Virtual Lecture Week 6

8/8/2019 Virtual Lecture Week 6

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Virtual Lecture #6 (VL6)

Steve Jobs, the legendary CEO of Apple, who gave us Mac, iPod, iPhone,iPad andPixar movies, is acknowledged to be one of the most creative entrepreneurs.His founding of Apple, surprise ouster, and his subsequent comeback torescue Apple from the brink of bankruptcy became the fascinating lore inthe Aanal of corporate history. What motivates him, and what makes him tick,andwhat drives him to be so creative consistently? I urge you to watch thisvideo of his convocation speech at Stanford University:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF8uR6Z6KLc and lets explore those topicsin this lecture.

CHAPTER 10

Motivation and Coaching Skills

The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with specific ideas for motivating and coaching group members. A leader is supposed to be able toinspire people. Nevertheless, influencing others through specific motivationtechniques and coaching is also necessary.

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES

Effective leaders are outstanding motivators and coaches. Motivation and

coaching techniques are important because not all leaders can influenceothers through formal authority or charisma and inspirational leadershipalone. Face-to-face, day-by-day motivational skills are also important.

I. EXPECTANCY THEORY AND MOTIVATIONAL SKILLS

Expectancy theory incorporates features of other motivation theories andoffers the leader many guidelines for triggering and sustaining constructive

effort from group members.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF8uR6Z6KLchttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF8uR6Z6KLc


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The expectancy theory of motivation is based on the premise that how much

effort people expend depends on how much reward they expect to get inreturn. Expectancy theory as applied to work has recently been recast asmotivation management. The theory assumes that people choose amongalternatives by selecting the one they think they have the best chance of attaining. Furthermore, they choose the alternative that appears to have the

biggest personal payoff.

A. Basic Components of Expectancy Theory

All versions of expectancy theory have three major components.

1. Valence is the worth or attractiveness of an outcome. Each outcomein a work situation has a valence of its own. Valences range from 100 to+100 in the version shown here. A valence of 100 reflects intense desireto escape an outcome, whereas +100 indicates intense desire for an outcome.

A zero valence reflects indifference.

2. Instrumentality is the probability assigned by the individual that performance will lead to certain outcomes. An outcome is anything thatmightstem from performance, such as a reward. An instrumentality is also referred

to as a performance-to-outcome expectancy because it reflects the link between performance and outcomes.

Each outcome has a valence of its own.

3. Expectancy is the probability assigned by the individual that effortwill lead to performing the task correctly. It is also referred to aseffort-to-performance expectancy. If you have high self-efficacy (theconfidence in your ability to carry out a specific task), your motivationwill be high.

A seeming contradiction in expectancy theory requires explanation: People


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will engage in low-probability behaviors provided that the valence isextraordinarily high.

A Brief Look at the Evidence. Two researchers performed a meta-analysis of

seventy-seven studies of how well various aspects of expectancy theorywererelated to workplace criteria such as performance and effort. Despite mixedevidence, the general conclusion reached was that the three components of expectancy theory are positively related to workplace criteria. Another finding was that effort expended on the job was positively correlated withvalence.

B. Leadership Skills and Behaviors Associated with Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory has many implications for leaders and managers withrespect to motivating others. Some of these implications would also stemfrom other motivational theories and would fit good management practice in

general.

1. Determine what levels and kinds of performance are needed to achieve

organizational goals.

2. Make the performance level attainable by the individuals beingmotivated.

3. Train and encourage people.

4. Make explicit the link between rewards and performance.

5. Make sure the rewards are large enough.

6. Analyze what factors work in opposition to the effectiveness of thereward.

7. Explain the meaning and implications of second-level outcomes.


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8. Understand individual differences in valences.

9. Recognize that when workers are in a positive mood, high valences,instrumentalities, and expectancies are more likely to lead to good performance.

II. GOAL THEORY

The core finding of goal theory is as follows: Individuals who are providedwith specific, hard goals perform better than those who are given easy,nonspecific, do your best goals or no goals. At the same time, however,the individual must have sufficient ability, accept the goal, and receivefeedback related to the task. A goal is what a person is trying toaccomplish.

