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Contact Details: Sales andService Department JeppesenGmbH Frankfurter Strasse 233 63263Neu-Isenburg Germany Tel:++49 (0)6102 5070 E-mail: fra-services@jeppesen.com For further information onproducts andservices fromJeppesen, visit our website at: www.jeppesen.com JA31 01 03-000 11 JeppesenSandersonInc., 2004 AllRightsReserved ISBN 088487-353-6Printedin Germany PREFACE___________________ Asthe worldmovestowardasinglestandard forinternationalpilot licensing, manynations have adoptedthesyllabiandregulationsof the"JointAviationRequirements-FlightCrewLicensing" (JAR-FCL),thelicensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). 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II I Table o/COnlellIS CHAPTER 1 BasicRadioTheory WaveMotion ................................................................................ ....... ............. ................................. 1-1 Introducti on ....................................................................... .......................... .. ................................. 1-1 Electro-Magneti c Waves ........................................................................................................................... 1-2 Properti esof Radio Waves ............................................................................................................. ........ .... 1-2 Refracti on,Diffraction,andReflection ...................................................................................................... .. 1-2 Relationship betweenFrequency, Wavelength,andVelocity .................... ...... .............. ............................ .. 1-3 Phase Difference......... ............................. .............. ................................. ... . ........................ 1-5 Radio Spectrum .......................... ......................... ............... ........ ........................... 1-6 WavePropagation...................... .............. ........ .......... .......... .......... .............................. 1-7 Surface Wave ......... .... ....................... ............... ........ ................................ 1-8 Typeof Surface.................................................................................................... ..... ................... 1-8 Sky Wave................................................................ ............................................................................. 1-9 Critical Angle.. ............ .. .................. ................................................... ........ ...... 1-9 DeadSpace.. . ................................................... ................................... ...... ....... 1-10 TheIonosphere...... .................................... ........................ ............................ ... .......... ... 1-10 Frequency andSkipDistance .............. ................................................... ..................... 1-11 Ionisation andSki p Distance............ ................................................... .......... ...... 1-11 Space Wave......................................................................... ............ ...... ................ ............................... 1- 11 DuctPropagation.................. ..................... ...................... ..... .................. 1-12 Aerial s................................................. ............................................................ ..... ..... ... 1-13 Aerial Characteristics ...................................................... .......... ...... ....... ... 1-13 Aerial Length...... .......... ............................ .............. .. .............................................. .......... ............ 1-14 Polar Diagrams ............................................................................................ ............ ....... ....... 1-14 Omni-Directional Aerials................................... ............ . ............ .. ............................ ......... 1-14 SimpleHalf-Wave Dipole .............................. ............................................. .. .... 1-14 Marconi Quarter WaveAerial....................................................... ....... 1-1 4 AerialFeeders ................................................................. .......... ....... ................. .. ............. ....... 1-1 5 AerialDirectivity....................................... . ........ ............ .. ..................... . ................... .... ..... 1-15 Modulation ............................................................ ...... ........... ...... 1-17 Keying.............. ...... ............... ........ .............................................1 -17 Amplitude Modulation(AM)....... ........... ............ ...... ........ ............................ ............... ............................ 1-19 Frequency Modulation(FM)................................................................................ ... ... 1-20 PulseModulation(PM).... ...... ...................................................... .... ............ ......................... 1-20 Classificationof Emissions ..... ................. ........... ............................................... ........ .............................. 1-21 Basic Radar Theory............................................ ................................. ........... .... 1-21 Radar Frequencies ......................... ............... ........................... ...... ...... ........... ......................... 1-22 Principles ...................................... ................................ .... .......................... ...... 1-22 PulseRadars.......................................... ......................... .............. ................ .. ...... ...... ...... . 1-22 Radar DirectionFinding .............................................. .................................................. ........ ..... 1-23 Lobe Comparison........ ............ ....................... ............. ............................... ........ ... 1-24 BeamDirectionFinding ..................... .. .................. . .................. ............................. 1-24 Radar Terminology........ .................................................................................................. 1-24 Choice of Frequency........................................................... ....................................... ...... ...... ..... 1-26 Radi o NavigationVII - -- -- - --------Table o/Contents CHAPTER 2 VHFDirectionFinding Introduction ...................... ....................................................................................................... 2-1 Principles of Operation ........................... ......................... ......................................................................... 2-1 Frequency ......................................................... .......... ............................................................................. 2-1 EmissionCharacteristics......... ............................... ..... ........ . ................................. ......... 2- 1 Operation ..................................... .............. .......... ....................................................... ........... .............. 2-2 Services ..... ... .... .................................. ... ............................................. ..... ................................. 2-2 Siting .................................................. ....................... ... ........... ..... ................................... 2-2 ReceivingaBearing........... ........................ .... .................................. ................... .. ................... ... ...2-2 AskingFor a Bearing ........................... ........................ ............... .............................................................. 2-3 PositionFix................ ............ .... ....................... .... .......................... ............. ................................ 2-3 VDF Approach ..... ............ ......................................................................................................................... 2-3 DecodingtheChart .................... ............................................................... .. .............................................. 2-5 Part1 - Administration .. ................ ................................................. ........ ................................... . 2-5 Part 2 - ThePlanView .............................................................................................................................. 2-6 Part 3 - TheElevationView ............ ........ ........... .................. ........................ ........... ................................ 2-7 Refusal of Service............................. ............................................................................. ...................... 2-7 Automatic VDF .......... ................................................................................................................................. 2-7 RangeandErrors ......................... ............................................................................................................. 2-8 CHAPTER 3 Non-DirectionalBeacons and AutomaticDirectionFinding Introduction ............... ................................................... ...... ......................... .......................... 3-1 Principles of Operation......... ................................. ............................ ..................................................... 3-1 Frequency.. .. ... ............................................................................................................ ..... .............. 3-1 EmissionCharacteristics ........................ .......... .. .. ........... ........... .............. ........................................ ........ 3-1 Loop Theory ...................... ............. . ...................... ...................... ............................................ 3-2 Sensing ................................................................. .......... .......................................................................... 3-3 NDBOperation ...................... ..... ....................................................... .................................... 3-3 ADF Operation ............................ ...... .......................................................................................... 3-4 BearingDetermination... ........................................................ ........ ........................................ ..................... 