CHARLES BABBAGE INSTITUTE CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

NEWSLETTER

CBI Vol. 36 No. 2 Fall 2014

In This Issue:

Director’s Desk

2015 Annual Appeal

News from the Archives

Computer Security History Workshop

ACM Archiving Workshop

Bachman Awarded National Medal

CBI Sources for Open Standards

Update CBI LANL HPC

Update CBI-Sloan Project

SHOT 2014

50th BHSJ in Tokyo

Serving History (Norberg Grant)

Recent Publications

Featured Photograph

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CHARLES BABBAGE INSTITUTE CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

NEWSLETTER Fall 2014 Vol. 36 No. 2

In This Issue:

Director’s Desk 3

2015 Annual Appeal 4

News from the Archives 6

Computer Security History Workshop 7

ACM Archiving Workshop 9

Bachman Awarded National Medal 11

CBI Sources for Open Standards 13

Update CBI LANL HPC 14

Update CBI-Sloan Project 16

SHOT 2014 17

50th BHSJ in Tokyo 21

Serving History (Norberg Grant) 23

Recent Publications 24

Featured Photographs 26

CBI Newsletter Editor: Jeffrey R. Yost

Charles Babbage Institute Email: cbi@umn.edu 211 Andersen Library Ph. (612) 624-5050 University of Minnesota Fax: (612) 625-8054 222 21st Avenue South www.cbi.umn.edu Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

The Charles Babbage Institute for the History of Information Technology is sponsored by the University of Minnesota and the information technology community. Charles Babbage Institute Newsletter is a publication of the University of Minnesota. The CBI Newsletter reports on Institute activities and other developments in the history of information technology. Permission to copy all or part of this material is granted provided that the source is cited and a copy of the publication containing the copied material is sent to CBI.

© Charles Babbage Institute

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Director’s Desk “So Tom, how are things going at CBI?” someone asks, innocently enough. Usually I’ve been able to give two or three highlights and feel reasonably confident that I’ve conveyed the gist of our activities. Lately, however, the volume of activities has ratcheted upward and the range of activities has expanded outward. When I composed my CBI Friends annual appeal letter this year, it took me two pages just to enumerate the 28 carefully chosen highlights (and you can see them here). Since my basic theme is the health and breadth of computer history, I have a palpable sense of growth and progress. A decade or so ago, computer history was making a transition from hardware to software as a critical emphasis. Coming back from the annual meeting of the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) and the successful day-long SIGCIS workshop, one cannot but be amazed and impressed at the range of topics, literally ranging from automation to wearable computing. CBI’s Arvid Nelsen discussed his research project on social issues in computing, “Debates on Automation in the 20th Century: Interpreting New Sources at CBI.” New archival donations—both paper and digital—continue to enrich the evidentiary base on which computer history depends. Especially intriguing are collections that help understanding of interactive and personal computing, such as new materials on PLATO used in education and printed matter, including a long run of Byte magazine and ongoing collection of the quarterly Apple II publication Juiced.GS. We had the great pleasure this September of spending the day with Gideon and Sarah Gartner, who visited CBI to see the location of the Gartner Group reports and research materials they had recently donated. The Gartner records are not only documentation of a notable information technology business but also one that shaped much of the IT landscape through its influential analyses and recommendations. For those who can’t wait to dig into the archives, you may whet your appetite with the recently released biography, About Gartner. We report elsewhere in this Newsletter on CBI’s three active externally sponsored projects. But I would like to spotlight one development that has taken us by pleasant surprise. One component of our NSF project on the history of computer security is a “knowledge networking” wiki site. You can click through to it from here. It has an unparalleled set of research materials on the history of computer security: two dozen oral histories with many of the top figures in the field . . . write-ups on two dozen government and industry initiatives and institutions . . . 30 publications and report series, including a timeline of computer-security conferences (1973-94) . . . major security-enhanced computer systems, including Multics and DEC’s VAX security kernel . . . as well as notable events and key mechanisms. The word is out: in recent months we have been recording 4,000 page views each month on a variety of these topics. We invite you to have a look-see for yourself!

Thomas J. Misa

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15 September 2014 Dear CBI Friends: The world of computer history is getting bigger and wider, with more people around the world vitally interested in a field that the Charles Babbage Institute has been cultivating for more than three decades. We have visitors from many countries and with diverse research interests. But, equally important, the Charles Babbage Institute itself is taking an impressive lead in research, scholarship, and outreach. From one solid founding vision, much has resulted . . . . CBI hosted two major workshops in May and July. With the support of the Association for Computing Machinery, we held a two-day workshop in May to disseminate knowledge and practices in professional archiving to the ACM membership. We had a lively group, hailing from five countries and including colleagues from computer science, library science, history, and journalism with varied homes in museums, research libraries, national laboratories, and academia. For a write-up see here. And in July, with the support of the National Science Foundation, we organized the Computer Security History Workshop 2014 as part of our multi-year NSF-funded research project. The workshop focused discussion on more than a dozen specially written papers, and the authors are submitting their work for publication in a special double-issue of Annals of the History of Computing. As noted in the Fall 2012 CBI Newsletter, the project is putting computer security on the agenda of historians as well as putting history on the agenda of computer-security professionals. Already, 22 oral histories from this project are at <tinyurl.com/CBI-2014-A>. We have in hand three externally funded grants. In addition to the NSF computer-security history project, noted above, this spring we began research on two other multi-year research efforts (see the Spring CBI Newsletter). The Alfred P. Sloan Foundation is supporting “Tripling Women’s Participation in Computing (1965-85),” a pioneering examination of the legion of profession women who experienced astonishing growth in the early computer industry. We will be interviewing 30 women who worked in the industry and conducting archival research in CBI’s Burroughs and Control Data corporate records to better understand how and why women flooded into computing—literally tripling women’s share of computer-science bachelor’s degrees and making impressive strides in the workforce. And with the support of the Department of Energy, Ph.D. student Nic Lewis spent this summer in residence at the Los Alamos National Laboratory doing research on LANL’s notable efforts in high-performance computing. He completed a 60-page report on LANL’s networking, did a public presentation on LANL’s operating system research, conducted several oral histories, and created a path to access the riches of LANL’s archives. CBI staff and students are presenting four papers at the SHOT SIGCIS workshop on 9 November in Dearborn, Michigan. Ph.D. student Jonathan Clemens, one of our NSF FastLane project’s research assistants, is discussing the moral panic surrounding video arcade games,