A. Basic Findings of Goal Theory

Following are consistent findings from goal theory:

1. Specific goals lead to higher performance than do generalized goals.

2. Performance generally improves in direct proportion to goaldifficulty. Stretch goals lead to improved organizational effectiveness and

professional development. Goals that are too difficult can be frustrating,yet powerful goals can be inspirational. These powerful goals can be divided

into subgoals to facilitate attainment.

3. For goals to improve performance, the worker must accept them.(Recent experiments suggest, however, that the importance of commitmentmay

be overrated.)

4. Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance.

5. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards. Rewarding people for


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reaching goals is perhaps the best-accepted principle of management.

6. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting.

7. A learning-goal orientation (wanting to learn) improves performancemore than does a performance-goal orientation (wanting to look good).

B. Underlying Mechanisms and Concerns.

One explanation of the value of goals is that they establish a discrepancy between the real and the ideal. The accompanying arousal prompts the personto achieve the goal. A major concern about using goals to motivate

performance is that leaders, as well as other workers, will take unethicaland dysfunctional shortcuts to attain their goals.

III. USING RECOGNITION AND PRIDE TO MOTIVATE OTHERS

Motivating others by giving them recognition and praise can be considered a

direct application of positive reinforcement. Recognition programs torewardand motivate employees are standard practice.

A. Appealing to the Recognition Need of Others

Recognition is a strong motivator because it is a normal human need to

craverecognition, and many workers feel recognition-deprived. To appeal to therecognition need of others, identify a meritorious behavior and thenrecognize the behavior with an oral, written, or material reward. Also,apply the rules for behavior modification.

Because recognition is low cost or no cost, it has an enormous return oninvestment in comparison to a cash bonus. However, not everybody

(particularly highly technical workers) responds well to recognition.


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An effective recognition award possesses at least one of the followingqualities: (1) it has symbolic meaning, (2) it inspires pride of ownership,

or (3) it helps to reinforce the philosophy or identity of the giver.

B. Appealing to Pride

Giving recognition for a job well done helps satisfy the desire to feel proud. Giving workers an opportunity to experience pride can be a stronginternal motivator yet also grants recognition. Katzenbach said the leader should place the compass on pride, not money. The manager shouldcelebratesteps (attaining small goals) as much as the landings (the major goal). Small achievements instill pride.

IV. COACHING AS A LEADERSHIP PHILOSOPHY

Effective leaders who deal directly with other employees are good coaches.The quality of the relationship between the coach and the person coacheddistinguishes coaching from other forms of leader-member interactions. A

survey suggests that many managers are falling down by failing to coachandnot providing feedback and guidance. Coaching is a way of enabling otherstoact and build on their strengths. Coaching often increases productivity.

A. Key Characteristics of Coaching

Evered and Selman regard coaching as a paradigm shift from traditionalmanagement, which focuses heavily on control, order, and compliance.Coaching, in contrast, focuses on uncovering actions that enable people tocontribute more fully and productively. Coaching is also seen as a

partnership for achieving results. Coaching requires trust on the part of both people in the relationship. Coaching also offers concrete advantagessuch as higher motivation and the personal development of the people whoare

coached.


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B. Fallacies About Coaching

Misperceptions about coaching are relevant to understanding the process.

1. Coaching only applies in one-to-one work. (In reality, the group canalso be coached.)

2. Coaching is mostly about providing new knowledge and skills. (Intruth, people often need more help with underlying habits.)

3. If coaches go beyond giving instruction in knowledge and skills,they are in danger of getting into psychotherapy. (In truth, coaches shouldsimply follow the model of effective parents.) Note that most mental health

professionals would take strong exception to this fallacy.

4. Coaches need to be experts in something in order to coach. (Intruth, a great coach does not have to be a great player.)

5. Coaching has to be done face-to-face. (In truth, telephone and email

can be effective substitutes.)

V. COACHING SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

Coaching skills are important because coaching is a direct way of influencing group members. If implemented with skill, the followingsuggestions will improve the chances that coaching will lead to improved

performance.

A. Communicate clear expectations to group members.

B. Build relationships.

C. Give feedback on specific areas that require improvement.

D. Listen actively.

E. Help remove obstacles.


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F. Give emotional support. One facet of giving emotional support is for the leader/manager to be a toxic handlera person who helps others deal

with sadness and despair.