3-5 ~ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M Control Panels andIndicators ..................................................................................................................... 3-6 ControlPanel ...... .. ................... .................................................................................................................. 3-6 TEST Switch .............. ................................................................................................................................ 3-7 BearingIndicators .................... ....................... ............... ...................................................................... .... ..3-7 Relative BearingIndicator (RBI ) ....................... ..................... ........................ ................................. ............ 3-7 RadioMagnetic Indicator (RMI )........................... ............... ............ .................... ......................... .... 3-9 Direct WaveLimitations........................... ........ ................. ....................... ................................. ....... ........ 3-9 Sky Wave Limitations................. ....... ....................... ............................... .............. 3-10 Night Effect ........................ .............................................. .. ............................. ........................... 3-10 Errorsof theADF ..................... .... ............ . .......................................... .......... .......... ...... 3-11 Quadrantal Error .................. .......... .................................................................. .... ................. ........3-11 Dip (Bank)Error ........................................................................... ............ .....3-11 CoastalRefraction.............................. ......... ............................................... ...... ...........................3-12 MultipathSignals............. ..................................... ......... ..................... ............. ......................... ........3-12 Noise... ............................. .........................................................................................................3-13 Synchronous Transmission..................... ............................ ........................ ............................................ 3-14 PromulgatedRange........ ............ .............................................. ...... ................................... .......3-14 Absence of Failure Warning ..................................................................................................................... 3-14 Accuracy........ ........... . ..................... ......... ....................... ..................... ........................................... 3-14 VII IRadi o Navigation / - . ---------- -- --------------Tableo/Contents CHAPTER 4 NOBNavi gation Introduction ......... ...... ... ............... . ................................................ ........................................ .4-1 ADF Bearing............. ............ ................................... ............... ... ..... ................... 4-1 Line of Position (LOP) UsingtheRBI. ........................ ........ ....................................... .... .......... .4-1 Li ne ofPosition(LOP)UsingtheRMI................... ... ............................................................................ .4-2 Homing . .............. .............................................. ................................................................................... .4-2 Intercepti ng a Course ............................................................................................................................... .4-3 Inboundto theBeacon ........ ......... ...... .......................................................................... ......... ...... .4-4 OutboundFromtheBeacon.......... ......... .... .................... .. ............................. .. ................................... .4-5 Tracking ............ ................................ ................ ................ .. ......................................... ......... .4-7 NOBApproach ........... .......................................................... .................. .................. .4-9 Part 1 Administration ............................................... ....... ........................................................................ .4-10 Part2 thePlanView ................... ....... .......................................................................................................4-11 Part 3 theElevationView................................. ......................................................... ...... ............. .4-12 Part 4Limits and Other Information ................................ ...... .................................. .... ....... .4-12 CHAPTER 5 VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR) Introduction ........ ................. . .............................. .. ............................................ ......... ...... 5-1 Principle of Operation ............ .............................................. ......................................... ............ 5-1 Frequency ............ ..... ...............................................................................................................................5-1 Polari sation ......................... . ... ..... .......... ..... ...... .............................................. ............ 5-1 Emission Characteri stics ............. ................................................................... ............................... 5-1 Conventional VOR ...................... .......... ... ........ ........... ....... ............. .. ................ 5-2 Reference Signal ................................ ............. ............ ........... ......... .................... ...... ........... ......... 5-2 Variable Signal ........ .. .. .............. ....... ............. ... .................................................. ............ 5-2 Ai rcraftRecei ver ... ................................................................................................................................... 5-2 BearingMeasurement......................... ..... .................................................................................5-2 Aircraft Equipment ....................... ... ............................................................................................ ........... 5-3 Aeri al..... .......... .... ........................ ............... ...... .......... .............. ................................. 5-3 Receiver ........... ............... ...... . .... ......... .......... ........ .. .. ............... ............ .... ,. .. ...... ........ _ ................. 5-3 Frequency Selector... ................ ........ ........................... .......................................................... 5-3 Indicators ............................... ... ..............................................................................................................5-4 ~ ~ ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ Terrai n .......... .............................................................................................................................. .... 5-4 DesignatedOperati onal Coverage(DOC).... ... ................... .. .... ......... .... .......... ............... ..... ........... 5-4 Cone of Confusion or Cone of Silence............... .. ........... .......... .. .... .............. ........ ...... .5-5 Accuracy ........... ..... ............. ............ ... .... .... ... .......................................... ..................... 5-5 Airway Navigation ....................... ... ............... ...................................................... ............................ 5-6 Test VOR ........... .. .... .. ...................................... ..................................................................... ............ 5-6 Doppler VOR. ............... ................... ................ ........ . ......................... ................... ........... 5-6 Radio NavigationIX Table a/Contents CHAPTER 6 VORNavigation Introduction.................... ................. ............ ................................................................. ............................ 6-1 RadioMagnetic Indicator ............................................. ................................ ................. 6-1 Omni-Bearing Selector ........................................................................................................................ .... ....6-2 UsingtheOBS ................................................ ........................................................................... .... 6-4 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) ............................................................................................................ 6-6 VORNavigation ......... ....................... .......... .............................................................................................. 6-8 EstablishingPosition.... ..................... ....... ...................................... ............... ........................................ 6-8 Tracking a Radial InboundFroma PresentPositi on .............. ........................................ 6-8 Interceptinga Radial ............ ............ ......................... ................ .................................................... 6-8 VOR Approaches .................................................................. .. .. ............................................................... 6-9 Part1 - Administration ............................................................................................................................. 6-11 Part 2 - Plan View.... .................... ..................................................................................... 6-11 Part3 - ElevationView............................................. .............................................................................. 6-1 2 Part 4 - Notes ................................. .. .............................................................. ............................. 6-12 CHAPTER 7 Distance MeasuringEquipment (DME) Introduction .................. ........ .................................................................................. 7-1 Principle of Operation........................................ . ..................... .... 7-1 Frequency......... .................. ...................................................... ............ .............. .... 7-1 EmissionCharacteristics ..................................................... ........ 