language acquisition than classroom dominated by formal instruction”.

2. Regarding teachers’ grammar teaching practice in relation to their

beliefs, the findings of the study revealed that, there is a mismatch

between what teachers believe and what they do in the classroom. It was confirmed through teachers’ grammar lesson observation that teachers actually own traditional/structural teaching approaches. They

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were observed using structural approach in their classroom practices, i.e. writing definitions of grammatical concepts on the board and making the students to copy the note in their notebooks. All the classes were teacher centered and filling the gaps with grammatical concepts was the most widely used activity in their classes based on the rule description provided. Grammar rule was practised through isolated

sentences. Teachers were the most prominent figures of the class who explained grammar rules to the students and asked questions. This is also true that the majority of the interviewees expressed they begin their grammar lessons by explaining structures and write definitions on board for cramming (a book used for accelerated study in preparation for an exam). However, few teachers denied that they are in favour of structural approach and they actually teach through this method. They claimed that according to them working out rules from examples is good for teaching grammar but while teaching grammar they begin their lesson by explaining grammar rules. Here, there is a great gap observed that except few students striving, majority of them are neither devoted in learning rules memorization nor engaged in using the rules for communication.

Moreover, the teachers strictly followed the activities in the textbook that required students not to get into genuine interactions but to

respond to individual items or questions. Thus, neither the textbook activities and exercises nor the teachers provided students contexts for language use practice. That is, the teachers’ presentation did not seem to succeed in achieving students’ understanding of the activities or exercises to work on. Because most of the students did not seem to have attention to the teachers and the teachers did not seem to exert more efforts in helping students understand what and how to do of the activities and exercises. Similarly, the teachers’ monitoring did not seem to achieve its objective because the teachers were not concerned about each students’ involvement in the given activities and exercises

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except moving around the class with a few coaching activities with groups of students.

3. English teachers in these high schools support context-based

grammar teaching in principle but they don’t have the detail knowledge, resources and techniques to implement teaching grammar through communication because they consider the method from the point of organizing the classes in groups. Even though they have the intention of teaching grammar through communication, they addressed

that there are factors forcing them to use formal grammar instruction. For instance they reasoned out that students are poor in grammar knowledge background and they attend the lesson attentively when teachers lecture them grammar. Their main purpose for learning grammar is just to pass tests or exams but not to use the language. (Savage, K.Bitterin, G.Price, D. 2010:7) pointed that teacher’s belief may be influenced by the reasons that students have in their mind for learning grammar.

4. Moreover, grammatical descriptions that strongly focus on rules in

grammar lesson are available there in the textbook, i.e. the rules are always presented preceding the activities. This has a strong power to influence teachers’ grammar presentation to focus on forms or structure. Regarding the manner in which the rules are presented, the lessons (the activities) are perhaps the most deductive approach dominated, as to the fact that explicit grammar explanations, which encourage the study of rules.

Conclusion

According to the findings of this study, from the beginning, teachers

view grammar from the point of structure, form or rules that govern how language works. They couldn’t see grammar from the angle of communication.

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English teachers in this study relatively have good belief about the importance of grammar instruction in language teaching and they have positive beliefs toward the different grammar teaching strategies. They believe in the importance of grammar knowledge together with communication skills, in learning English Language. The current theories and language teaching philosophies also encourages and

supports these beliefs.

However, there are diversified views on the base of how to help students to develop knowledge of grammar together with communication skills. Some teachers believe grammar knowledge at the same time communication skills would be better learnt when grammar is taught through communication but their belief is not on the base of knowledge and skills of implementing the method but only illusion because teachers see communicative way of grammar teaching from the point of class organization such as group, pair. They have no clear understanding of the concept of implicit method of grammar teaching because they were interchangeably using the terms explicit and implicit during interview sessions.

On contrary, there are teachers who are in favor of explicit grammar teaching as to developing grammar knowledge together with communication skills. They assume that first students should master

grammar and then communication follows because as to them lack of grammar knowledge is a cause for students poor confidence and shyness to express themselves in English.

As the researcher observed, all the teachers used continuous explicit grammar teaching with some illustrative examples without contexts and absence of integration of tasks so that the students could not get the opportunity to explore grammar rules and to engage themselves in authentic, practical and functional use of the language for meaningful purposes.

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Moreover, grammar lesson (tasks) in the textbooks (English textbook for grades 9 and 10) don’t encourage teaching grammar through communication. Grammar sections that titled, “Language Focus” are not integrated with the basic language skills in order to expose the students to contexts in which they practice language usage. Every language skill is intended to be practiced separately.

The finding of this research is in most case similar with findings of the research done by Yirgalem Bekele(2009).However, she didn’t consider data gathered through interview with analyzing sample grammar activities in the student’s English textbook to confirm or disconfirm whether they could be factors that hinder the implementation of teaching grammar through communication(task-based).Her research didn’t consider whether teachers’ good beliefs about grammar teaching using contexts were on the base of having clear understanding of its knowledge, resources and implementation skills or not.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, therefore, the following recommendations are given:

Near-by universities should give proper training to English teachers in order to enhance their knowledge and skills of teaching English grammar through communication and orient their learners so that students don’t have to consider English language learning is only passing exams but studying the whole language (holistic).

English teachers should orient their students to develop language learning culture: developing their motivation in participating in language learning activities, being bold enough to express themselves using their broken English and not considering language learning as learning history or other subjects.