G. Reflect content or meaning.

H. Give some gentle advice and guidance.

I. Allow for modeling of desired performance and behavior.

J. Gain a commitment to change.

K. Applaud good results.

VI. EXECUTIVE COACHING AND LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS

An executive coach is an outside or inside specialist who advises a personabout personal improvement and behavioral change. Executive coaches

provide

such a variety of services that they have been described as a combination of a counselor, adviser, mentor, cheerleader, and best friend. Threeexamples of assistance offered by executive coaches are:

A. Counseling the leader about weaknesses, such as being too hostile or impatient, that could interfere with effectiveness.

B. Serving as a sounding board when the leader faces a complex decision

about strategy, operations, or human resource issues.

C. Helping the leader uncover personal assets and strengths he or shemay not have known existed. (An example would be discovering that theleader has untapped creativity and imagination.)

A refinement of individual coaching is for the coach to work with both the

individual and his or her work associates. The coach will solicit feedback from the group members as well as involve them in helping the manager


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improve.

Company evidence about the contribution of business coaching is

sometimesimpressive. In one study of 127 senior managers, the coached executivesscored higher than a contrast group on a long list of measures includingresults obtained and building relationships. In another study, the404 managers who worked with a coach were more likely to set specificrather than vague goals and to solicit ideas for improvement from their superior. A

potential drawback of executive coaching is that advice and suggestionsmay

backfire because they do not fit the culture. Also, the coach may notrecognize a mental health problem.

VII. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT

The leader/manager should keep in mind available forms of recognition because recognition can be such a relatively low cost yet highly effectivemotivator. For the recognition technique to work well, it should have high

valence for the person or group under consideration. Forms of recognitioninclude (a) compliments, (b) encouragement for a job well done, (c)employee-of-the-month award, and (d) wall plaque indicatingaccomplishment.

CHAPTER 11

Creativity, Innovation, and Leadership

The purpose of this chapter is to assist readers in developing the creative problem-solving approach required to be an effective leader.

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES

Creative problem solving is an important requirement for effectiveleadership at every organizational level. The role of a creative leader is

to bring into existence ideas and things that did not exist previously or that existed in a different form. Innovation refers to creating new ideas


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and putting them into action.

I. STEPS IN THE CREATIVE PROCESS

An important part of becoming more creative involves understanding thestages involved in creativity, the production of novel and useful ideas.Organizational creativity is the creation of a valuable, useful new

product, service, idea, procedure, or process by individuals workingtogether in a complex social system.

Step one on creativity is opportunity or problem recognition, in which the person discovers that a new opportunity exists or a problem needsresolution. Step two is immersion, in which the individual concentrates onthe problem and becomes immersed in it. Step three is incubation, in whichthe person keeps the assembled information in the back of the mind for awhile. Step four is insight, which is when the problem-conquering solutionflashes into the mind at an unexpected time. Step five is verification andapplication, which is when the individual sets out to prove that thecreative solution has merit.

II. CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE LEADERS

Creative leaders, like creative workers of all types, are different in manyways from their less creative counterparts. Creative leaders challenge thestatus quo and are flexible enough to overcome the traditional way of looking at problems.

A. Knowledge. Creative problem solving requires a broad background of

information including facts and observations. Being creative often involvescombining two or more things in a new and different way.

B. Intellectual Abilities. Creative problem solvers tend to be brightrather than brilliant. They maintain a youthful curiosity throughout their lives, within and outside their fields. Creative people are also open andresponsive to the feelings and emotions of others.

C. Personality. Creative people tend to have a positive self-imagewithout being blindly self-confident. They also have the ability to tolerate


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the isolation necessary for developing ideas. Believing in ones ability to be creative (creative self-efficacy) facilitates solving problemscreatively. Creative people are frequently nonconformists, not needing

strong group approval. Nonconformity can also mean being a maverick.Creative people are also intellectual thrill seekers: They are persistent,and they enjoy dealing with ambiguity and chaos. Creative people also tendto have an internal locus of control.

D. Passion for the Task and the Experience of Flow. A dominantcharacteristic of creative people is a passion for their work or highintrinsic motivation. Passion for the task and high intrinsic motivationcontribute to a total absorption in the work and intense concentration, theexperience of flow.