7-1 AircraftEquipment ......................................................... .............. ................................................. ... ...7-2 Transponder .......................................................... .................................................................................. 7-2 Frequency Allocation.... .. ..... .. .................... ............ ........................ ...... ........................... 7-2 JitteredPRF........................................................................................................................................ 7-3 Reflected Transmissions.................... ............................................................................. ................... 7-4 Memory..................................................................... .................................................................... 7-4 BeaconSaturation............... .......................................................................................................... 7-4 Co-Location of Beacons .................................................. ...................... ............ .......................... 7-5 Slant Range ................................................ ............................... ...... .......................... 7-6 DME Navigation .......... ................................................................................... ............................... ..7-6 DME Procedures........ ..................................................... ................... ............. .......................... 7-7 Slant Range.................... ................................................................. .... .. .... ................... 7-7 Fl ight Overhead the DME .......................................................................................................................... 7-8 Fai lureIndications ........................................ ......................................................................... .......... 7-8 Accuracy............................................................. .......................................... ..................... ..7-8 xRadi o Navigation - - - ---------------Table o/Colltents CHAPTER 8 Instrument Landing System(ILS) Introduction ....... ........................................................ ............................................................... ... 8-1 Principle of Operation ........... .............. ............................... ..................... .. ................. 8-1 Frequency ........ ................ ........... .............. 8-2 Emi ssionCharacteristics ........ .... .... ..... ......................................................... .... .. 8-2 Localiser............... .................... .... .... ........................................................................................... ... 8-2 Localiser Coverage .................................. ......... ......... ........................... ......... ... . .. ......... ........ 8-4 Glidepath .......... ............ ............... ..... .................. ........ .................................................................... .... .......... 8-5 GlidepathCoverage... ........ ........ .............. . ......... .......................................... ........................... 8-6 Ai rborne Equipment. .. . .......... ................... .... ......... ................................ .................. .. 8-6 Frequency Pairing..................................... .................................................... ........................................ 8-6 Localiser andGlidepath Receivers........ ....... ......... ...... ... .............. .... .............................................. ........... 8-7 ILS Indicator.... ............ ............... .... ........................................................................................ ........ .......... 8-7 Horizontal SituationIndicator (HSI ).......... ....... ........ ............................................ .......... ....... 8-8 ILS Accuracy................................... ...................... .............. ..... ....... ... ........ 8-9 False Beams ...... ............ .......... ...... ..........................................................8-10 Local iser BackBeam ............. . .......... .......... .........................................................................8-10 ILSPerformanceCategories............ ................. ............................................................................. ... ..... 8-13 ILS OperationalPerformance Categori es .................... ............ ............................................ .. ...... .. ...... 8-13 ProtectionRange andMonitoring......... ........ .. ..... ........................................................... . ................ ..... 8-14 Use of ILS ...... .. .. ... .. . .......... ............. ..... ...................................... ... ........ .. 8-15 ILSIdentification ........... ..... .. ... ............... ...... .................. . ..... ..................... ... ............ ....... .... ......... 8-15 Fl yingtheLocaliser......... ......... ....... .... ............ .......................................... ... 8-1 5 Flyingthe Glidepath ....... ...... ............... ........... ......... ............... ...................................... 8-15 ILS Without Glidepath ................................................................................................. .................. ... 8-16 Distance MeasuringEquipment. .. ................... .... ...................... ..................... .. ................................. 8-1 9 Rateof Descent (ROD)............. ......... ............. ........ ................. .. ........................................................ 8-19 HeightPassing on the Approach............. .. . .. .... .................. ....... ...................... ... 8-1 9 CHAPTER 9 Marker Beacons Introduction ............................................ ........... ... .............................. ....................... .... ........ ......... .. 9-1 Principle of Operation ..................................................................... ...................... .......... .......... .......... ..... 9-1 Frequency .................................................................................. ............................................................. 9- 1 Emission Characteristics ............. ..... ........... ...................................................... 9-1 Airborne Equipment ...... ............. .. .......... .................................... ........ ............ ........... ................................... 9-1 Airway Marker................. ......................... ..... ............... ..... ........ ....... .... ................. ........ ......... 9-3 GroundInstallation ...................... ..... ................. ......... ............. ................................. 9-3 CHAPTER 10 Microwave Landing System Introduction ................ ....................... .............................. ... ... ... ..... ......................... ....................... ... ..... 1 0-1 Principle of Operation................................. ......... ............ ..... ............................................ ...... ..... 10-1 Frequency..... ........................... ...... ................. ................................................... .... ........... .. ............ 10-1 Polari sation ................ ......... ........... ................. ....... .... ...... . 10-1 GroundInstall ation... ............. ..... ........ .......................................... ....... ........ . 10-2 AzimuthCoverage.... ....... ... ... ......... ... .......... ............. ...................... ..... 10-2 Elevation Coverage..... ..................... ...................................... ............. ..... ............ ........... 10-3 DME/P ........................ .......... ................ .......................... .......... ............. .......... ................................ 10-4 Back Azimuth................ ............... .... ................... ........ ............................. .. .. ... ................. 10-4 Signal TransmissionFormat ..... ......... ................................. ...... ............ ..... ............................ 10-4 TimeReferenceScanning Beam ..... ................. ......... ...................................... ............ ................. ....... .... 10-5 Angular Measurement inAzimuth andElevation ...... ................................................................................. 10-5 Airborne Equipment .. .. ............ ......... ............................................................................................. 10-6 Accuracy ..... .. ............................. ... ...................................................................... ................................... 10-6 Radio NavigationXI .--- -- - - - - --Tableo/Con/ents CHAPTER 11 Radar Principles and the Cathode Ray Tube Pulse Techniques andAssociated Terms ................................................................................................ 11 -1 The Components of a Radar Unit ............................................................................................................. 11-1 The Timebase ...... ....................... .................... ....................... ................ ................................. 11-2 TheDisplay ............................................ .................................... ........................................ ........... 11-2 The Transmitter. ......................................... .............................. ................................................. 11-2 Choice of Frequency .................................................................................................................................. 11-2 The Aerial ................................................................................................................................................ 11-4 Beamwidth ......................................................... ........................................................................... 11-4 The Receiver... ................. .................................................................................................................... 11-5 Timer - CathodeRay Tube ..... ....................................................................................................11 -6 Cathode ................................................................................................................................................. 