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Teachers should expose students to communication activities through setting language learning contexts or tasks than teaching English as history.

English textbook developers also should be given training on the concept of context-based grammar teaching (teaching grammar through communication) as to help them design grammar lessons

accordingly.

Schools and the concerned bodies should work toward minimizing large class sizes as they hinder activity- based grammar teaching.

REFERENCES

Atkins, J. Hailom, B & Nuru, M.(1995). Skill Development Methodology. Vol.1 Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa Printing Press.

Burns, A. (1996).Teacher beliefs and their influence on classroom practice. Prospect, 7(3), 55-66.

Celce-Murcia,M.(1988).Techniques and resources in grammar teaching. Oxford: OUP.

Dornyei, Z.(2011). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford . University Press.

Farrell, Thomas S.C. (2005). Conceptions of Grammar Teaching: A case study of Teachers' Beliefs and Classroom Practices. TESL_EJ V9, No 2.

Harmer, J. (1989). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman: Longman Group UK Ltd

Harmar, J (2001): The Practice of English Language Teaching: Longman Publisher.

Hassan, Nayyer (2013).The Impact of Teachers’ Beliefs on L2 Grammar Teaching.

Retrieved from: Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 Vol. 13:8 on Janu.16.2014.

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Larsen-Freeman, D. (2001). Teaching Grammar. In M. Celce-Murcia, Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, Third Edition.Boston: Heinle & Heinle

Nunan, D. (1998). Teaching Grammar in Context. ELT Journal 52(2): 101-109.

Richards,J.C. and T.S. Rogers.( 2001). Approaches and Methods inLanguage Teaching (2nd Edition). Cambridge: CUP

Richards, J., Gallo, P.B. and Renadya, W. A. (2001). "Exploring Teachers' Beliefs and the Process ofChange." PACJournal, 1/41-58.

Slager W.R. (1973). "Creating Contexts for Langt.vge Practice." English Teaching Forum, X1/4, 1-8.

Savage,K.L,Bitterlin,G.&Price,D.(2010).Grammar Matters: Teaching Grammar in Adult ESL Program.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Shinde, M. (2012) .Pre-service teachers’ beliefs about teaching English to primary school children. International Journal of Instruction January 2012 Vol.5, No.1

Stern, H.H. (1983).Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP Thronbury, Scott.(2005).Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.(pp.70,77) Ur, P.(1996). A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and theory.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ur, P. (2009) A course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.

Yirgalem, Bekele (2009). Teachers’ beliefs about grammar teaching and classroom practice.M.A thesis .Addis Ababa University.

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YOGA- A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO EDUCATION

R. Lakshminarayana Research Scholar R.S Vidyapeetha

Tirupati

“We must work for lessening misery, for that is the only way to make ourselves happy. Every one of us finds it out sooner or later in our lives. The bright ones find it out a little earlier, and the dull ones a little later” ---Swami Vivekananda.

Education

Education is to aim at wholesome, worthwhile, progressive, harmonious and spontaneous growth and development of personality. It is written in the preamble of the UNESCO, “Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the edifice of peace must be constructed”. The natural impulses, urges and drives in students have to be refined, modified, properly developed and directed in desirable channels; so that the lamp of humanity continues to burn. The will or conscience of the students must be developed.

Indian education is as interesting as is enlightening and

illuminating. In India, there was revealed knowledge gained through meditation and intuition. This knowledge through education did exercise powerful influence on the succeeding ages. In India, the eternal prayer of an individual is from Brihadaranyaka Upanisad, which says, ‘Asatoma Sadgamayah’, Tamasoma Jyotrigamaya’, ‘Mruthyorma amrutanga maya’.

From unreal lead me to the real, From darkness lead me to light,

From death lead me to immortality.

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YOGA -

The eightfold path of patanjali consists of Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Prathyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi. Yama and Niyamas are the do’s and don’t’s essential for the development of the individual and society. The five yamas are Ahimas(Non-violence), Satya(Truth), Asteya(Non-stealing), Brahmacharya(Celibacy), Apargraha(Non-acceptance of gifts) and the niyamas are Saucha(purity), Santosha(contentment), Tapas(Austerity),

Swadhyaya(self analysis),Iswarapranidhana(Total surrender to god).

Yoga is the art and science of living , and is concerned with the evolution of mind and body . therefore , yoga incorporates system of disciplines for furthering an integrated development of all aspects of the individual. Through the practice of the physical postures , or asanas the spinal column as well as the muscles and joints are maintained in a healthy and supple state, not only for supplying fresh oxygen and strengthening the lungs but because they have a direct effect on the brain emotions. Sustained concentration, or dhyana through bandhas and kriyas, is important for stilling the turbulent mind and channeling focused mental energy creatively. The practice of yoga creates a balance in the total personality in terms of physical, emotional, mental and creative aspects of the personality.

Yogic system of education

Ashtanga yoga is a technology for the development of the physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual faculties in man. Yoga is a basic education with this basic education we can successfully take up

any branch of the formal education depending upon its needs, capacities and aptitudes. The basic yoga education will make formal education easier and lead to a harmonized social relationship resulting in a happy and peaceful life. Real education is educating the behaviour of the mind and brain.

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Benefits of yoga for children

The practices of yoga not only help to keep the young body strong and supple but also incorporate mental activities, disciplines that help to develop attention and concentration , and stimulate the creative abilities that are latent within the child. The young child is more intuitive and less conditioned than an adult and is therefore quite open, forthright, creative and above all, capable of learning . yoga practices augment his learning abilities at school, and the regular

discipline helps the growing child to channel and direct his emotional energies in a constructive manner.