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while Nic Lewis is sharing early results from the LANL HPC project. Ph.D. student Will Vogel is presenting his archival research for the Sloan project, and CBI’s archivist-curator R. Arvid Nelsen is giving a slice from his research project, on social issues in computing, in a paper entitled “Debates on Automation in the 20th Century.” CBI and our colleagues in the history of technology appear five times on the main SHOT program this November. Jeffrey Yost’s “The March of IDES: The Advent and Early History of Intrusion Detection Expert Systems” and Nic Lewis’s “Gorbachev’s Gamble: The Personal Computer, Glasnost, and the Fall of the Soviet Union” come from our NSF computer security project. Jonathan Clemens is presenting “Defining Play: Mediators in the Rise and Fall of Video Arcades” from his Ph.D. dissertation. I am chairing a SHOT session on “Conceptualizing Computing,” and historian of technology Jennifer Alexander is chairing a session on “The Sacred and the Unseen.” I have done six outreach talks. Most have been to local community groups based on my Digital State: The Story of Minnesota’s Computing Industry (2013) but a favorite of mine was “Charles Babbage, Ada Lovelace, and the Bernoulli numbers” at Stevens Institute of Technology. And CBI has seven exciting archival collections. Among the highlights we include . . . Gideon Gartner’s donation of Gartner Group materials . . . Scott Grabow’s Cray computer manuals, videos, posters . . . Charlie Bachman’s digital materials on 5 hard drives . . . BBN Raytheon’s original RFQ for Arpanet (and 6 boxes) . . . George Gourrich’s notebooks, monographs, and serials . . . Ellen McEvoy’s PLATO educational materials . . . Peter Patton’s additions . . . David Zimmerman’s Byte magazine holdings . . . Lockheed Martin’s publications . . . Stuart Umpleby’s Y2K resources . . . Kimberly Schwenk’s computer zines . . . Roger Angvall’s Unisys materials . . . Ken Gange’s on-going donation of Juiced.GS, a quarterly Apple II journal. Hmm, well, more than seven: you know that Arvid Nelsen is always over-achieving! Doing the math, it is clear that CBI is achieving some impressive results. Your support of CBI’s core activities—archival collections, research projects, oral histories, and outreach efforts—through an annual contribution to the CBI Friends can keep the mathematics in the stratosphere. We send the best of CBI scholarship to CBI Friends, books like Computer, Digital State, and The IBM Century as well as articles appearing in Annals of the History of Computing! Sincerely,

Thomas J. Misa CBI Director Engineering Research Associates Land Grant Chair in the History of Technology Program in History of Science, Technology & Medicine Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

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News from the Archives Outreach and Instruction Once again, the Fall semester has brought students to the CBI Archives. The Social Issues in Computing Collection continues to attract an increasing number of researchers and classes. Two large sections of students came to CBI from the course “Ethics in Science and Technology.” Their goal was to examine both positive and negative perspectives on automation in the 20th century, and broader social anxieties in regards to computing. Students looked at materials from the Social Issues collection, as well as materials from the National Bureau of Standards, the Control Data Corporation Records, and the Edmund Berkeley Papers. The Control Data and Berkeley collections also provided key resources for a different class examining computing in the Cold War. Additionally, a group of Honors students from a class called “The Future” are investigating matters of gender, faith, and artificial intelligence. The enthusiasm demonstrated by instructors and students over these topics and the materials CBI has collected to support their research is exciting. I have been able to spend some time investigating them myself and made presentations to other audiences this fall. CBI was the first unit in the University Libraries Department of Archives and Special Collections to present in the 2014-2015 First Fridays series. This year’s theme is “Contested Spaces: Power in the Archives.” My presentation was titled, “No Singular Expression: Hidden Diversity in the History of Computing.” In it I looked at computing, the history of computing, and archives that document the history of computing as three distinct but connected spaces where some communities receive greater representation and exert greater control than others. I was also able to further explore 20th century controversies over automation in a paper entitled, “Debates on Automation in the 20th Century: Interpreting New Sources at CBI,” at the 2014 SHOT SIGCIS workshop. These opportunities to present to students and other communities are all contributing to a larger research and writing project I have embarked on, inspired by the Social Issues collection. In order to concentrate on this work I will be taking a leave of absence for three months this winter, January through March. Ian Lewenstein returns to CBI as Archives Assistant CBI is fortunate to welcome back to the fold Ian Lewenstein as the Archives Assistant for a six-month assignment. Ian started his latest position in October 2014 and will be with CBI through March 2015. Some of you may have worked with Ian before. He was a student assistant during his undergraduate career at the University of Minnesota. When he graduated in May 2013 we were able to keep him on through the summer for the completion of a special collection management project. Ian brings to his current position a great deal of experience working with CBI’s collections and an academic background in history. If you get an opportunity to visit CBI or have occasion to call on our reference services from your home state or country, I know that you will be in good hands with Ian supporting your research.

R. Arvid Nelsen

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CBI Computer Security History Workshop

Workshop participants (left to right). Rebecca G. Bace, James W. Cortada, Jonathan S. Clemens, Dongoh Park, Jeffrey Yost, Will Vogel, Michael Warner, William H. Murray, Steven B. Lipner, Terry Benzel, Andrew Meade McGee, Carl Landwehr, William F. Aspray, Nathan Ensmenger, Breck Walker, Laura DeNardis. Front row: Thomas Misa, Robert E. Johnston, Karl Grindal, Jeremy Epstein, William Scherlis, Philip Frana, Rebecca Slayton. Not pictured: Andrew Odlyzko. On July 11-12, 2014 the Charles Babbage Institute held a workshop to facilitate and advance scholarship and understanding of computer security history. The workshop was sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF CNS-TC 1116862) as a supplement to CBI’s multi-year research project, “Building an Infrastructure for Computer Security History.” An open call for papers yielded high quality proposals in a range of themes and topics—from computer crime, security metrics, standards, and encryption to pioneering companies, privacy, internet design, and hacker culture. Proposals came in from historians, computer scientists, information scholars, and industry pioneers. At CBI we organized the papers, printed in a privately circulated workshop volume, into four thematic sessions: Conceptual Foundations, Industry Foundations, Law and Privacy, and Identity and Anonymity. Sessions on Friday July 11, were followed by a workshop dinner at the University of Minnesota’s Campus Club, with the fourth session and workshop wrap-up on Saturday, July 12. During the workshop sessions, oral presentations were kept brief since all attendees had texts readily at hand. Discussion centered on providing feedback to authors in preparation for publication. The editorial board of IEEE Annals of the History of Computing approved plans for two special issues to publish revised papers from the event. All papers go through the journal’s standard peer review. Past IEEE Annals editor-in-chief and CBI associate director Jeffrey Yost will guest edit the two special issues.