The formula B = f (P E) is relevant here. Certain personalcharacteristics may facilitate a leaders being creative, but the rightenvironment is necessary to trigger creative behavior. Oldham andCummingsfound that study participants produced the most creative work when theyhad

creativity-relevant characteristics such as self-confidence and tolerance of ambiguity. It was also important, however, for employees to work oncomplex,challenging jobs and to be supervised in a supportive, noncontrollingfashion.

E. The Componential Theory of Individual Creativity. This theoryintegrates the information already presented. Creativity takes place when

three components join together: expertise, creative-thinking skills, andtask motivation. The combined forces of the three factors lead to individualcreativity as follows: expertise x creative-thinking skills x task motivation = creativity.

III. OVERCOMING TRADITIONAL THINKING AS A CREATIVITYSTRATEGY

Creative problem solving requires an ability to overcome traditionalthinking. The creative person often looks at problems in a new light and


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transcends conventional thinking about them. The central task in becomingcreative is to break down rigid thinking that blocks new ideas. The processof overcoming traditional thinking has been characterized in several ways.

The most familiar is that a creative person thinks outside the box.

IV. ORGANIZATIONAL METHODS TO ENHANCE CREATIVITY

Here we describe several creativity-enhancing methods, including a reviewof

brainstorming. The leader plays a dual role in implementing creative problem-solving techniques: facilitating group interaction and providing afair share of creative output.

A. Systematically Collecting Fresh Ideas

The more ideas you try, the greater the probability of finding one thatworks. A notable way of collecting fresh ideas is for employees to furnishthem to a company database, so when somebody needs a fresh idea it can be

assessed through a company search engine. Google uses an internal website

tocollect and retrieve ideas. To facilitate having fresh ideas, theleader/manager can establish idea quotas, such as asking staff members to

bring one new idea to each meeting. A major leadership accomplishment istoobtain widespread participation in contributing innovative thinking, such asdone at Procter & Gamble.

B. Brainstorming

Brainstorming is the best-known method for creativity improvement (as well

as for creative problem solving). To encourage creativity during theidea-generating part of brainstorming, potential solutions are notcriticized or evaluated in any way. Two recent variations of brainstormingare the 6-3-5 method and brainstorming by email. Under the 6-3-5 method,

people exchange ideas written on index cards and build on the ideas of others. In brainstorming by email, group members enter their suggestions


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into a computer simultaneously, and the ideas are distributed to themonitors of other members. Group members do not talk to each other, yetthey

are still able to build on each others ideas and to combine ideas. Fewer interpersonal distractions occur in brainstorming by email.

C. Using the Pet-Peeve Technique

The pet-peeve technique is a group method of identifying all the possiblecomplaints others might have about ones organizational unit, thusimproving service. Through brainstorming, group members develop a list of complaints from anyone who interacts with their group. No holds are barredin throwing in imaginary and some humorous complaints. The humorouscomplaints are especially important for creative problem solving. After allthe complaints have been aired, action plans are drawn to remedy the mostserious problems.

D. Using the Forced-Association Technique

A widely used way of releasing creativity is to make forced associations

between the properties of two objects to solve a problem. Workingindependently or within a group, the individual randomly selects a wordfroma dictionary. The person next lists all the properties and attributes of this word. Next, the attributes are force-fitted to a problem facing theindividual. A link is found between the properties of the random object andthe properties of the problem object.

E. Equipping a Kitchen for the Mind

A kitchen for the mind is a space designed to nurture creativity. The roomcontains art supplies and perhaps toys, but what is more important is thatit is a communal meeting place where people get together to think creatively. According to Mike Vance, when peoples resources are limited,they can still use their ingenuity to produce creative ideas.

V. SELF-HELP TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE CREATIVE PROBLEMSOLVING


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All creative problem-solving techniques aim to increase mental flexibility.The five strategies and techniques reported here supplement the

organizational programs described previously.

A. Practicing Creativity-Enhancing Exercises

An established way of sharpening creative thinking is to engage regularly inactivities that encourage flexible thinking. Among such activities arecreative photography, puzzles, joke writing, and learning a second language.

B. Staying Alert to Opportunities

The ability to spot opportunities that other people overlook characterizescreative leaders. Opportunity seeking is associated with entrepreneurialleadership because the entrepreneur might build an organization around anunmet consumer need.