Yoga for mental development

A dull brain can be tackled by rejuvenating the respective nadi or channel. Dullness may be due to a deficiency in the quantum of energy supplied to the brain. The thyroid gland is not functioning properly and this can be the cause of mental dullness.

Hatha yoga is very clear about this. It states that through the practice of pranayama, the pranas are extended to very part of the brain increasing and awakening the total functioning capacity. Circulation of the pranas is very important, not only for physical activities, but also for mental activities.

With the help of pranayama, certain electrical activities are generated within the body. In scientific investigations, it has been shown that in pranayama the brain emits special electrical energies. It has been noted that during yoga nidra, alpha waves are intensified. During ordinary sleep, however, delta waves are predominant.

Whether one is sleeping soundly or is in the state of yoga nidra can be properly deduced by examining the brain activity recording for delta or alpha waves.

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An experiment with yoga nidra

Swamy satyanada saraswati in his book ‘Yoga education for children’ reveals the results of the yoga nidra on a boy and says that “As soon as he went to bed at night, I would note the time . Then after five mintues I would start reciting the Gita, the upanishands, the Bible or anything else that I wanted him to learn. This worked very well. Through the practice of yoga nidra, pranayama, surya namaskara and chanting of mantra, the inner components of the brain can be brought

to a point of regulation. Hatha yoga talks about ida pingala naids, the cold and hot channels. It states clearly that these two channels are physiological in nature. These two important channels exist within the frame work of the spinal column. One channel controls the brain and its faculties of consciousness, and the other channel controls the life force and its impact on human existence”.

Emotional / behavioural aspect

Hyperactive behaviour, in yogic terminology, emotional disturbance is the result of an imbalance of manas shakti (the mental component ) and pranashakti (the vital component ). Where there is excess mental energy and a lack of prana, the child suffers withdrawal, depression, anxiety or lethargy, he lacks dynamism and cannot transform his mental energy into creative action. If the child has excess prana and not enough manas, then he will become very destructive and disruptive. Such hyperactive children are difficult to live with, and learning is almost impossible for them in this state.

Effect of yoga on emotional disabilities:

Emotionally disturbed , destructive, aggressive, hyperactive

children can benefit from yogic discipline. The hyperactive child is restless, unable to concentrate or finish a job, over talkative and a poor school performer. As teenagers they tend to be more impatient, more resistant to discipline than their peers, and more prone to irritability

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and telling lies. A high proportion engage in fighting, stealing and deviant behaviours such as running away from home, going with a ‘bad crowd’ and playing truant; drinking is also not uncommon. Pranayama together with asanas works directly on the brain and the endocrinal system and, therefore, on the mind and emotional nature of the child, heaping to re-establish emotional harmony and psychomotor normality,

that is ,normal attention span.

Swamy satyananda saraswati in his book ‘Yoga education for children’ says that a nine year old with emotional disability was treated with a package of yoga practices such as surya namaskara, a series of twelve postures and seven rounds each, simple alternate breathing in the nostrils, and bhramari pranayama, the humming bee breath could help the child to channel his emotions and stimulate creativity in emotionally disabled children, Which is not easily done with other forms of physical education.

The Yogis discovered that with every emotional disturbance, there is a corresponding change in the in the breathing pattern, and that by regulating the flow of breath, it is possible to overcome emotional outbursts. We know how much energy is drained out when we are upset. One minute of intense anger, for instance, drains away vital energy equivalent to ten miles of running. Pranayama is a very

powerful tool in controlling the mind and sublimating mental agitations. ‘Dharana’ is for the development of the intellectual faculties and dhyana for spiritual growth.

Yoga for memory development

Memory is a great problem for children, i.e., the problem of encoding, storage and retrieval. In order to develop the memory , children have to be guided through the path of mantra. The mantra works immediately on the subconscious and unconscious planes. With the help of mantra, antra mouna and yoga nidra very clear memory can

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be developed in children. In germany, research conducted on monkeys showed that when the primates practiced sitting silently for three to four hours daily, they soon become very intelligent developed their memory, became highly enthusiastic, and in some cases even more than man.

A similar experiment on a student considered a dullard and

roguish, showed that with the help of yoga, in just a few months, the boy has become on of the most intelligent and well behaved boys.

Yoga for time management

What rest you get by 5 hours deep sleep is only 9% but in 40 minutes, you get rest as much as 26% through yoga(‘Management of tension by yoga techniques’) you need much less sleep and you save on your sleep hours (from 5 to 7 hours). All the executives have reported improvement in efficiency at work. In addition, they have experienced other benefits like: Reduction in blood pressure, clarity in thinking, and sleep decrease in the consumption of tranquillizers and relaxed feeling in action.

Conclusion

Yoga is becoming popular in different parts of the world. For the restless mind, it gives solace. For the sick, it is a boon. For a common man, it is the fashion of the day to keep him fit and beautiful. Some use it for developing memory, intelligence and creativity . with its multifold advantages, it is becoming a part of education. Specialists use it to unfold the deeper layers of consciousness in their move towards perfection. Obviously, yoga is a form of complete education that can be

used with all children because it develops physical stamina, emotional stability and intellectual and creative talents. It is a unified system for developing the balanced, total personality of the child.