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Papers from the workshop: William Aspray (University of Texas) “The Early History of Symantec, 1982-1999,” James W. Cortada (IBM retired, current-Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota) “How an IT Industry is Born: Is this Happening with IT Security Firms?” Laura DeNardis (American University) “The Internet Design Tension between Surveillance and Security,” Larry Druffel, Rich Pethia, and Bill Scherlis (Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University) “The Formation and Operation of CERT: A Retrospective,” Philip Frana (James Madison University) “Telematics, Transborder Data Flows, and the History of Computer Security,” Karl Grindal (Cyber Conflict Studies Association) “Artist Collectives versus Hacker Culture: Origins of DDoS,” Robert E. Johnston “Information Security History in the Private Sector, 1969-1999,” Steven B. Lipner (Microsoft) “The

Birth and Death of the Orange Book,” Andrew Meade McGee (University of Virginia) “Privacy as Security: The Deep Political Origins of the Privacy Act of 1974,” Dongoh Park (Indiana University) “Social Life of PKI: Sociotechnical Development of Korean Public Key Infrastructure,” Rebecca Slayton (Cornell University) “Automating Judgment: Computer Security Metrics and the Rise of Risk Assessment,” Michael Warner (U.S. Cyber Command) “Notes on the Evolution of Computer Security Policy in the US Government, 1965-2001,” Jeffrey R. Yost (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota) “Access Control Software and the Origin and Early History of the Computer Security Industry.” Additional results from CBI’s NSF-funded research project include journal articles by co-PI Jeffrey Yost and graduate-student research assistant Nic Lewis forthcoming in IEEE Annals; the set of two dozen completed oral-history interviews ; and a unique compilation of knowledge-networking resources about computer security.

American University’s Laura DeNardis

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Charles Babbage Institute Hosts ACM Archiving Workshop The Charles Babbage Institute hosted a two-day workshop on archiving policies and practices during 21-22 May 2014. The workshop, sponsored by the Association for Computing Machinery’s History Committee, brought together a diverse group. Attendees hailed from five countries, numerous professional backgrounds (computer science, library science, history, journalism) and diverse institutions including newly launched and well-established museums, research libraries, national laboratories, and academia. The event aimed at disseminating professional knowledge about archival policies and procedures to ACM members and other computer professionals.

Martin Campbell-Kelly, Jon Bashor, Geoffrey Darnton, and Carol Hutchins examine ACM archival materials at CBI workshop. R. Arvid Nelsen, CBI’s archivist and curator, briefly introduced archival principles then quickly turned to a “hands-on” exercise. Each participant received an archival box and was asked to consider the types of information that it contained and embodied, from the specific documents in individual folders to the wider context implied by the collection. Participants examined organizational records from ACM itself as well as personal papers from Edmund Berkeley (one of ACM’s founders) and Carl Machover (SIGGRAPH 98 History Chair). A folder created by computer scientist Jean Sammett, cryptically entitled “Herb Problem,” prompted spirited discussion. Archiving principles of provenance and original order were Nelsen’s pre-lunch topic. Presentations by each workshop participant followed. Elizabeth Feinler emphasized that archival collections result from many individuals’ work, including an Internet Engineering Task Force

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(IETF) working group. Joan Collins described work done by 300 members of LA SIGGRAPH where a single movie frame might be the product of 50 people’s efforts. Chuck House discussed his efforts to collect and organize high-tech historical materials. Kevin Murrell, from the UK National Museum of Computing (f. 2007), is building a museum around working computers and archival records. Historian Martin Campbell-Kelly highlighted the current EDSAC reconstruction. Also from the UK, Geoffrey Darnton is archiving the Information System Design and Optimization System (ISDOS) project in requirements modeling. Jon Bashor of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has informally collected rich materials on computing. Sally Jo Cunningham from Waikato University in New Zealand is archiving the work practices of computer science colleagues. Scott Campbell is organizing a computer history museum at the University of Waterloo. Federico Novick from Buenos Aires, Argentina, is researching Latin America’s internet history. Carol Hutchins, from NYU’s Courant Institute, discussed software tools.

Workshop participants during underground “archival caverns” tour. From left: Jon Bashor, Scott Campbell, Martin Campbell-Kelly, Carol Hutchins, Geoffrey Darnton, Joan Collins, Sally Jo Cunningham, Arvid Nelsen, Federico Novick, Kevin Murrell, Elizabeth Feinler, and Chuck House. Subsequent discussions focused on collection development, appraisal, and archival processing methods as well as extended appraisal of digital and electronic records. For digital records, the archival principles of provenance and documentation may require new procedures and appropriate software tools, including digital-forensic ones to establish or define the “original” version. No visit to CBI is complete without touring the underground climate-controlled storage caverns and the upstairs CBI office suite, where the group viewed the newly installed archival workstation. The final workshop topic – privacy and levels of access – responds to demands by donors to develop alternatives to wide-open WWW access. A formal report with photographs and additional details may be found at <history.acm.org/public/public_documents/ACM-archiving-workshop_2014-05.pdf>.

Thomas Misa

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Charles Bachman Awarded National Medal of Technology and Innovation

“National Medal of Technology and Innovation to Charles W. Bachman, for fundamental inventions in database management, transaction processing, and software engineering.”

On November 20, 2014, Charlie Bachman was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by President Barack Obama in a televised ceremony at the White House. To say the least it is a singular honor, and one which caps an esteemed career in computing. In 1973 Charlie was awarded the ACM’s premier honor, the Turing Award, and in 1977 he was elected Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society. All these awards recognize Charlie’s early and fundamental conceptualization of databases, the predominant way that computers and humans interact with immense datasets. Even web pages now routinely call up content that is stored in databases in order to display the news, sports scores, stock quotations, airline reservations, and all matter of e-commerce.