C. Maintaining an Enthusiastic Attitude, Including Being Happy

Creative thinking calls for a positive attitude. Yet a leader must sometimes be judicial (or judgmental) rather than imaginative. The leader is advisedto attempt to think positively even about judicial tasks. Being in the rightmood facilitates creativity. An analysis of diaries showed that workers aremore likely to have a breakthrough idea if they were happy the day before.

D. Maintaining and Using an Idea Notebook or Computer File

Creative ideas can lead to breakthroughs for your group and your career, sothey deserve the dignity of a separate notebook or computer file.

E. Playing the Roles of Explorer, Artist, Judge, and Lawyer

Be an explorer by getting ideas from people in different fields. Be anartist by stretching your imagination, which includes asking what-if questions. Be a judge by critically evaluating ideas. Play the role of a

lawyer by negotiating and finding ways to implement your ideas within your


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field or place of work.

VI. ESTABLISHING A CLIMATE FOR CREATIVE THINKING

In addition to being a creative individual, a leader must establish aclimate conducive to creative problem solving. A foundation step for fostering organizational creativity is to establish a vision and missionthat include creativity. The most influential step a leader can take to

bring about creative problem solving is to develop a permissive atmospherethat encourages people to think freely.

A. Leadership Practices for Enhancing Creativity

Amabiles long-term research supports the thinking of many others aboutleadership and management practices that foster a work environment for creativity.

1. Intellectual challenge. Stretch people intellectually withoutoverwhelming them. Moderate time pressures can sometimes bring about

theright amount of challenge.

2. Freedom to choose the method. Workers tend to be more creativewhenthey are granted the freedom to choose which method is best for attaining awork goal.

3. Ample supply of the right resources. Time and money are the mostimportant resources for enhancing creativity.

4. Effective design of work groups. Work groups are most likely to becreative when they are mutually supportive and when they have a diversityof

backgrounds and perspectives.

5. Supervisory encouragement. Developing a permissive atmosphere thatencourages people to think freely is the most important step for bringing


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about creative problem solving.

6. Organizational support. The entire organization as well as the

immediate manager should support creativity, including a reward systemwithrecognition and financial incentives.

7. Have favorable exchanges with creative workers. A study with 191research and development specialists found a positive relationship betweenLMX ratings and creativity of workers as measured by supervisory ratings.

8. Leaders as talent magnets. An indirect way for a leader to encourageinnovation is to attract talented people to work on his or her team.

B. Methods of Managing Creative Workers

Choosing effective methods for managing creative workers is alsoimportant.Suggestions are as follows:

1. Give creative people tools and resources that allow their work tostand out.

2. Give creative people flexibility and a minimum amount of structure.

3. Give gentle feedback when turning down an idea.

4. Employ creative people to manage and evaluate creative workers.

VII. ADDITIONAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES THAT ENHANCEINNOVATION

All leadership and management practices that enhance creative problemsolving enhance innovation. Consider also the following:

A. Continually pursue innovation.

B. Take risks and encourage risk taking.


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C. Acquire innovative companies.

D. Avoid innovation for its own sake.

E. Loose-tight leadership enhances creativity and innovation.

F. Integrate development and production.

G. Encourage people across divisions to share ideas.

VIII. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT

To encourage creative problem solving, the leaders should avoid creativitydampeners. Expressing attitudes that preserve the status quo by using suchcliches as Dont rock the boat, Dont make waves, and If it aint broke,dont fix it, are creativity dampeners. Responding to mostsuggestions for change with a pained look and saying, But that will costmoney and being free and open with criticism but stingy with praise willalso discourage creativity.

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Review of assignments due week 6:

Discussion Questions: (Due day 3 Sat)

1. How can the influence exercised by a charismatic leader tie in withexpectancy theory?2. Explain how a lack of creativity will harm a leader and give anexample.

Individual Report: (Due day 5 Mon)

Describe a leader that you admire and how he/she creatively resolved atough


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problem. (1-2 pages length)

Group Assignment (Due day 7 Wed)

Give a brief account of the major achievements of the selected firm that putit on the leadership position and post it in the respective Study Groupfolder. (4 points)

Lesson Learned (Due day 7 Wed)

Documents

Virtual Lecture Week 6