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It is said that the end of science is the beginning of philosophy and the end of philosophy is the beginning of spirituality. The cultural uniqueness of any society can be reflected through its philosophical, spiritual, educational and scientific ideas which represent the consciousness of a nation. In ancient india a practical strategy for education of the complete man evolved with moral values at its base as

well as the apex. Human beings throughout the world have given importance to eternal values like peace, justice, love, sympathy, mercy and fellow feeling. The Kothari commission stressed that “Modernization does not mean a refusal to recognize the importance of, or to inculcate necessary moral and spiritual values and self-discipline. Modernization, if it is to be a living, vital force, must derive its strength from the strength of the spirit”.

References

• Dr. Rita Sinha Dasgupta(1999), Education at the Dawn of New Millennium, New Central Book Agency(p) Ltd.,India.

• Telles S, Naveen K.V.(1997), Yoga for rehabilitation:an overview, Indian journal of Medical Sciences, Apr; 51(4):123-7.

• Swami Satyananda Saraswati(1999), Yoga education for children, Bihar school of yoga, Munger, India.

• Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan Trust (2005), Yoga- The science of Holistic Living, Vivekananda Kendra Pakashan, Chenni.

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THE IMPACT OF STRESS ON WORK LIFE BALANCE OF POLICE CONSTABLES: A STUDY OF VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT TO MEET THE CHALLENGES OF SOCIETY

Rohini Pogadadanda

Research Scholar Department of Human Resources & Management

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Abstract:

“The Police see people at their worst. Drunk Drivers, Drug addicted Children, Pained Parents, Angry Killers, Disoriented Criminals. Though it all, Police must be calm, brave, helpful & above all – hope they can make a difference. Let’s appreciate our Cops”.

This research identified many causes for the stress of the police personnel in performing day to day duties and due to stress the worklife balance is unsatisfactory. The police and officials in the department are all are placed on the Law Enforcement to safeguard the society from antisocial elements. During the course of performance of duty the police personnel face stress. To give up stress the department higher officials must take suitable steps to remove stress and the police personnel can be expected in discharging their duties constitutionally and they will do justice to their family members. This research explored some of the various stress issues which effects the police to suffer individually by noticing certain grievances of the people who are approaching the police for justice and protection. The police personnel happen to be the most visible protectors of citizens, people in the world. The governance of the government in curbing crimes, thefts, bribery etc, all offences which comes under unconstitutional acts as to be prevented, prohibited by the police. In course of discharging their duty they are facing lot of influential pressure and that pressure creates stress for them. In an hour of need, danger, or any crisis, people find police to be the most dependable person. The role of police constables is valuable. Besides their assigned duties police constables contribute in disaster management, VVIP duties, Escort duties and other assigned investigative, inquiry duties, serving of summons and warrants as well as clerical work. The purpose of this research is to identify the impact of stress on work life balance and also empirically investigate the socio-demographic factors affecting stress level among police personnel.

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Convenience sampling method was employed to select a sample of 200 police constables Grade I in Visakhapatnam District. Findings revealed that political pressure, lack of time for family, negative public image and low salary were the primary causes of stress among police personnel. It also emerged that stress is significantly more pronounced among those police personnel who are younger, more educated, posted in rural areas and have less work experience. The findings supplement existing body of knowledge and contribute to the understanding of causes of stress and role of socio-demographic factors in affecting stress level among police personnel.

KEY WORDS: Police, Political, Socio-demographic, Stress.

I. Introduction

Police is an alert, capable and brave individual with a badge that adorns his uniform is often seen on busy, crowded street. On a closer look, the badge proudly reads: Protecting the righteous and controlling and annihilating the evil.

The Andhra Pradesh Police is the law enforcement agency for the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. After the state split into Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, in 2014, the police forces also split up.

The Andhra Pradesh Police Department, like any other Police Department, has personnel that are being negatively affected by stress. Stress can come in many forms. Some sources of stress can be the internal or external pressure to succeed, conflicts among family and friends, a lack of self-confidence, or even not getting enough sleep. Especially difficult for police personnel is the fact that they do shift work. They are assigned to a particular shift and they must work regardless of holidays or other special occasions. This is especially difficult for the police family, as they often do not understand why their spouse is not home with the family. The family often feels that the Police personnelplace his/her job significantly above his/her family. Some officers react to situations presented in different ways. Something that may severely stress one officer may not stress another officer in the same way. One officer may thrive if given a project deadline while another officer may feel all types of pressures and stressors to make the deadline.

Policing is one of the most stressful occupations. The work of police is to protect life and property. It undertakes investigation of crimes. Its

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role involves many challenges such as encounter with dreaded elements while handling crimes. These roles expose police officers to different work situations which require different physical and mental ability (Anshel, 2000; Rollinson, 2005; Morash et al., 2006) to deal with situations firmly and effectively. A number of studies were carried out in different parts of the world for understanding nature of stress& quality of work life among Police Personnel. The reasons for stress are negative working environment plenty; long working hours, lack of time for family, irregular eating habits, need to take tough decisions, sleepless nights, poor living conditions, torture by seniors, disturbed personal life and the dwindling public confidence in the police force (Water and Ussery,2007; MalachPines and Kienan, 2007, McCarthy et. al, 2007).