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At CBI we created a webpage <http://www.cbi.umn.edu/bachman> to help with publicity for the award. Charlie, as many CBI Newsletter readers will know, deposited his wide-ranging archive at CBI. These 55 archival boxes document his work in database management and database standardization as well as his role in the OSI model of networking standards (noted in our write-up of Andy Russell’s recent book). Charlie explains his conception of the “Integrated Data Store,” the pioneering network database, in a session that he organized at a 2006 alumni reunion of General Electric’s computer department. There Charlie shared the stage with his GE colleagues Russ McGee, Stan Williams, Oris Friesen, and Joanna Broder. The video posted on the CBI website, just over two hours in length, provides audio and video of the speakers as well as their presentation slides. We are especially pleased to have two recent additions to the fully processed Bachman archival collection. Charlie sent us five of his legacy computers, with their hard drives intact. We’ll do complete disk images and convert these all-digital materials into research tools. Charlie’s family also entrusted us with a complete copy, some 800 files, that fully document the process that led to the National Medal award. Of particular interest is the 17-page nomination (formally submitted by U.S. Representative Ed Markey, now Senator from Massachusetts) and set of support letters from computing notables such as Gordon Bell as well as software industry leaders from Oracle, Progress Software, CA Technologies, and other companies. We salute Charlie and his family on this richly deserved award! • Announcement by the White House • President Obama’s remarks at award ceremony • ACM Turing pages on Bachman • Charles W. Bachman Papers (CBI 125)

Thomas J. Misa

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CBI Sources for Open Standards and the Digital Age (2014) We knew that Andrew Russell, Assistant Professor at Stevens Institute of Technology, was bringing out an important book with Cambridge University Press, published in April 2014 and entitled: Open Standards and the Digital Age: History, Ideology, and Networks. We read the book in my graduate seminar in history of computing, and we fully expect the reviews to be full of splendid accolades. For the moment, we want to spotlight Andy’s unusually deep research in CBI archival sources and oral histories. History depends on rich archival resources, and Andy has made the best of some of CBI’s most valuable collections.

Andy is no stranger to these pages. A Ph.D. student at Johns Hopkins University at the time, Andy was awarded the 2006-7 CBI-Tomash fellowship for his dissertation project, “‘Industrial Legislatures’: Consensus Standardization in the Second and Third Industrial Revolutions.” His set of oral history interviews with nine European networking pioneers – André Danthine, Gérard Le Lann, Jean-Louis Grangé, Louis Pouzin, Marc Levilion, Michel Gien, Najah Naffah, Rémi Després, and Tilly Bayard-Richard – added significantly to CBI’s resources in this area. Andy also deposited with CBI his oral history with Internet pioneer David Mills. And, as reported elsewhere in this Newsletter, Andy has assumed leadership of SHOT’s SIGCIS computer history group. Jeff Yost described some relevant CBI resources in “Exploring the Archives: Resources on Computer Networking” (Fall 2011 Newsletter). One of the best known is the Alex McKenzie Collection of Computer Networking Development Records, 1969-1990 (CBI 123),

which Janet Abbate also used for her Inventing the Internet (MIT 1999). The McKenzie collection documents a brief moment of deep transatlantic cooperation when Vinton Cerf chaired the Europe-centered International Network Working Group (INWG) and worked, for a time, to bridge the rival ISO and Internet networking models. Andy profiles two other networking figures, John Day and Brian Kahin, for whom CBI also has archival papers. Andy also extensively used CBI’s archival papers of database pioneer Charlie Bachman (CBI 125). We note elsewhere in this newsletter the breaking news that Charlie was awarded the prestigious National Medal of Technology and Innovation. As a follow-on to his early work for American National Standards Institute’s (ANSI) pivotal database standards committee, Charlie took over leadership also for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) subcommittee 16 on networking standards. This was the body that formulated, under Bachman’s guidance, the famous seven-layer reference model known as Open Systems Interconnection. It is all detailed in such seemingly cryptic documents, cited in Andy’s book on page 208 note 27, as “Meeting ANSI/X3/SPARC/Study Group on Distributed Systems.”

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Yet further CBI collections that Andy mined include CBI’s Auerbach and Associates Market and Products Reports as well as several smaller collections that detail the standard-setting process in computing: Herbert S. Bright Papers (CBI 42); Honeywell, Inc. X3.2 Standards Subcommittee Records (CBI 67); and, although not listed in his appendix, Charles A. Phillips Papers (CBI 39). Another resource was the journal ConneXions: The Interoperability Report (1987-96), available online. And, last but not least, Andy mined the riches of CBI’s networking oral histories including Paul Baran, Vinton Cerf, Steve Crocker, Robert Kahn, J.C.R. Licklider, David Mills, Lawrence Roberts, Jack Ruina, and Robert Taylor as well as the nine European interviews noted above. Transcripts for these interviews can be accessed online at <http://www.cbi.umn.edu/oh> with finding guides to archival collections at <http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/archmss.html>.

Thomas J. Misa

Update CBI–Los Alamos HPC History The spring 2014 CBI Newsletter announced the commencement of a multi-year collaborative research effort by the Charles Babbage Institute and the High-Performance Computing Division at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). In the months and years to come, perhaps we will become accustomed to such terse locutions as CBI LANL HPC, but for now we present a brief update on the promising results already evident from this summer’s work. LANL’s Carolyn Connor came to CBI in the fall of 2013 with an inquiry about setting up this partnership. She, along with the director of the High-Performance Computing Division at LANL, Gary Grider, as well as LANL’s Jeff Johnson form the senior staff of the history project. Additional LANL staff contribute web programming, scanning, and archival skills and talents. Nicholas Lewis, now a third year Ph.D. student in history of science and technology at the University of Minnesota, and CBI director Tom Misa are the academic partners. This summer Nic Lewis spent a productive two months in residence at Los Alamos, working closely with the HPC history team. Among his notable achievements were creating a working collaboration between historians and computer specialists, conducting a dozen oral histories with LANL staff members, exploring the lab’s unique archival resources, and setting a firm foundation for future work. Especially consequential is an agreement between the HPC Division and the LANL archive to provide full access to the range of valuable materials, stretching back to the collections of Nicolas Metropolis and other laboratory notables. This agreement ensures a

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rare degree of access to the wide range of computing activities undertaken at Los Alamos since its founding in 1943. In addition to these invaluable in-person interactions, Nic also prepared a public talk that he gave at Los Alamos and reprised at the recent SHOT-SIGCIS workshop as “Computing Behind the Red Line: The HPC History Project at Los Alamos.” He also prepared a 60-page report on the history of networking at Los Alamos, a fascinating counterpart to the familiar ARPANET and Internet stories. Los Alamos, owing to its highly secure and classified mission, had unique requirements for networking technologies and has also played a behind-the-scenes role in setting standards for super-fast networking. Another lesson from this summer, perhaps more subtle, is the need to proceed with caution and care. Simply granting an outsider the “need to know” across the range of laboratory activities was highly unusual for the normally compartmentalized LANL research culture. Access to classified or secret materials has its own special considerations, of course. Nic’s presentations this summer and for the SIGCIS workshop were reviewed by LANL for public access. In the longer term – and one stresses the point – the goal is to make accessible not only LANL’s storied history in high-performance computing but also the raw materials on which this history is based. A model that has been helpful is Anne Fitzpatrick’s 1998 Virginia Tech dissertation entitled, “Igniting The Light Elements: The Los Alamos Thermonuclear Weapon Project, 1942-1952.” Her chapter 2 specifically discusses computing as a bottleneck to the development of fission and fusion technology.