11-6 Grid ................. ......................................................................................................................................... 11-6 Focussing Assembly ................................................................................................................................ 11-6 El ectronicBeamDeflection .................................. .................... .................. .... .... ............... ................11-7 Screen... ...................................................... .......... ................................ ....................11-7 TimeBase ......... ... ................................................... ............ ......... ................ ... .............11-7 SawTooth Voltage..................................... ......................................................................................... 11-8 Radar Performance .................................................... .................................................. 11 -8 Secondary Radar ................................................ . ..... ....... .... .................... .. .............. .........11-9 CHAPTER12 Ground Radar Introduction ...................................... ............... ... ..................................... .............12-1 LongRange SurveillanceRadar ............................................... ................... ............. ........ ......12-1 Terminal SurveillanceRadar. ...................... ............................... ........ ......... .....12-2 Aerodrome Surveillance(Approach) Radar ............................................................... .............................. 12-2 Range, Accuracy,andLimitations of SurveillanceRadar. ........................................................................ 12-3 SurveillanceRadar Procedures............... .. ............ ....................................... .........................12-3 Enroute................... ............... ....... ........................................................... .................. ................ ....12-3 Approach...................................... ...... ........................................... ...... ...... ................12-3 PrecisionApproachRadar (PAR)..................................................... .................................................. 12-4 PARProcedure .................................................................................................................... ......................12-5 AirfieldSurface Movement Indicator (ASMI) ........................................................................................... 12-6 Weather Radar ........................................................................................................................................ 12-7 CHAPTER 13 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) Introduction ............................................................. .................. .... .................................... ...........13-1 Principles of Operation ............................................................. ......................................... ..... ............13-1 Pulse Spacing ................................................................................... .............13-2 SideLobe Suppression ......................................................................................................................... 13-3 Operation ................................................................................................................................................ 13-5 SPICode ........................................................... ......................................................................... 13-6 Use of Transponder ................................................................................................................................ 13-6 PresentationandInterpretation .... .............................................................................. 13-6 Limitations ................................ ........................................................................................... ..............13-7 ~ W ~ . ................ . ........................................................1H Garbling ........................................... . ... ............................................................... ......... ..................13-7 Mode S..................................... ........................................................................................................ 13-8 Operation of Mode S ..................................................................... ............................... 13-8 ATCServices ......................... ............................ ........................................ 13-9 XliRadioNavigation -- ~ - - . - - - - - -------- -----------Table of COllleIlIs CHAPTER 14 Airborne Weather Radar (AWR) Introduction .......... .. ...... ........................ ...... .................................................. .... ... ............. ........ 14-1 Principle of Operation ............. ................... ... ............................................ ........................ ....... 14-1 Frequency.............. ..... . ..................... ...................................... .... .... ......................... 14-1 Frequency Range ... .................................. .................................................................... 14-1 AWR Aerial ............ .... ................... ........................................................................................................... 14-2 ControlPanel ..................................................... ................................... ..... ...... ....... ......................... 14-2 Power Switch and TimebaseRange Switch............................ ............................................. 14-2 FunctionSwitch..... ........................ ............. ............................................................ ......... ... 14-4 Weather Function(WEA)... ................................................................................................. 14-4 Contour Function (CON) ........................................................................................................................... 14-4 Mapping Function (MAP) .......................................................... .. .. .......................................................... 14-5 ManualFunction (MAN).......................................... .............................................................................. 14-6 Contrast ............................................................................... .... .... .................... ..................... 14-6 Manual Gain......... .. .............................................................................................. ........ ... 14-6 Tilt Control ..... ...... ........... .... ................................. ................. ............ ... ... ..... .. ...... ...... 14-6 Colour Displays.................................. ......................... ................................................ .... ... ....... . 14-7 CloudHeight Determination ...................................................... ..................... ..................................... 14-8 Shadow.......................................................................... .................................... .............. ........... 14-9 Test... ................................................................... . ........ ........................................................................ 14-9 Hold...................... .................... ............. .................. ... ....... 14-9 Target Al ert ....................................................................... ... ..................................... ... .... 14-9 Use of the Radar onthe Ground ............................ ..... . ................................................. ....... 14-9 CHAPTER15 Doppler Introduction ......... .. ... ..... .. ......................................................................................................... 15-1 Frequency ........................................................................ ............................................................... 15-1 Doppl er Effect ..... ................................................................................................ .................................... 15-1 Doppler Measurement of Groundspeed............ .................................. .............................................. 15-3 Two Beam Janus Array ............... .. .................... ... ................. .. ......................... 15-4 Further Janus Arrays ................... ....................................... .................................................. ....... 15-5 Doppler Aeri al .......... ........................................................................................................ .......... 15-6 Signal Characteristi cs ........................................... .................... ............................................ ............. 15-6 Output andPresentation ........ .... . ....... ......................... ....... .................. 15-6 AccuracyandLimitations .............. .... ... ........................... ............ ................. .. ........ ..... ..... 15-8 SeaBias............... .... ............ ........ ............... ..... ........... .... .... ...... ........... ............. 15-8 MemoryMode ....... .................. .. ................................... ................. ............................... 15-8 Pitch andRoll Error............................ .. .. .................................................................................. 15-8 Height Hole Error ...................... . ................... ......... .............. ..................................................... 15-8 SeaMovementError ....................... ................. .. ... .... ........................ ................... .................... 15-9 ComputationalErrors.. ............ ..... ... .................................................... ............................................... 15-9 HeadingError.. ......... ..................... ................................... .................. 15-9 Summary of Errors..... .... ............ ......................................... ....................... 15-9 Advantages ......... .................................................................................................. 15-9 Disadvantages .............................................................................................. ....... ..... 