In addition to above, stress may occur due to organizational factors like management style, poor communication, lack of support, inadequate resources and work overload (Kop et. al, 1999). Stress among policemen would manifest in the form of fatigue, depression, inability to concentrate, irritability and impulsive behavior. These danger signals are quite common among the policemen. Policemen are often viewed as rude and highhanded. However, outsiders may not appreciate the extreme conditions under which they lead their lives. Stress also has a negative effect on the health of the policemen. It makes them more susceptible to physical ailments. Both physical and mental illness renders the employee unfit for work. It impacts job satisfaction and reduces job performance. In India, several studies have been conducted by researchers on ‘stress’ among police personnel in the country.

(1) Dangwal et al. (1982) - He studied on a sample including three states and subordinate police personnel only. They suggested a more representative sample including more states and also inclusion of all the level of police hierarchy.

(2) Bhaskar (1982) - He also suggested to explore the relationship between behavioral, psychological and health effects and experience of job stress among police.

(3) Pillai (1987)- His study suggested to explore the need for periodical diagnosis of stress and related symptoms to reinforce improved functioning of system and enhance the health and job satisfaction among police personnel.

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(4)Ramchandaran (1989) - He suggested to need of a more intensive study which would depict insights into behavioral patterns at other level of hierarchy.

(5) Tripathi et al. (1993) - They gave a scope for a larger and more representative sample in future studies in police. His study was based on four districts to UP state.

(6) Suresh(1992)- He also found the need of research for extending the findings of his study to police officers in divergent regional and culture context.

(7) Mathur (1999)-He suggested that longitudinal studies would be very good to identify the impact of police work on individual. He also suggested that the family members of police personnel can also include in future studies.

II. Significance Of The Study

In this study, the impact of stress on the quality of work life balance of police constables have been examined to get a thorough understanding. The results of the study on the promotional avenues and the most important training facilities will guide the police department to enhance the overall quality of constable’s work life. The findings will be helpful to understand the work life balance of police constables and thereby prepare an action plan to enhance it.

III. Review of literature

Selye (1978); Alexander, (1999); Anshel, (2000); Paton &Violanti, (1999) - The nature of police work is acknowledged as highly stressful and particularly hazardous.

Violanti, (1983) - The perception of work stress seemed to decrease with an increase in years of police experience officers who had more years of experience reported lower levels of perceived work stress.

Worden (1990) – However, did not find any empirical support for the latter and the effects of college education remain inconclusive.

Brown and Campbell (1990) - found that sergeants reported a higher number of work events compared with other ranks and experienced greater perceptions of stress than did patrol officers

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Ayres and Flanagan (1992) - having a college education resulted in greater dissatisfaction with the bureaucratic organization of law enforcement agencies.

Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes & Nelson, (1995); Violanti& Lauterbach, (1994) - Studies which have been conducted among non-police samples indicate that gender differences are associated with the number and types of traumatic incidents as well as psychological reactions to such incidents.

Violanti and Aron (1995) - have also found that race, ethnicity, and gender are not associated with experiences of law enforcement work stress.

Alexander, (1999); Biggam, Power, MacDonald, Carcary& Moodie, (1997); McCafferty, McCafferty & McCafferty, (1992) - Organizational factors which contribute to burnout are lack of social support, rotating shifts, work overload, role conflict, and role ambiguity and lack of feedback These factors represent “demands” on employees (also referred to as job stressors), that are included in most models of burnout

Schaufeli&Enzmann, (1998) - It has also been found that burnout is related to organizational stressors including low levels of perceived control and a lack of resources.

Alexander (1999) - in addition to the stressful work events and situations experienced in law enforcement such as traumatic incidents, some officers experienced additional environmental factors as a result of their gender or race, which in turn influenced cultural differences in coping and social support.

Patterson (2001) - there is a link between various demographic variables and law enforcement work stress including age, education, gender, race, rank, section-assignment, and years of police experience.

Spielberger, Vagg&Wasala (2003) - stress is recognized as a complex process that consist of three major mechanisms: sources of stress that are encountered in the work environment, the perception and appraisal of a particular stressor by an employee, and the emotional reactions that are a response to perceiving a stressor as threatening.

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Spielberger et al., (2003) - Spielberger’s State-Trait (ST) model of occupational stress focuses on the perceived severity and frequency of occurrence of two major categories of stressors, i.e. job pressures and lack of support. Stress resulting from work is described as the mind-body arousal resulting from physical and/or psychological job demands. If a stressor is perceived as threatening then the person may react with anger and anxiety and this leads to the activation of autonomic nervous system. If the reaction continues to be severe, the resulting physical and psychological strain may cause adverse behavioral.

Mostert and Joubert (2005) - The negative effects of job stress on employees and their work are such that it is necessary to explore the processes involved when job stress is studied.

Prime Minister, Shri Manmohan Singh (2009) - had commented that 80 percent of the police personnel belong to the category of constables. They should be provided with adequate housing facility and training to improve their psychological and mental makeup. He feels that they should imbibe the constitutional values of our Republic, respect for diversity inclusiveness and commitment of secular values.

Khopde (2010) - has narrated his initiative in the police department. He introduced a 54points form. At every police station, 3 copies were prepared. One was kept in the police station; one was handed over to the ACP and another to DGP. It gave clear ideas on absenteeism, nature, health, family, financial position, religious thinking, social status, 100job related work and values. Snehabhojan which means taking lunch together once in month was another step. It would bring the employees closer and encourage more communication among superiors and subordinates. He also introduced cricket matches, kabbadi and plays. Competitions like these between police stations helped divert the attention from small ego problems, politics and internal conflicts. Team work was encouraged while doing patrolling. He says policemen wander alone without any direction. A team, if developed the true spirit can fight against any riot or commotion. The police officers will be together during such civic disturbances and can fight together. Some can take rest and will take care of each other.