Thomas J. Misa

Tom Misa at LANL consulting with HPC history project members Aaron Caldwell and Nic Lewis.

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Update CBI-Sloan Project and “Tripling Women’s Participation in Computing” In the spring 2014 CBI Newsletter we announced a second major new research effort at the Charles Babbage Institute. “Tripling Women’s Participation in Computing (1965-1985)” is funded for an 18-month period by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation in order to investigate a little-known and under-appreciated moment in computing. From the mid-1960s through the mid-1980s, computing was a technical and professional field that was singularly hospitable to women. The proportion of women gaining computer science undergraduate degrees literally tripled from 1967 to the mid-1980s, from 12 to 37 percent, while the proportion of women in the white-collar professional IT workforce climbed impressively as well, topping out in the mid-1980s at 38 percent. The CBI volume Gender Codes (Wiley-IEEE Computer Society 2010) examined these and other statistical trends.

CBI is investigating the 1965-85 period with the aim of better understanding not only what attracted women into computing during these years but also what happened subsequently. From the mid 1980s women’s participation in computing, by nearly every possible measure, fell precipitously. The widely respected Taulbee Survey, sponsored by the Computing Research

= % Female CS bachelor’s enrollments (left scale); bar = total CS enrollments (right scale) Data from NSF Science and Engineering Degrees 1966–2010 (NSF 13-327; June 2013), data table 33 (data missing for 1999); available at <www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf13327/>

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Association (CRA), reported women earning just 11.7 percent of undergraduate CS degrees in 2010-11. For the CRA member computer-science department that had averaged 400 CS majors around 2000-2, the fall-off to 200 CS majors by 2007 was worrisome indeed. In this preliminary study, CBI is investigating the gender dynamics of the computing industry. Will Vogel, a third-year Ph.D. student in the history of science and technology at the University of Minnesota, spent the summer examining CBI archival and print materials to create a baseline for further analysis. His assessment took into account advertisements, editorials, and features from the trade journal Datamation as well as recruiting materials from CBI’s Burroughs and Control Data collections. His paper, “Shifting Attitudes: Women in Computing, 1965-1985,” presented at the recent SHOT SIGCIS workshop, is here with the accompanying images here. In the coming year, our research project will continue its investigation by conducting 30 oral history interviews with women who worked at AT&T/Bell Laboratories, Lockheed-Martin, and IBM. Even though the representation of women in computing today remains at low levels, this historical study’s emphasis should (as Will put it) contribute to “discussions which often seem to treat the gender dimensions of contemporary computing as ahistorically timeless.”

Thomas J. Misa

SHOT 2014 The Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) held its annual meeting this year in Dearborn, Michigan, a few miles west of the Motor City, on November 6th through 9th. The conference had a Thursday evening opening reception at the Henry Ford Museum with plenary speaker David Nye presenting a thoughtful address outlining his eight-part definition of the history of technology. SHOT took advantage of the location to offer a tour of the Ford Rouge Factory as well as a Detroit bus tour examining elements of “Ruins and Rebirth” in the city’s landscape, narrated by past Technology and Culture editor and da Vinci medalist, historian John Staudenmaier. The Charles Babbage Institute (CBI) and the University of Minnesota’s History of Science, Technology, and Medicine Graduate Program (HSTM) were well represented on both the SHOT program and at the society’s (Sunday) Special Interest Group for Computers, Information, and Society (SIGCIS) workshop. And overall, between both the SHOT program and the SIGCIS workshop there were more than 50 papers on information technology history. On the first morning of the general program, CBI director Tom Misa chaired and commentated on a session entitled “Conceptualizing Computing.” At a session on the history of technology and criminality, CBI associate director Jeffrey Yost presented “The March of IDES: The Advent and Early History of Intrusion Detection Expert Systems.” Yost also participated in the IEEE Annals of the History of Computing editorial board meeting held immediately before SHOT in

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Dearborn. HST associate professor Jennifer Alexander chaired and commented at a SHOT session, “The Sacred and the Unseen,” exploring the history of religion and technology, and other aspects of the cultural and intellectual history of technology. Attending his first SHOT meeting, CBI archivist Arvid Nelsen presented a paper at SIGCIS on his ongoing research project on the history of computer-based automation—offering important perspectives on underrepresented voices in 20th century automation debates. In addition to outlining his research and analysis, he also contextualized his study within his Social Issues in Computing collecting initiative. With the latter effort, Nelsen has brought to the CBI Archives many fascinating books, magazines, newsletters, and ephemera to greatly enhance opportunities for studying labor, race, gender, sexuality, and other social and cultural topics in computing. HSTM graduate students were also busy presenting scholarship at SHOT and SIGCIS. Jonathan Clemens and Nicholas Lewis presented papers at both events and William Vogel gave a SIGCIS paper. On the SHOT general program Lewis presented, “Gorbachev’s Gamble: The Personal Computer, Glasnost, and the Fall of the Soviet Union,” which like Yost’s paper, is a product of CBI’s NSF-sponsored Computer Security History Project. At SIGCIS, Lewis presented work from the Los Alamos National Laboratories High Performance Computing History Project, a partnership of LANL and the Charles Babbage Institute. Lewis spent this past summer at LANL on this ongoing project, engaging in archival research, conducting oral histories, and producing online LANL history resources. Drawing on his dissertation research on the history of video arcades, University of Minnesota HSTM ABD student Jonathan Clemens presented a SHOT paper entitled, “Defining Play: Mediators in the Rise and Fall of Video Arcades.” And at SIGCIS, Clemens, in a session “At the Interfaces: Users and Games,” offered “‘The Most Blatant Testimony We Have to American Waste’: Moral Panic and Video Arcade Games 1978-1983.” University of Minnesota HSTM graduate student William Vogel took part in a works-in-progress SIGCIS session presenting “Shifting Attitudes: Women in Computing, 1965-1985.” This draws from research Vogel did as the GSRA on CBI’s Sloan Foundation-sponsored project on gender and the history of computing. SIGCIS held its traditional lunch on Friday. Outgoing chair Thomas Haigh made some brief comments, and led the fundraising book auction with his usual wit and flair. Haigh’s excellent leadership has contributed to the rapid SIGCIS membership growth (with more than 400 now on the listserv), securing endowment funding, and a range of programmatic activities—particularly full-day Sunday workshops, a useful listserv, travel grants to early-stage scholars, and various online resources. He announced that there will now be a new, endowed annual article prize in the name of the late Princeton University historian Michael Mahoney, a scholar who

University of Minnesota HSTM doctoral student Nicholas Lewis presents his research on Los Alamos at SIGCIS.