15-10 Radio Navigati onxi ii ~- - - - - - - - ~ -Table of Contents CHAPTER 16 Hyperbolic Navigation Introduction............................................................................ ............................ 16-1 Hyperbolic Family ................................................................... ......................................................16-1 Lines of Position(LOP) .......................................... ............. ... ........ .... .... ................. ...................... .. ... . 16-4 Errors of Hyperbolic Navigation................................................................ .............. 16-4 PropagationErrors........ ........ .................................. ..................................... .................... ................16-4 Height Error...... .......................... ................ ............................................ ............. ........ .. .....16-5 Simple Hyperbolic Calculation........ ........... .......................... ...........16-5 CHAPTER 17 LORANC Introduction ................ ...... .................................... ............................................................................. 17-1 Principle of Operation... ................................................................................. ..............................17-1 Frequency........................ ..... .. .... .. ................................................ . .... ...... ....... ...... .................17-2 TypicalLORANC Chain......... ...............................................17-2 LORANC Transmission.......................................... ................ .......... .........................................17-2 Operation.. . .......... ........................................ .... .. .. ..........17-2 Coverage,Limitations, andAccuracy........... .. ............................................... .......17-5 LORANC Coverage...................................................... ...... ........ . .......... .. ....................... ................. . 17-5 Sky Waves ..................... ...... .....................................................17-5 Static Disturbances....... ....................................................................................................... .......17-5 RadioPropagation Speed........ .......... ............ ........................................................ ...... ............ ......17-5 Geometry of Crossing Angles........................................................... .................... ..... 17-6 Use of LORANC..... .... ...................... ................................................................... ....17-6 LORANC Navigation ............................................... .... ...... ................................. .......................17-7 Transmitter FaultIndication ............................................................................. .. ......... ..... ..... .. ................. 17-7 Range andAccuracy............................................... .................................. ..... .................. ................... 17-8 Accuracy Limits...................................................... .......... ........................................... ......................17-8 CHAPTER 18 GlobalNavigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) Introduction................................................. ................................................................................ 18-1 SystemCapability .......................................... .. ........................................................... ................. ............ 18-1 Frequency.......... ................................................................. ...................... ............ .................18-2 Basic Principleof Operation ..... .. "... .... ........................................ .................................18-2 TheGPS System........................................... .... ................. .. ................ ............................... 18-4 The Space Segment .................................. .................. ............................. ... .......................................18-4 GPSTiming.. .. .................. .. ................ ..... ...... ............... ............................. 18-5 Frequency andCoding......................................................................................................... ........18-6 NavigationMessage........... .................................................................................................. ......18-7 The ControlSegment................................. ............18-8 TheUser Segment.................. .......... ........................................................ ..................18-8 GPS OperatingPrinciples ......................... ................................................................................ ...............18-9 PseudoRange... ......... ..... ......................................................... ......................... 18-10 Velocity Measurement.. .. .......... . ......................................................... ..... .. ...... ........ ............18-12 GPSReceiver..... ..... ........................................................................ .... ... ........... ............. .............18-13 SystemLimitations ............................ .. .................................................................................................... 18-14 Number of Users................................................................ ........................................ ..................18-14 Coverage....................................................................... .............................. .............. ........................... 18-14 Reliability/Integrity............................. ......... .................................................................... .........18-14 Receiver AutonomousIntegrity Monitoring(RAIM) ................ ........ .. .. .. .. .. ...... ........................................ 18-15 GPSIntegrity Broadcast (GIB) .. ......................................................................................................... ...18-1 5 CoverageProblems................................................................................................................ ...............18-15 Accuracy andError Sources... .. ...................18-1 6 Accuracy for Ci vilUse.................... ... ............. ........................ .................................................... ...........18-16 XIVRadio Navigat ion Table a/Contents User Equivalent RangeErrors.. ........ ........ ........... ....................... ...................................................... 18-16 Dilutionof Precision(DOP) ... ..... ... .................. ........................... .......................................... ........... 18-17 Error Predictions........................... ____ ................................................................................_......... 18-17 Differential GPS(DGPS) ............ _........................................................................... ............. 18-17 DGPS Principle of Operation ... ...... ...... .. .. .. ................................................ _........... .. ............ _18-18 Summary of GPS Error Sources........ .. .. .......... .. .. ........................................ .................. ............... 18-18 Pseudolite/DGPS........ .. _... .............. ........................................................................ ................. 18-19 Satellite Based Augmentati on Systems (SBAS) .................................. _.................. ......... 18-20 RAIM in the Wide Area AugmentationSystem ......................................................................................... 18-22 GLONASS......._____ ..........______ __ ............... _......... ................................................................. _.......... 18-22 Basic concepts of the GLONASSsystem .............. ................................. ....................................... 18-22 Integrated Navigati on Systems .. ...... ............................. ............ _.. .... ...................... 18-23 GNSS Applicati ons .._.................... .... .. ...... _.............. _............................................. 18-24 CHAPTER 19 AreaNavigationSystems Introduction .................. _................. _................... .. ................ .. .............................................................. 19-1 AreaNavigationConcepts ........... .. ...................... _........................................................................... _..... 19-2 Accuracy of RNAV Equipment ........ ................................................ .. .... .. ...... ............................ _19-3 Basic RNAV ......... .... .................... .... .. _............. .. _............................. ....... ........ ................................ 19-3 Use of Basic RNAV .... .......... ............ _.. ........................ ............ ........... ........ ................ .............................. 19-5 RNAV Limitati ons .... .................. ........ .............. ............. .. _...... .... ........ .... _.. 19-7 CHAPTER 20 Introduction to the Fl ight Management System (FMS) Introduction ....... ..... ................_____ .... .. ................. .. .... ............. ... ............. .......... ..................... ............ 20-1 The Role of FMS.. .. ............................................. ................. .... ........................... ........................ 20-1 Use of FMS ................................. .. ....... .................... ...... .. _.......... _............ _............................. 20-3 Output Information . ... .............. .. .. .. .............. .... .. ... .. .. .... _.............. .. .......... _.......... .. ................... ...... ......... 20-5 CHAPTER 21 An Overview of CNS/ATM Introduction ..... .... _.. ........................ .................... .. ...... .............. ........ ...... .......... .. . ... ............. .. ............... 21-1 Communicati ons ............ ...................... .. ........ .... .. ...... .......... .. .. ....... ............. ........... ...... .. .. .. _.. 21 -1 Air Traffi c Management andFANS 1 ... .... _........ ................ ...... ...... .. ...... ....... 21-1 Controller/Pilot Data Li nk Communication (CPDLC) ................................................. ......... ........ 21 -2 Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN) ............................... _.............. .. ........ .......................... 21 -3 Navigation ........................................... _.... _................................... .... ... .. ... .. .. _.......................... 