Dr.Vidhu Mohan & Ms. Manpreet Kaur (2013) - In their article the duo studied police stress and it remains a constant source of discussion even today, because police personnel suffer from various negative

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stresses related outcomes. Mental health of police personnel is a major concern, because the stressed police personnel behave in ways that are dangerous not only to them, but also to their colleagues, offenders and public at large.

Figure 1 : Major Causes of Stress

Source: Created by authors

IV. Statement Of Problem

Four or five stressed-out policemen commit suicide every year. Stress-related ailments have killed more serving policemen in the past three years. Several inspectors and constables have died of heart attacks while on duty. Constables are feeling that they work under great pressure and their job is demanding and uncertain, also, public expectations from the police are high. During festivals timings, constables often work for more than 36 hours at a stretch. This may take a heavy charge on their health. Stress can cause hypertension, joint pains, high blood pressure, diabetes as well as paralytic strokes and heart attacks. They also experience lack of concentration, resulting in their making errors while passing orders or taking important decisions. Besides the routine work, constables often face stressful situations because of harassment from superiors.

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V. Objective Of The Study

The following are the objectives of this study:

1. To study the socio-demographic factors of the respondents.

2. To explore the quality of work life of Police Constables.

3. To identify the frequency of most stressful job activities of Police Constables

4. To study the relationship between demographic factors and level of stress among the grade I Police Constables.

VI. Research Methodology

The research design chosen is descriptive as the study reveals the existing facts. Descriptive research is the study which describes the characteristics of a particular individual, or a group. This study is about selected variable of stress. This study is based on the police constables in Visakhapatnam district. The research concentrated on 46 police stations and the researcher collected 200 samples from grade I police constables. The researcher used convenience sampling for the study. The researcher prepared structured questionnaires for data collection for this study. The questionnaires included questions on demographic profile and causes of stress.

Primary Data:

Primary data was obtained through questionnaire.

Secondary Data:

Secondary data is collected from government records, books, journals and the Internet.

Data analysis and interpretations:

The data was analyzed through percentage analysis, descriptive analysis, and chi-square test.

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Table 1: Percentage analysis

Factors Frequency Percent Age 20-29years 65 32.5 30-39years 121 60.5 40-49years 14 7.0

Total 200 100 Gender Male 103 51.5 Female 97 48.5

Total 200 100 Maritalstatus Married 126 63.0 Unmarried 63 31.5 Divorced 9 4.5 Separated 2 1.0

Total 200 100 Year ofservice Less than 5years 37 18.5 6-10years 57 28.5 11-15years 96 48.0 16-20years 10 5.0

Total 200 100 Monthlyincome Rs.5200-20200 plus grade payRs.2400 95 47.5 Rs.5200-20000 plus grade payRs.1900 97 48.5 Rs.5200-20200 plus grade payRs.2800 8 4.0

Total 200 100

Table 1 infers that most of the police constables (121) belong to 30-39 years old, 103 police constables are male, 126 respondents are married, 96 respondents are having 11 to 15 years’ experience as a police constable, and 97 police constables are getting Rs.5200-20000 plus grade payRs.1900.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics

This table shows that descriptive statistics for 44 job related stress activities that are faced by the grade I police constables for the last six months.

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Table 2: DescriptiveStatistics

This table shows that descriptive statistics for 44 job related stress activities that are faced by the grade I police constables for the last sixmonths.

DescriptiveStatistics Mean SD 1.Seeingcriminalsgofree 5.07502.534062.Having to dealwiththemedia 5.06002.463073.Insufficientpersonaltime(e.g.,coffeebreaks,lunch) 5.00002.492204.Dealingwithcrisissituations 4.96002.152115.Lackofrecognitionforgoodwork 4.95002.386636.Experiencing negative attitudes toward the organization

4.94002.19556

7.Assignmentofincreasedresponsibility 4.93002.282808.Personalinsultfromcustomer/consumer/colleague 4.91002.414769.Frequentinterruptions 4.88002.2895010.Coveringworkforanotheremployee 4.87502.3230111.Poorlymotivatedco-workers 4.85502.3044612.Poororinadequatesupervision 4.85502.3240013.Having to go tocourt 4.82002.2833514.Conflictswithotherdepartments 4.81002.1972815.Meetingdeadlines 4.79502.3388716.Noisyworkarea 4.78502.3890017.Inadequatesalary 4.78002.5991118.Fellowworkersnotdoingtheirjob 4.77002.4095919.Lackofparticipation in policy-makingdecisions 4.77002.2964020.Difficultygettingalongwithsupervisor 4.76002.2645221.Assignmentof new orunfamiliarduties 4.75002.4876622.Attending to incidencesofdomesticviolence 4.72002.2104423.Competitionforadvancement 4.71502.2692624.Shiftwork 4.71502.1603525.Having to handle a largecrowd /massdemonstration