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distinguished himself with many path-breaking history and historiography articles on computing and software. The leadership of SIGCIS remains in excellent hands, with Stevens Institute of Technology’s historian Andrew Russell taking over the chair. Russell—like Haigh a past CBI/Tomash Fellow—led a portion of the lunch program and shared with Haigh the planning of this year’s SIGCIS Workshop. On Sunday SIGCIS opening plenary speaker, MIT’s Jennifer Light, offered a rich discussion on different disciplines and literatures making important contributions to the history of computing, and what we can learn from interdisciplinary perspectives and methods moving forward. Following her impressive talk, Light led a lively conversation with the audience. Russell announced the winner of the Computer History Museum SIGCIS Book Prize, Janet Abbate’s Recoding Gender: Women’s Changing Participation in Computing (MIT, 2012). As the prize committee notes, Abbate’s book “uses women’s day-to-day experiences to reveal the obstacles encountered and the strategies developed by women to carve out a professional career as corporate programmer, software entrepreneur, or academic computer scientist.” The work draws heavily on dozen of oral histories Abbate conducted with women pioneers in computing and software, all of which are publicly available online from the IEEE History Center and significantly enhance infrastructure for studies on gender and computing. Overall, SHOT’s regular program had a total of 31 IT history papers: Steven Anderson (University of California, Riverside) “The Digital Imaginary: Mainframe Computers from the Corporate Basement to the Silver Screen, 1946-1968,” Nathan Brewer (IEEE History Center) “Wikis and Public History: A Case Study of the IEEE Global History Network,” Christian F. Casper (University of Michigan) “Immutable to Mutable Mobiles: The History of Publishing Technology and New Research Frontiers in Actor-Network Theory,” Jonathan Clemens (University of Minnesota) “Defining Play: Mediators in the Rise and Fall of Video Arcades,” Gerardo Con Diaz (Yale University) “Making Everyone a Pirate: Software, Photocopiers, and the Politics of Copyright Reform in the 1970s,” Paul N. Edwards (University of Michigan) “Mesozoic Theater: Representing Global Climate Change Fast and Slow,” Brad Fidler and Andrew Russell (University of California, Los Angeles and Stevens Institute of Technology, respectively) “Revisiting the First Generation of Internet Histories: ARPA and the ARPANET,” Benjamin Gross (Chemical Heritage Foundation) “Solid State in the Garden State: Material Innovation at New Jersey Start-Ups, 1968-2002,” Shane Hamilton (University of Georgia) “The Digital History Project, ‘History on the Move’,” James A. Hodges (Rutgers University) “Self-Appointed Stewards: Unreleased Software and Unofficial Preservation,” Kevin D. Impellizeri (University of Delaware) “‘Wake up, Mom and Dad—This Isn’t Pac-Man Anymore’: Video Games and Moral Panic 1993-1994,” Tae-Ho Kim (Hanyang University) “Reinterpreting Vulnerability as Originality: Legacies of Korean Mechanical Typewriter and New Typography

Incoming SIGCIS chair Andrew Russell

Current SIGCIS chair Thomas Haigh with incoming chair Andrew Russell. Photo courtesy of Tom Haigh.

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for Personal Computers,” Ian S. King (University of Washington) “History of the General Purpose Computer: An Issue of Unit of Analysis?”, Virginia Kleist and Nanda Surendra (both at West Virginia University) “Data Visualization and the Churchill War Cabinet Rooms,” Nicholas Lewis (University of Minnesota) “Gorbachev’s Gamble: The Personal Computer, Glasnost, and the Fall of the Soviet Union,” Peter Liebhold (Smithsonian Institute) “Collecting the History of Technology through Social Media,” William Lockett (New York University) “The ’99 Half-Life Mod Expo: Genre, Digital Games, and the Field of Computation,” Suzanne Lommers (Foundation for the History of Technology) and Johan Schot (Sussex University) “Inventing Europe: A Digital Science and Technology Museum Inventing Europe,” Michael McGovern (University of Cambridge) “A Remarkable Social Device: MOLGEN and the Textual Practices of Bioinformatics,” Megan Prelinger (Prelinger Library and Archives) “Typographic Design as a Medium for Self-Definition in the Field of Computer Science,” Joy Rankin (Yale University) “The Paradox of Users: Producing Gender and Consuming Computing,” Anirban Ray (University of North Carolina, Wilmington) “Mentalities of Digital Technics: An Alternative History of the Internet and Computer Technologies in India,” Matthew Jared Schandler (Lehigh University) “Xboxes as Black Boxes: Advertising Incremental Innovations in Home Consoles as Radical Breakthroughs, 1976-2006,” Peter Shulman (Case Western Reserve University) “The Digital History Project, ‘HistOpinion’ (Twitter),” Asif Siddiqi (Fordham University) “The Virtuosity of Playing Computers: Detroit Techno, Nine Inch Nails, and the (Mis)use of Technologies,” Rebecca Slayton (Cornell University) “Efficient, Secure, Green: Digital Utopianism and the Challenge of a ‘Smart’ Grid,” James Smithies (University of Canterbury) “Connecting the Periphery: A History of Computing in New Zealand, 1950-2000,” Susan V. Spellman (Miami University) “Technology Adoption from the Bottom Up: The Case of the Cash Register,” Paul J. Springer (Air Command and Staff College) “A Rapid Resort to Remotely-Controlled Violence: The Rhetoric and Reality of Unmanned Weapon Systems,” Kyle Stine (University of Iowa) “CAD and the History of Computer Animation,” Ramesh Subramanian (Quinnipiac University) “The Evolution of Signaling and Information Technology in the Indian Railways,” HungYin Tsai (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) “The Political Economy of Digital Games: The International Dynamics of East Asia,” Marc Weber (Computer History Museum) “Use It or Lose It: Historiography and the Preservation of the Online World,” Jeffrey R. Yost (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota) “The March of IDES: The Advent and Early History of Intrusion Detection Expert Systems.” SHOT’s SIGCIS Workshop papers: Jennifer Light (MIT) [Opening Plenary] “Computing and the Big Picture: A Keynote Conversation,” Steve Anderson (University of California, Riverside) “The Digital Imaginary: Mainframe Computers from the Corporate Basement to the Silver Screen, 1946-1968,” William Aspray (University of Texas, Austin) “How to Frame a Study of the History of IT Education and Its Relation to Broadening Participation in the IT Workforce in the United States,” Ekaterina Babintseva (University of Pennsylvania) “Between Life and Mechanism: the Notion of Information in Warren McCulloch’s Theory,” Margarita Boenig-Lipsin (Harvard University) “Making the Citizen of the Information Age: A Comparative Study of Computer Literacy Programs for Children, 1960s-1990s,” Alex Campolo (New York University) “White-Collar Foragers: Ecology, Economics, and Logics of Information Visualization,” Michael Castelle (University of Chicago) “Making Markets Durable: Transaction Processing in Finance and Commerce,” Paul Ceruzzi (Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum) “The SHOT/AHA Series on Historical Perspectives on Technology, Culture, and Society: What Should a Booklet on Computing and Information Technologies Contain,” Beatrice Choi (Northwestern University) “Ser Tecnico: Localized Technology Transfer, Emerging