21-3 EurocontrolBRNAV and PRNAV ...... _........ ... ..... .... ............. ........ .................... .. ........... 21-3 RequiredNavigationPerformance(RNP) ........ .. .. ............ ........ ... ....... .... ........ .... .... ...... .............. ...... ......... 21-3 Termi nal AreaIniti ati ves ........... .......... .............. ........ ........... ................ ................ ... ........................ .. .. ... 21 -3 Surveillance .............................. .. .......................... _...... .. .. _......... ...................... _... 21 -4 Automatic Dependent Survei llance (ADS) ............................... .. .. .... ....................................................... 21 -4 Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B)... .. .. .. _................... ...... _.. _........... ....... 21-4 ModeS DataLink ...... ..................... .. .......... ...... .... ... ........ _.................. _.. .. ............. .. .......... .. ...... 21-4 Radi o Navigationxv ~--- -- - -Table o/Contents CHAPTER 22 Electronic Display Systems Glossary of Terms.... .... .... ........................................................................ ............................ .. ...... .... 22-1 Introduction............................ ................ 22-1 General......... .............. ....... ................................ 22-2 General CertificationConsiderations.. .............................. ........... ....................... 22-2 Display FUnctionCriticality ................................................................... ........................ .. ........... ........ ..22-2 Loss of Display.............................................................. .. ............................................... 22-2 Navigation Information .. ...........................................................................................................22-3 PropulsionSystemParameter Displays .... ........................ ................................................................. 22-3 Crew AlertingDisplay .... .... .............. ... ... ............................................................................................. 22-3 Flight Crew Procedures.............. .... .. ..... .... .................................................................................... ........ 22-3 InformationDisplay ...................................................... .... ... ............................................... 22-3 InformationDisplay Colours....... ... ...... ................................................ ............ 22-4 CHAPTER 23 Boeing 737Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) Introduction..... .................... ...... .............................................................................................................. 23-1 System Architecture................................................. 23-1 EFIS Symbol Generator.... .. ............................................ .... 23-2 EFIS ControlPanel............................................................................ .........23-3 EADIControl s .................................................................................................. ......... 23-4 EHSIControls ...... .......................................................... ............................ ..23-5 Electronic Attitude DirectionIndicator ....................................................................................................... 23-6 EADIGeneraL.. ....................... ................................................... ......... ..23-6 Atti tudeDisplay................................................................... ................................................. 23-7 Mode Annunciations.......................... .......................................... 23-7 Flight Director (FlO)Commands ..... ........ ................................ .....23-7 Glideslope(GIS)andLocaliser.................................. .................................. ............................... 23-7 (LOC)DeviationDisplays .......................................................................... .. ...23-7 ILS Deviation Warning................................................................................... ....... ...... 23-8 RisingRunway Symbol.................................... .................. 23-8 Attitude Comparator ................................................................................................................................. 23-8 DigitalRadio Altitude andDecisionHeight... ... ............ ....................................... .... ........................... 23-8 MachDisplay............................................................... ..23-9 GroundspeedDisplay..... .......... ................................ .. ....... ....... 23-9 PitchLimit Symbol. ............................................................. .. ......... ...23-9 Speed TapeScale.. ............ .... ..................................................... ................ ........... 23-9 Digital AirspeedReadout.................... .. .. ................... 23-9 Airspeed Trend Arrow........ .... .................................................. ........... 23-10 CommandSpeed...... .............. ............................................ .......................... ........ ...23-10 Max OperatingSpeed(VMO/MMO or Gearl Flap Placards)............................23-10 HighSpeedBuffet Margin ............................... ....... .. .. ...........................23-10 Next Flap PlacardSpeed ................................................ ........................................................ 23-10 Flaps UpManoeuvring Speed ................................................ .................................................23-10 V,(DecisionSpeed)...........................................................23-1 0 VR (RotationSpeed)........... ........................ ................... ............................ 23-11 VRE'(Reference Speed).. .................... ........................................................................................ 23-11 MinimumFlap Retraction Speed ...... ..... ............ ....................................................................... 23-11 MinimumManoeuvringSpeed.. ....................... ...... ......... 23-11 Stick Shaker Speed.......................................................... ...23-12 EADISymbols.. ........................................ .................... .......... .... .... ................... ......... 23-12 Radio AltitudeDial.. .............................................................. ....................... 23-14 Speed Tapes........... ................................................. .................................................................. 23-15 EFIS - EADIFault Displays ................................................................................................................. 23-20 EADIFailureFl ags andAnnunciations .................................................................................................. 23-20 EFI S TypicalEHSICentreMap.Map andPlanDisplays .................................. ........................ 23-21 EHSIDisplay Orientation .................. ...... .. ......... ....................................... 23-22 PLANMode.... ..23-22 XVIRadi o Navigation Table o/Contents Features of PLANMode .. ............ _.. _______________ . __ .. __ .. __ __ __________ ._.. _____________________________. ___ ____ ___ 23-23 MAP and CTRMAP Modes .____.. _______________________ . ____________________ ______ ____ _____ ____________________ . ___ ........... _....... _______ 23-23 Features of MAPMode......... _________________ .__ .. __ ...... _.________________ ._ ...................__________ ...................... 23-24 Features of CENTRE MAP Mode............................................ .......... .......... ........._. __ ..... ___ ._23-25 NAV ModeDisplays ........................................................................ _.... __ ._ ............................................... 23-25 Featuresof EXPANDED NAVIGATION Mode .................. ___ . _______________ . __ ............____ ............................. .. .23-25 Features of FULL NAVIGATION Mode ...__ ._______ ...... ____ . ___________ ...... _............... ________ .................... .. ... 23-26 VOR andILS Displays_____ ................. _._______ .................................................................... ____________________ .. _._23-26 Expanded VOR Mode_____ ._ ..............__________ ............ ........................................................ ___ . ___ .._________ . __ .. 23-27 FullRoseVOR Mode .................................___________ ............ _.._._.. ___ .......... ..... _........................................ 23-28 ExpandedILSMode .............................____________ _____ ... _._____________ .. ___ ............ .. .. .. .. 23-29 FullRoseILS Mode_.____ .............._______ ......................................................... ..___ .............. .... .. 23-30 EHSISymbology................... ...................................................... ......................................... 23-30 EHSISystemFailure Flags andAnnunciation ........................_.___ ....................... ............ .... 23-39 RangeDisagreement Annunciations ...........__________ .... _........... .......... _._______________ ... ___ ... ...... 23-39 Weather Annunciations ......................._________ ._................... ........................_______________ ._ .. ___ ...... ... . 23-40 Instrument Transfer Switching ...________ ............._............................................................._................... 23-42 Light Sensing andBrightness Controls ...._________ .. ____ .. . _....... _... _________ ............. _____ ______________________ ........... 23-43 CHAPTER 24 Boeing 737Flight Management Computer (FMC) General .......____________________ ................_____ ._................................ ........................_________ .... ... __ .. __ ..______ 24-1 OperationOverview ....................................................... ... ................ ........................ ........... ........ 24-3 CDUFunction ........................................................................__________________ .. __ ............... ...... ..................... 24-4 CDUPageDisplay General ............ ........................................._____________________ ..... _._ .... _...... ............... 24-4 FunctionandModeKeys...._ .. ___ .... _.... _...... _.____________________________ ._ .......................................... 24-5 Line Select Keys... .... ............ ..................................... ________ ......... _._._ ............. 24-5 Keyboard ................................................ ....... __ .......... ............. _.____________ _.................................. ..... 24-6 CDUPageDisplay...............____________ ................. .................. ..................... 24-7 Page Status ............................ ................................................... ________ .. _____.______ ____ .......... 24-8 Function andModeKeys .................................. ........................................ ..... ____________ ............... 24-8 Lights ............................................................................................................................. _____________ ____ .. __ ... 24-11 SystemComponents..... .............____________ . __ .._................________ . ___ .... ...........................................24-11 Databases___ . ____________ . _________ ._ ........ _.____________ .............. .. _.... _..... _.______ ............ _... ___ ............................... 24-12 Operation .......... .................. ......... __ ............................................................................. .......... .... 24-13 LateralNavigation ............ ...................................................... ......................... ..................... 24-14 VerticalNavigation .. _... ... _........._________ .......................... ............ ...... _._ _....................... 24-14 Required Time of Arrival(RTA) Navigation ..................................................................___ . ______ ...... ...... 24- 15 Radio Tuning ................................ __ .................................... ..... .................. .........._______ ........24-15 Electrical Power ...................... ............ .................. ..................... ........._____ ................... ............. 24-17 Terminology ........________ ...................... . __ ...... ... ...... ......._________ . ___ ............... _.__________ .. __ ._._._._ .............. 24-17 Executing .............................. ...................... .............................................. ___ ___ .. __ ... _______ .. __ ........ 24-17 Inactive....................................... ............. ......................................................................................24-17 Active .................................... .............. _...____________ ... .................... .......... 24-1 7 Page Status ......._______________ ._... .......... _________ ____ .......... 24-18 Modification .... .......... ........... ...................................................... ._______ .. _............... 24-18 Initiali sat ion ............................. ........................... ................................ ............... 24-18 Line Select ..............................................__ ................ __ . __ ____ ___________ ....................... _ .. _... _... _.......... 24-18 Enter ........ _.. __ . ____ .. _.. ..................... ......................._ ... _... _.................................................................... 24-18 Access ............ ....... ......... .... .............................. .............................. ............................................... 24-18 Propagate..................................................................................... _.. _.___ .. _............................................ 24-18 Page Concepts. .............. ........ .......... .. .. .................... ................ ......................... .......... ........24- 19 General .............. .............. ................... ____ __._ ..........____ . __ ._.................. ....... .............. ..................... 24-19 Page SequenceLogic .................. _... __ ........................................ .......... ............... 24-19 CDUMessages.... .... .................................... ..... _________ ._ .....___________ . __ . _......... ............ 24-21 Waypoint.. .....____________________ ............... __ .......................................................... .... ........__ 24-22 Waypoi nt Identifiers ...................... __ ......................................................................................................24-22 Created Waypoints ______________ _______ .................................................... _... _.............. ......... _._24-22 ConditionalWaypoints ............ ......... ............... ............................ ______ __________ ._ ........................................ 24-23 Radio NavigationXVII Table oICon!en!s CHAPTER 25 Boeing 737NavigationEquipment andFlight Management Inertial Reference System. .. .. ....... ......... ........... ........ .... .................. .. ........................................ 25-1 IRSMode Selector. .......... ..... ...................... ..................................... .................................... 25-1 AlignLight (White). .............................. ......... ............. .............. ............ .... ....... .......... ..... 25-2 Faul t Li ght (Amber) ............................................. .................... ......................... ................. .. 25-2 OnDCLight (Amber) ............................................................................................................................... 25-3 DC Fai l Light (Amber) ... ........ ............. ....... ......... ...... ............ ......... ......................................................... 25-3 InertialReference System............ ........................................... ....... 25-3 General ........ ..... .................................... .... ........... ....... .................................. .......................... ...25-3 Alignment............. .. ......... ......... ..... .................... ........... ... .. .. ...... ....................................... 25-4 Alignment on theGround ........ .......... ....... ............................................................................................... 25-4 Fast Realignment on theGround ..... ........................ ...... .......... ............... ... .............. ... .......................... 25-4 Lossof Alignment.. ............... ............................................. ... ...... ........................... 25-4 IRSDisplay Unit ......... ...... .......... ....... .............. ........ ........... ................................................................. 25-5 Display Selector .................................. ............ ..... .. .... .... ................................. ...................... 25-5 Brightness Control. ................... .................... ... ........... ........ .... ................................... ....................... 25-6 DataDisplays....... ................................................................ ................ 25-6 Enter Key.............. ...................................... . .. .... ........................................25-6 Keyboard ...... . ....................... ...... ........ .................................. ............................... 25-6 Instrument Transfer Switch/ Instrument Transfer SwitchLight... ................................. ..................25-7 DME System.... ............................................................................................................ 25-7 RadioDistance Magnetic Indicator ................ .... ....... ....................................... ................. 25-8 VOR/ ILS Navigation..... .................... ......... ....... ........................... 25-9 Marker BeaconSwitch ............................................................................ ... .... ... ...... .. ....... 25-10 ADF Navigation .............................................................................. ............................................... 25-10 SSR Transponder Selections ....................... ............................... ......................... ................ 25-11 Weather Radar ..... ........... ....... .................. .. ........................................................... ..... ... ........ 25-13 Radio Altimeters......................... ................. .. ............................. ..... .................................25-15 XVIIIRadio Navigati on WAVE MOTION INTRODUCTION A wave is aprogressive disturbance inamedium,formedbyalternatingpressuresandtensions, without anypermanent displacement of the mediumitself inthedirectioninwhichthesestresses arepropagated. Thisconditionisreadilyobservedonthesurfaceofapond.Throwingastoneintothewater produces a series of waves whichradiateout until they reachthebank.A plastic duck inthepond risesandfallsasthewavepassunderneath,demonstratingthatthereisnomovementinthe directionof wave travel.While the wave moves toward thebank,the water does not. The wave possesses the followingcharacteristics: r a j ~The formof the wavemoves outwardalthough the water itself does not. ~The wave possesses energy obtained fromthestone. Withthepassage of the wave, energy islost due to friction.The wave becomes smaller asit moves away fromthe source. ~The wave travels at a constant speed. ~The wave issinusoidal;it travels as a sine wave. Amplitude T Seconds LTime 100 RadioNavigation I- I Chapter1Basic RadioTheOl)' Theradio waveis an alternating waveformand, assuch, thefoll owing termsare used: Cycle - a complete sequence of positive and negative values(AB). Period - the duration of one cycle (T).Inthe figure above itis T = ' /100seconds. Velocity - the speed anddirection of movement through a given medium. Frequency- thenumberofcompletewavespassingafixedpointinonesecond, denoted by the symbol fandusuall y expressedas Hertz (Hz). Wavelength - the distance between similar points on successivewaves, or the distance occupiedbyonecompl etecycl ewhentravelinginfreespace(AB),anddenotedbythe symbol A (Lambda) . Amplitude- themaxi murnheightofthewave.Thiscanbepositiveornegative.The posi tive amplitudeisrepresentedby b. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES The atmospherecarrieslight, heat,andradiowaves.These wavesdi ffer onl y in their wavelength andtheeffectstheyhave on differentmaterial s. Becauseof their electrical andmagneticnature, they are termedelectro-magnetic. Allof thesewavestravel at the same velocity,denotedby the letter c. For the Radi o Navigation syll abus,this veloci ty is: 300 000 000m/sec or 162 000nm/sec For simpli city,thespeedof light in m/sec canexpressedas 300 X 10m/sec PROPERTIES OFRADIO WAVES Radio wavesleavinga transmitter havethe foll owing properties: ~They consist of oscillati ng electric and magnetic fieldsthat are atrightangles toeach other andat ri ght angles tothe direction of propagation. ~They require nosupporting medium. ~They canbe refiected,refracted,and diffractedasdiscussedbelow. ~They aresubject to interferenceandDoppl er effect. ~They canpassthrough an opaque object such asabuil ding, although they do suffer attenuati on indoing so. Attenuati on of an RFsignalis the reduction in signal strength due toabsorption, scatteri ng, or di spersion and diffracti on. REFRACTION,DIFFRACTION, ANDREFLECTION Allradiowavesaresubjecttorefracti on,diffraction,andrefi ection,andevencombinationsof these phenomena. Refractionoccurswhenthespeedof theradi owaveisaffecteddifferentl yoneithersideofthe centrelineoftheray.Thi scausesadifferenceinthepropagationspeedeithersideofthe centrelinethatbendsthe wave. Themostcommoncauseof refractioniswhenthewavetravels obliquely throughmediums that have differing effects on the speedof propagation. 1-2Radio Navigation BasicRadioTheOlYChapterI Diffractionoccursprincipall ywhenaradiowavetravelsclosetotheEarth'ssurface.Thewave travellingover theEarth's surfaceinducesamicro-voltageintotheEarth, duringwhichthewave tendstoattachitselftotheEarth.Asthisinductiontakesplace,thesignalisattenuatedand slowed, causing the wave to bend andfollow theEarth's curvature. Somesurfacesexhibitreflectivepropertiestoradioenergy,acceptingtheincomingsignaland thenre-radiatingit.Whereareflectedsignalisatasmallangletothedirectlinebetween transmitterandreceiver,theenergylostisminimalandcancombinewi ththedirectsignalata different phase,causing significant interference at the receiver. RELATIONSHIP BETWEENFREQUENCY, WAVELENGTH, ANDVELOCITY Thefrequencyof asinusoidalwaveisthenumber of cyclesoccurringinonesecond.TheJAR examrequiresconversion of frequency towavelength and viceversa.Frequencyuses thesymbol fandthe unit is theHertz. Wavelengthis)..andthe unit usedismetres. C=D. Because of thelarge figures usedinfrequency, thefollowing prefixes are used: Example PrefixMagnitude Kilo Mega Giga 1000 Hertz =1 Kilohertz =1 kHz 1 000 000Hz = 1 MHz 1 000 000 000Hz = 1 GHz 103 106 109 Likewise, radio wavelength units canbe small , so the followingprefixes are used: PrefixMagnitude Milli 10-3 Micro or I'10" Nano 10-9 Example:Convert 2 MHz toa wavelength Ie= Q = 300 X106 = 150 metres f2 x 10' Example:Convert 60 metres to a frequency f =Q = 300 X10'- 5 MHz ),60 Radio Navigation1-3 Chapl erIBasic RadioTheOlY Remember: The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength and viceversa. Examples:Convert the following wavelengthsinto thecorresponding frequencies (The answers are givenbelow): 1.1500 m 2.20 cm 3.3500 m Convert the foll owing frequenciesinto the corresponding wavelength: 1.300 kHz 2.75MHz 3.600 MHz 4.8800 MHz 5.How many wavelengths,tothenearest wholenumber, of frequency200 MHz are equivalent to35 ft? Answers: Wavelength toFrequency 1.200 kHz 2.1500 MHz 3.85.7kHz Frequency to Wavelength 1.1000 m 2.4m 3.50 cm 4.3.41cm 1-4Radioavigation BasicRadioTheDlY 5.Number of wavelengthsin 35 It for a frequencyof 200 MHz A =,,=300X106 = 1.50 metres f200 x 106 1 m isequivalent to3.28 It 1.5 m = 4.92 It Thenumber of wavelengths in35 It = whichisapproximately 7. PHASE DIFFERENCE 35 4.92 Chapter1 Inthediagrambelowthetwowavesaresaidtobeinphase.Thewavespassthesamepointof their cycleat thesame time. -Inthediagrambelow the waves are saidto900 out of phase: I I , I ~WaveB leads wave A by900,or ~Wave A lags waveB by 900 Radio Navigation1-5 ChaplerJBasic RadioTlleOlY Where two waves havea phasedifference of 180,thenthey are saidto beinanti -phase. ... I\ I\ I\ I \ \I \ I RADIO SPECTRUM ,. I\ I\ \ I \/ ,. I\ \ \ \ Thediagrambelowshowstheelectromagneticspectrum.Frequencydeterminesthedifferent effectsbroughtaboutbyelectro-magneticwaves.Thelowerlimitisdeterminedbythesizeand efficiency of theaerials requiredand theupper limit by theattenuationandabsorptionof theradio waves by theatmosphere. Wavelength L Radio I UltraGammaCosmic Waves Infra Red G Violet X-Rays RaysRays H T 3 KHz300 GHz Thepart of the frequencyspectrum of interest tothepilot is further sub-dividedbelow. VLFLFMFHFVHFUHFSHFEHF 330300330300330300 ~~~ kHzMHzGHz Radio Spectrum \-6Radio Navigati on Basic Radio TheO/yChapter1 WAVEPROPAGATION Therearethreeprinciplepathsthatradiowavesmayfollowbetweenthetransmitterandthe receiver: Surface Waves foll ow the contours of the Earth's surface. Sky Waves are refractedby the ionosphere and returnedtoEarth. Space Waves areline of sight. A combinationof a surfaceanda space waveiscall eda ground wave. Theradi oenergyreachingareceivermaybemadeupofcomponentsof anyoneormoreof thesemechani smsbut dependi ngonthepartof theradiospectrum concerned, oneof thethree predominates.In general : ~Low frequencies are propagatedby surface wave. ~Middle range frequencies arepropagatedby sky wave. ~Upper range frequenci es are propagatedby space wave. Radio Navigati on Sky Wave Surface Wave Space Wave 1- 7 Chapler IBasicRadioTil eolY SURFACE WAVE Thesurfacewavefollowsthecurvatureof theEarth, aprocessknownasdiffraction. TheEarth's attenuationof theradioenergyhelpstheprocess.Thewaveis slowedasittouchestheEarth's surface.Asaresult ,thewavefrontnearestthesurfacelagsbehindthewavefartherfromthe surface. Wave front falls toward the Earth asit progresses Thewavefront tiltsanddiffractive bendingoccurs.The stability of this type of propagationmakes thelowfrequencysurfacewavesuitedtosystemsrequiringconsistencyofsignaloverlong distances.Thepropagationdoesrequirelargeaerialsandthecostoftransmissioncanbe considerable. TYPE OF SURFACE Highconductivity favoursthepassage of a radiosignal.Therefore, passage over theseaisbetter thanover rock or desert. 1-8 10KHZvj 1,00KHZLF 1,000 KHZMF 10MHZHF 100 MHZVHF Transmitter Power ,' 10 POORCONDUCTIVITY (CRYLANDPATH) 100., I' ',',boo RANGE NM 10,000 Surfaceabsorptionandfreespacelossreducethesignalstrengthofaradi owave.If thereisnorestrictionintheavailabletransmitterpower,thenglobalrangescanbe achievedby VLFradio waves. Differenttypesof surfaceswillaffectthetransmissionof agroundwavedifferently,but allpowertorangeratiosfollowasquarelawrule.Thebasicruleof thumbformulato calculaterequiredtransmitterpowerfromagivenrangeis:3.,fP(inwatts)for transmissionoverwaterand2.,fP(inwatts)fortransmissionoverland.Inbothcases note that to double therange, thepower must increase by a factor of 4. RadioNavigation Basic Radio TheO/yChapter1 Noise andInterference Noise affects thelower frequencies, consequentl y affecting thesignall noise ratio.This canlimit the usablerange. For maximumground wave range: ~Uselow frequency for maxi mumdiffractionandleast attenuation. ~Use verticalpolarisation(seepolarisation). SKYWAVE Thesky wave ascendsinto theupper atmosphere andencountersa regi oncontaining electrically chargedparticles(theionosphere) where itisrefractedsufficiently to return to Earth. J3Is the CriticalAngle.Note that itismeasured fromthevertical down. Whenthewaveenterstheionosphereitchangesdirectionduetoachangeinvelocity.Ifthe wavepenetrateshalfway throughthelayer beforebeing bent paralleltothelayer it wil l bendback intheopposite directiontoemerge fromthe topof the layer asanescaperay.Thi s islikely if: ~The ionisationisinsufficiently intense ~The frequency is toohigh ~The angle of entry istooacute CRITICAL ANGLE Foraparticular frequencyanddegreeof ionisation,itispossibletodefinea criti calangl ebelow whichtotalrefractiondoesnottakeplace.Definingthecriticalanglealsoestablishesthe minimumrangeortheskipdistance.Anyraytravellingawayfromtheaeri alatgreaterthanthe criticalangle willbe freely refracteddown to about 50 above the horizon. RadioNavigati on1-9 ChapterIBasic Radio Til eOlY DEAD SPACE Becauseof thehighfrequenciesusedinsky wave transmi ssion, thegroundwave travel is not as farasthereturningskywave.Thedistancebetweenthelimitofthegroundwaveandthefirst returningsky wave isthe deadspace. THEIONOSPHERE Theionosphereconsistsof aseriesofconductinglayersbetweenheightsof 50and400km.It existsbecauseofthetransmissionofultra-violetradiationfromthesun.Becauseofthis dependence uponradiationfromthesun, theheights and densities of thelayers vary according to the time of day andseasonof theyear. Thereisalsoaconnectionbetweenthe11-yearsunspotcycle.Short-termeffectsoccurina randomfashionresultingintheionisedlayersbeingina stateof constant turbul ence.Threemain layershavebeenidentified, designatedas D, E,andF. TheF layer splitsinto two separatelayers duringtheday,thetimeof highestionisation. TheD layerisaregionof lowioni sati onthatonl y persistsduringtheday.TheElayerismoremarkedandremainsweaklyionisedbynightwith littlechangeinheight.TheFlayeristhemoststronglyionisedandhasthegreatestdi urnal changeinheight. 400km F,~ - - ~ 200 km ~~ ~~ F, ~~ E 100 km ~~ D DayNight \-\0Radio Navigati on Basic RadioTheOlYChapter 1 FREQUENCY ANDSKIPDISTANCE Atafixedlevelofionisation,anincreaseinfrequencywillcausetheray,previouslythecri tical ray, tobecome anescape ray.This causes anincrease inskip distance. IONISATION ANDSKIPDISTANCE Atafixedfrequency,ifionisationdecreases,theeffectisthesameasabove.Thecrit icalray becomes anescaperay.This causes anincreaseinskip distance. SPACE WAVE Transmissionsat VHFandabovecannot propagatebyeither surfaceor skywave. Attenuationis soseverethatthesurfacewaveisvirtuallynon-existent.Thesefrequenciesaretoohightobe refractedbytheionisedlayersaloft.Asaresult,transmissionisbystraightline,orthedirect wave. Inadditiontothedirect wave, a reflectedwavecanalsoexist.The twocomponentsmake up thespace wave. TRANSMITTER REFLECTED Because of thedifferent emissionpaths,thedirect andreflectedwaveissometimesinphase and sometimesoutof phase.Thisproduceslobesandnullsparticularly whenthereceiverisclose to the station. TRANSMITTER LOBES INDICATE WHERE PHASE IS ADDITIVE Therange of a space wave appears tobe lineof sight.Inpracti ceit istermed quasi-optical : ~Theloweratmospherecausessomerefractionof thewave,whichbendsitbeyond the opticalhorizon. ~A further smallincreaseisgained fromdiffraction whenthewavebecomes tangential totheEarth's surface RadioNavigationI-I I ChapterJBasic RadioThe01J1 Thisrange canbe approximatedby the followingformula: Where: Example: Range innauticalmiles Height of the transmitter infeet Height of thereceiver infeet Anaircraftflyingat10000ftrecei vesatransmissionfromastationat 400ft.Whatisthemaximumdistancecommuni cationscanoccur between thetwostations? R = 1.25(" 10 000 + " 400) R = 1.25(100 +20) R= 150 nm DUCT PROPAGATION Undercertainabnormalclimaticconditions,transmissionsonafrequencygreaterthan50MHz canbereceivedat ranges inexcess of thequasi-opticalexpected. AIR TEMPERATURE SUBSIDING - DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE +7' VERYDRYANORELATIVELY WARM __________ - 3 . ~ _ - - ~ INVERSiONsAsE-lOW CLOUDS TRAPPED BELOW INVERSION 2SJANUARY1989 - 0001