4.71502.47069

26.Reorganization and transformation with in the organization

4.68002.30525

27.Frequentchangesfromboring to demand ingactivities

4.67502.11465

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28.Performingtasksnotinjobdescription 4.63002.2602329.A forcedarrestorbeingphysicallyattacked 4.60502.4818930.Inadequatesupport bysupervisor 4.58502.3644731.Racialconflict 4.57502.8060232.Workingovertime 4.57502.1882233.Excessivepaperwork 4.57002.2517734.Inadequateorpoorqualityequipment 4.54502.2389835.Lackofopportunityforadvancement 4.53502.2166136.A fellowofficerkilledinthelineofduty 4.43502.7245037.Killingsomeoneinthelineofduty 4.42502.7168538.Makingcriticalon-the-spotdecisions 4.42502.2958139.Delivering a deathmessage or badnews tosomeone

4.36502.40221

40.Periodsofinactivity 4.35502.4960241.Insufficientpersonnel to handleanassignment 4.33502.2197842.Staffshortages 4.20502.6186443.Too much supervision Stress ful Job-Related Events

3.99502.35002

44.Assignment of disagree ableduties 3.63002.14150

Table 2 shows that, the first ranked stressful job activity is “seeing criminals going free because of lack of evidence and court leniency” with the mean stress value of 5.0750 and the standard deviation is 2.53406. Second ranked stressful activity is “Having to deal with the media” with the mean stress value of 5.060 and the standard deviation is 2.46307. Third ranked stressful activity is “Insufficient personal time (e.g., coffee breaks, lunch)” with the mean stress value of 5.000 and the standard deviation is2.4922.Least ranked job stress activities are “Too much supervision Stressful Job-Related Events” and “Assignment of disagreeable duties”, with the mean stress value of 3.995 and3.63.

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Table 3: Chi squaretest

Chi square between Gender and top ranked stressfulactivities.

H0: There is no significant relation between Gender and top ranked stressfulactivities.

Chi squaretest Value Df Sig Conclusion

Seeing criminals gofree 17.086a 9 0.05** Association

Having to deal with themedia 10.339a 9 0.32 NoAssociation

Insufficient personal time (e.g., coffee breaks,lunch)

29.095a 9 0.00** Association

Dealing with crisissituations 7.652a 9 0.57 NoAssociation

Lack of recognition for goodwork 26.464a 9 0.00** Association

Experiencing negative attitudes toward theorganization

12.927a 9 0.17 NoAssociation

Assignment of increasedresponsibility


Personal insult fromcustomer/consumer/colleague


Frequentinterruptions 16.904a 9 0.05** Association

Covering work for anotheremployee 17.144a 9 0.05** Association

** H0 is rejected at5%.

Table 3 shows that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Seeing criminal going free, insufficient personal time, Lack of recognition for good work, Personal insult, and frequent interruptions and covering work for another employee”. Hence H0 is rejected, so there is a significant relation between Gender of the respondents and seeing criminal going free, insufficient personal time, Lack of recognition for good work, Personal insult, frequent interruptions and covering work for anotheremployee.

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Table 3.1: Chi squaretest

Chi square between Age and top ranked stressfulactivities.

H0:ThereisnosignificantrelationbetweenAgeandtoprankedstressfulactivities.

Chi SquareTest Value df Sig Conclusion Seeing criminals gofree 25.815a 18 0.10 NoAssociation

Having to deal with themedia 14.163a 18 0.72 NoAssociation

Insufficient personal time (e.g., coffee breaks, lunch)


Dealing with crisissituations 28.663a 18 0.05** Association


Experiencing negative attitudes toward the organization


Assignment of increasedresponsibility 25.065a 18 0.12 NoAssociation




Covering work for another employee 36.174a 18 0.01** Association


Table 3.1 shows that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work, Personal insult, frequent interruptions and covering work for another employee”. Hence H0 is rejected, so there is a significant relation between Ages of the respondents and dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work, Personal insult, frequent interruptions and covering work for anotheremployee.

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Chi square between Experience and top ranked stressfulactivities.

H0: There is no significant relation between experience and top ranked stressfulactivities.

Chi Square Test Value df Sig Conclusion Seeing criminals gofree 56.702a 27 0.00** Association

Having to deal with the media 30.402a 27 0.30 NoAssociation

Insufficient personal time (e.g., coffee breaks, lunch)


Dealing with crisissituations 37.965a 27 0.08** Association




Assignment of increasedresponsibility 37.170a 27 0.09 NoAssociation




Covering work for another employee 43.501a 27 0.02** Association


Table 3.2 shows that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Seeing criminals go free, Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work, Frequent interruptions and covering work for another employee”. Hence H0 is rejected, so there is a significant relation between experiences of the respondents and seeing criminals go free, Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work, frequent interruptions and covering work for anotheremployee.

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Chi square between Monthly income and top ranked stressfulactivities.

H0:Thereisnosignificantrelationbetweenmonthlyincomeandtoprankedstressfulactivities.

Chi SquareTest Value df Sig Conclusion Seeing criminals gofree 29.859a 18 0.039** Association

Having to deal with themedia 34.083a 18 0.012** Association



Dealing with crisissituations 20.345a 18 0.314 NoAssociation




Assignment of increased responsibility




Frequentinterruptions 23.984a 18 0.156 NoAssociation

Covering work for anotheremployee



Table 3.3 shows that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Seeing criminals go free, Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work and assignment of increased responsibility”. Hence H0 is rejected, so there is a significant relation between monthly incomes of the respondents and seeing criminals go free, Dealing with crisissituations, Lack of recognition for good work and assignment of increased responsibility.

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Chi square between Marital status and top ranked stressfulactivities.

H0:Thereisnosignificantrelationbetweenmaritalstatusandtoprankedstressfulactivities.