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Technical Actors, and the Brazilian Computer Industry,” Jonathan Clemens (University of Minnesota) “‘The Most Blatant Testimony We Have to American Waste’: Moral Panic and Video Arcade Games, 1978-1983,” Gerardo Con Diaz (Yale University) “Embodied Software: Patents and Software Development, 1946-1970,” Andrew Gansky (University of Texas, Austin) “The Meaning of Life in the Automated Office,” Chuck House (InnovaScapes) “The Cisco Heritage Project,” Kimon Keramidas (Bard Graduate Center) “The Interface Experience,” James Lehning (University of Utah) “Technological Innovation and Commercialization: The University of Utah Computer Science Department, 1965-1975,” Nicholas Lewis (University of Minnesota) “Computing Behind the Red Line: The HPC History Project at Los Alamos,” Katherine McFadden (University of South Carolina) “Hand Sewn Computing: Women’s Hobbies, Needlework and Computer Electronics,” Michael McGovern (University of Cambridge) “Re-Framing Power Relations in the Historiography of Computing: Examples from Early Medical Genetics and Computer User Groups,” William McMillan (Concordia University) “Technical Trends in the History of Operating Systems,” R. Arvid Nelsen (Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota) “Debates on Automation in the 20th Century: Interpreting New Sources at CBI,” Lav Varshney (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign) “Block Diagrams in Information Theory: Drawing Things Closed,” William Vogel (University of Minnesota) “Shifting Attitudes: Women in Computing, 1965-1985,” Barbara Walker (University of Nevada, Reno) “Gossip, Storytelling, and the Spread of Innovation: The von Neumann and Lebedev Computer Projects in Comparison.”

Jeffrey R. Yost

50th Anniversary of the Business History Society of Japan The Business History Society of Japan held its annual conference in Tokyo. To heighten worldwide participation in this 50th anniversary event many of the sessions were in English. Researchers from many countries—including Korea, China, Thailand, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Norway, and the United States—along with Japanese scholars presented in sessions that spanned many geographies and ranged in theme from the history of comparative economic systems and corporate strategy to the history of technology transfer and business and economic historiography.

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CBI associate director Jeffrey Yost participated in a session on inter-firm relationships that was chaired by Patrick Fridenson (École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales—EHESS). Yost’s paper, “The Early History of U.S. Inter-firm Organizational Cooperation with Computer Security,” explored the critical role of computer/software user groups (focused on IBM Share) and quasi-user groups/professional organizations (particularly the Computer Security Institute) in the origin and early trajectory of the computer security software products industry in the United States. His paper also addressed the political economy of computer security, both

with the role of the federal government (the Department of Defense and National Security Agency) in setting standards and establishing a certification infrastructure for secure or trusted operating systems, as well as the meanings and ramifications of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977. The former had modest impact on the production and use of trusted operating systems in the second half of the 1980s, while the latter strongly influenced the purchase (though not always the full use) of add-on software products from mid-to-late 1970s forward (particularly IBM’s RACF and SKK’s ACF2). Other papers in the session included Florian Woltering (Aachen University) “Between Competition and Cooperation: The German Rental Car Business After World War II,” and Harm G. Schröter (Bergen University) “Competition and Cooperation or Why Was Japan Not Included into the International Dyestuffs Cartel 1929-1939: A New Explanation Based on Communication Theory.” The four-hour closing plenary session richly explored business historiography in different thematic and spatial contexts. It included keynote speaker Takeo Kikkawa (Hitotsubashi University) surveying the past 50 years as well as the future of Japanese business history, Harm Schröter on European business historiography, Mira Wilkins (Florida International University) on space and time, and finance for the multinational enterprise, and Young-Ryeol Park’s (Yonsei University) overview of business history in Korea. Four discussants responded to the papers: Takeshi Abe (Kokushikan University), Patrick Fridenson, Janet Hunter (London School of Economics), and Etsuo Abe (Meiji University).

BHSJ Keynote speaker: Takeo Kikkawa (Hitosubashi University)

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Serving History: A Pre-History of a Computer Simulation Eventually Known as Tennis For Two (Norberg Grant) In 2008 I began researching the history of an obscure computer simulation of tennis designed at Brookhaven National Laboratory by William A. Higinbotham, David Potter, and Robert V. Dvorak Sr. in 1958. The game – executed on a Donner Model 30 analog computer and displayed on a 5-inch DuMont cathode-ray oscilloscope – was a novel invention to excite visitors at the lab’s annual Visitor’s Day. According to Higinbotham’s notes and the personal memory of Dvorak Jr (who tested the game with his father in 1958) the game was a hit with lines extending out the door. This was the first time that a computer game was played by a general public as opposed to research institution personnel. The game was given a slight face-lift in 1959 via the utilization of a 10-15-inch oscilloscope in anticipation of large crowds and an accompanying title card bearing the name, “Computer Tennis.” After that the game was disassembled, its various component parts put into service on other lab projects. The “hard evidence” of the game’s mid-century life span has mainly been two surviving photographs, a few schematics, a deposition penned by Higinbotham, and his notes entitled, “The Brookhaven TV-Tennis Game.” Only a handful of brief (and obscure) articles have covered the game’s history and the field of Game Studies has dedicated only a few paragraphs to its general historicism. Few archives hold any related materials. The game has mainly “lived on” via the recreation efforts of Brookhaven physicist Peter Takacs, who rendered Higinbotham’s game playable to a new public at the 50th anniversary of the lab in 1997 and again in 2008 to mark the 50th anniversary of the game. I have contributed to the documentation of Higinbotham’s invention by dedicating a Game Studies collection in his memory at Stony Brook University and have covered both the challenges of evidencing the game and Takacs’ recreation efforts in my recent book, Game After: A Cultural Study of Video Game Afterlife (MIT Press, 2014). My time at the Charles Babbage Institute in May 2014 was devoted to my next major research project on the playable computer simulation of tennis eventually known as Tennis For Two: a pre-history of the invention. “Invention” is rarely a singular inspired event. My project seeks to arrange the various actors and events formative of the moment in 1958 when the public directly controlled the trajectory of a “ball” moving across a screen. I went to CBI to access the William A. Higinbotham Papers, 1948-1955, but, more importantly perhaps, to begin to consider how to assemble the “cast” for this particular project: early experimental human-machine interactive games prior to Tennis For Two; the Donner Scientific Company (that became Systron-Donner in 1960) with special emphasis on documenting its rare Model 30 analog computer (seemingly impossible to find its manual); Philbrick germanium transistors used in the game’s “fast-switching” circuit; Higinbotham’s research on radar and targeting systems conducted at MIT in the 1940s; the scientific research culture at Brookhaven during the 1950s; and the types of projects assigned to analog computers during the early Cold War. Being immersed in the documents of computer history, with direct access to knowledgeable historians and curators, proved the perfect starting point for this incredibly challenging project of writing a history with so little materials. CBI also taught me something that I did not expect: this pre-history of a novelty computer simulation will also be a history of semiconductors. Such a realization will

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introduce invaluable knowledge (if not new methodological rigor) to the study of video game history by aligning it with a larger cultural and technological history of computing.

Raiford Guins Associate Professor of Culture and Technology, Stony Brook University

raiford.guins@stonybrook.edu

Recent Publications Aspray, William, Melissa G. Ocepek, and George Royer. “On Cars and Food: Reflections on Sources for the Historical Study of Everyday Information Behavior.” Information and Culture 49:4 (Nov.-Dec. 2014): 492-525. Brenner, Susan W. Cyberthreats and the Decline of the Nation-State (New York: Routledge, 2014). Campbell-Kelly, Martin. “The History of Computing in Colour: A Picture Essay.” International Journal for the History of Engineering and Technology 84:2 (July 2014): 175-210. Campbell-Kelly, Martin. “Knuth and the Spectrum of History” [Comments, Queries, and Debates]. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:3 (July-Sept. 2014): 96. Ceruzzi, Paul. “Are Historians Failing to Tell the Real Story About the History of Computing?” [Think Piece]. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:3 (July-Sept. 2014): 94-95. Gotkin, Kevin. “When Computers were Amateur.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:2 (April-June 2014): 4-15. Haigh, Thomas, Mark Priestley, and Crispin Rope. “Engineering ‘The Miracle of the ENIAC’: Implementing the Modern Code Paradigm.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:2 (April-June 2014): 41-59. Haigh, Thomas, Mark Priestley, and Crispin Rope. “Los Alamos Bets on ENIAC: Nuclear Monte Carlo Simulations, 1947-1948.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:3 (July-Sept. 2014):42-63. Hemmendinger, David. “COMIC: An Analog Computer in the Colorant Industry.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:3 (July-Sept. 2014): 4-18. Houk, K. N. and Lui Peng. “Using Computational Chemistry to Understand and Discover Chemical Reactions.” Daedalus 143:4 (Fall 2014): 49-66. Isaacson, Walter. The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014).

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Molina, Eduardo Perez. “The Technological Roots of Computer Graphics.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:3 (July-Sept. 2014): 30-41. Mounier-Kuhn, Pierre. “The Archives of the French Computer Industry.” Entreprises et Histoire 75 (June 2014): 120-123. Mounier-Kuhn, Pierre. “Des Centraliens dans une Multinationale Informatique: L’Implantation Européenne de Control Data” in D. Barjot and J.-L. Bordes, eds. Ingénieurs Etrangers en France et Français à L'Etranger, L’Aventure des Centraliens (Paris, PUPS, 2014). Mounier-Kuhn, Pierre. “From General Electric to Bull: A Case for Managerial Knowledge Transfer.” Entreprises et Histoire 75 (June 2014): 42-56. Nofre, David. “Managing the Technological Edge: The UNESCO International Computation Centre and the Limits of the Transfer of Computer Technology.” Annals of Science 71:4 (Oct. 2014). Rankin, Joy. “Toward a History of Social Computing: Children, Classrooms, Campuses, and Communities” [Think Piece]. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:2 (April-June 2014): 86-88. Saarikoski, Petri and Markku Reunanen. “Great Northern Machine Wars: Rivalry Between User Groups in Finland.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:2 (April-June 2014): 16-27. Subramanian, Ramesh. “Technology Policy and National Identity: The Microprocessor Comes to India.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:3 (July-Sept. 2014): 19-29. Tatnall, Arthur and Bill Davey, eds. Reflections on the History of Computers in Education: Early Use of Computers and Teaching About Computing in Schools (Berlin: Springer, 2014). Ullmann, Bernd. AN/FSQ-7: The Computer that Shaped the Cold War (Berlin: De Gruyter, Oldenbourg, 2014). Walden, David and the ‘IMP Software Guys.’ “The Arpanet IMP Program: Retrospective and Resurrection.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 36:2 (April-June 2014): 28-40. Yu, Howard H. and Willy C. Shih. “Taiwan’s PC Industry, 1976-2010: The Evolution of Organizational Capabilities.” Business History Review 88:2 (Summer 2014): 329-357.

Compiled by Jeffrey R. Yost

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Featured Photo

From CBI’s growing book collection on the history of computer security, a diagram illustrating the ring-bracket concept from The Multics System: An Examination of Its Structure by Elliot I. Organick (MIT Press, 1972).