Chi SquareTest Value df Sig Conclusion Seeing criminals gofree 25.689a 27 0.536 NoAssociation

Having to deal with themedia 24.539a 27

0.600

NoAssociation


22.612a 27

0.706

NoAssociation

Dealing with crisissituations 31.102a 27

0.267

NoAssociation

Lack of recognition for goodwork 33.865a 27

0.170

NoAssociation


29.187a 27

0.352

NoAssociation

Assignment of increasedresponsibility

45.231a 27

0.015**

Association


40.606a 27

0.045**

Association

Frequentinterruptions 44.358a 27

0.019**

Association

Covering work for anotheremployee

46.757a 27

0.011**

Association

Table 3.4 shows that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “covering work for another employee, frequent interruptions, personal insult and assignment of increased responsibility”. Hence H0 is rejected, so there is a significant relation between marital statuses of the respondents and covering work for another employee, frequent interruptions, personal insult and assignment of increasedresponsibility.

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VII. FINDINGS

• It was found that most of the police constables (121) belong to 30-39 years old, 103 police constables are male, 126 respondents are married, 96 respondents are having 11 to 15 years’ experience as a police constables, and 97 police constables are getting Rs.5200-20000 plus grade payRs.1900.

• It shows that, the first ranked stressful job activity is “seeing criminals going free because of lack of evidence and court leniency” with the mean stress value of 5.0750 and the standard deviation is 2.53406. Second ankeds tressful activityis “Havingtodealwiththemedia”withthemeanstressvalueof5.060andthe standard deviation is 2.46307. Third ranked stressful activity is “Insufficient personal time (e.g., coffee breaks, lunch)” with the mean stress value of 5.000 and the standard deviation is 2.4922. Least ranked job stress activities are “Too much supervision Stressful Job-Related Events” and “Assignment of disagreeable duties”, with the mean stress value of 3.995 and3.63.

• It shows that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Seeing criminal going free, insufficient personal time, Lack of recognition for good work, Personal insult, and frequent interruptions and covering work for another employee”. Hence H0 is rejected, so there is a significant relation between Gender of the respondents and seeing criminal going free, insufficient personal time, Lack of recognition for good work, Personal insult, frequent interruptions and covering work for anotheremployee.

• It was found that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work, Personal insult, Frequent interruptions and covering work foranotheremployee”.HenceH0 i s rejected,sothereisasignificantrelationbetweenAgesoftherespondentsand dealing with crisissituations, lack of recognition for good work, Personalinsult,frequentinterruptionsand covering work for anotheremployee.

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• It shows that significance of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Seeing criminals go free, dealingwith crisissituations, Lackofrecognitionforgoodwork,frequentinterruptionsandcoveringworkforanotheremployee”.HenceH0 i s rejected,sothereisasignificantrelationbetweenexperiencesoftherespondents and Seeing criminals go free, Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for goodwork,Frequent interruptions and covering work for anotheremployee.

• It was found that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “Seeing criminals go free, Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work and assignment of increased responsibility”.HenceH0 i s rejected,sothereisasignificantrelationbetweenmonthlyincomesoftherespondentsandseeingcriminals go free, Dealing with crisis situations, Lack of recognition for good work and assignment of increasedresponsibility.

• It shows that significant of chi square value is less than 0.05 for “covering work for another employee, frequent interruptions, personal insult and assignment of increased responsibility”. Hence H0 is rejected, so there is a significant relation between marital statuses of the respondents and covering work for another employee, frequent interruptions, personal insult and assignment of increasedresponsibility.

DISCUSSIONS

This study set out to examine following hypothesis. The first was various factor extracted from Stressful Job-Related Events do not vary with the demographic factors of the respondents. Findings from this study shows that grade 1 constable’s stressful job related events like Stress do seeing criminals going free because of lack of evidence and court leniency, Having to deal with the media, Insufficient personal time (e.g., coffee breaks, lunch) and least job related stressful events like Too much supervision Stressful Job-Related Events, Assignment of disagreeable duties vary with demographic factors like age, gender, religion, service of the years, marital status, income and the place of residence.

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This present study also suggested that perception about the work and practice must be changed by providing good work climate and developed departmental policy that will reduce the stress level which in turn improves the quality of work life. And police department must offer counseling for the police constables and give chance to them for future scope. The researcher suggested that during the recruitment personality dimensions also examined.

Decreasing working hours, role overload and work load, flexi working time will lead to maintain their personal time. Police Constables should be,offered both opportunities and challenges for stress prevention programs. Although it is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs, we believe that these programs may be effective if started early during police training and delivered regularly throughout a police’s career to keep the rate of stress among police as low aspossible.

VIII. CONCLUSION

The study explained Stress due to doing disagreeable duties, Stress due to increased responsibility and Stress due to lack of admin policy are the primary causes of stress among police constables. Further, it empirically investigated that age, gender, religion, service of the years, marital status, income and the place of residence in the same field has significant association with stress level among police constables. The study suggests to regularly organizing the training programs, counseling and medical checkups for stress management of policeconstables.

RECOMMENDATIONS

This research indicated that when officers were properly trained and had the ability to recognize the effects of stress, they were able to manage their stress more effectively. This stress management resulted in officers taking less stress home with them to their families and they were able to maintain higher morale. The police departments need to take more responsibility in educating, training, and combating stress. The department also needs to provide confidential counseling to officers that are being affected negatively by job stress.

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