Violence against women and the feminist critique of Law: a brief ... · Keywords: Feminist critique of Law; Violence against women; Rights of women. Resumo O presente artigo analisa

Rev.DireitoPráx.,RiodeJaneiro,Vol.10,N.02,2019,p.962-990.

CarmenHeindeCamposandFabianaCristinaSeveri.DOI:10.1590/2179-8966/2018/32195|ISSN:2179-8966

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ViolenceagainstwomenandthefeministcritiqueofLaw:abriefanalysisofBrazilianacademicproductionViolência contra mulheres e a crítica jurídica feminista: breve análise daproduçãoacadêmicabrasileira CarmenHeindeCampos11 The University Center – UniRitter, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. E-mail:[email protected]:http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4672-0084.FabianaCristinaSeveri22TheUniversityofSãoPaulo,SãoPaulo,SãoPaulo,Brazil.E-mail:[email protected]:http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8399-7808.Thisarticlewasreceivedin01/01/2018anditwasacceptedon24/05/2018.

ThisworkislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution4.0InternationalLicense



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Abstract

Thisarticleanalyzesthefeminist legalscholarproductioninLaw,especiallythestudies

onviolenceagainstwomen,startingfromthe1970s.Itexploresboththeemergenceof

feminismandthestudiesonviolenceandgenderinBrazilandalsoexaminesthegrowth

ofthisfieldandthepotentialitiesfornewfeministapproachesinLaw.

Keywords:FeministcritiqueofLaw;Violenceagainstwomen;Rightsofwomen.

Resumo

O presente artigo analisa a produção acadêmica feminista no campo do Direito, em

especial, os estudos sobre violência contra mulheres, a partir da década de setenta,

buscandoexploraraemergênciadofeminismoedosestudossobreviolênciaegênero

nodireitobrasileiro.Examinatambémocrescimentodessecampoeaspotencialidades

paranovasabordagensfeministasnoDireito.

Palavras-chave: Crítica feminista ao direito; Violência contra as mulheres; Direitos

humanosdasmulheres.



964

Introduction1

Thisworkisanefforttomapoutandanalyze2feministlegalstudies,withemphasison

worksaboutviolenceagainstwomenthathavebeenpublishedsincethe1970s.Thisisa

necessary task since feminist production in this field is significant, although not

sufficientlyrecognizedbymalestream3.Furthermore,weconsiderit importanttobring

up the historical path of construction of feminist perspectives in legal studies, as a

processofcumulativeandconstantconstructionthatcontinuallygainsprominence.We

emphasize that thiswork certainly doesnot encompass all feminist production in this

field,butthosethatwecouldaccessthroughourownresearchuptonowandwereof

help to shed some light on the main characteristics of the intellectual trajectory of

Brazilianfeministlegalstudies.There is still much to be done about the reconstruction of the genealogy of

Brazilian legal feminisms.Here,weonly aim to identify the early contours of feminist

critical legal thought, its articulation with the struggle for women’s human rights in

Brazilandpinpointthepotentialitiesofthisfieldinamorerecentdevelopment.

We consider as academic feminist production thoseworks thus considered in

their theme, editorial line or theoretical-methodological approach (SILVA, 2013). We

prioritizedanalyzingacademicproductiondeliveredinbookformats,articlesthatwere

publishedinacademicjournalsandreportsproducedbyfeministadvocacyactions4.

We have identified that pioneer Brazilian authors using a feminist legal

approachhavedifferenteducationalbackgrounds,whoseworks5arebothinsertedinan

academic environment and in the context of feminist political action strategizing.

Consequently,wecanclearlyseeBrazilianfeministcritiqueofpolitical-legalinstitutions

1WewishwiththisworktopayhomagetothepioneersofBrazilianlegalfeminism. 2Thisworkisaresultofsomeofourpreviousstudies(SEVERI,2018;CAMPOS,2017). 3Weusemalestreaminsteadofmainstream(SMART,2000)tohighlightthemaleprivilegedpositioninLaw. 4 Theexpressionadvocacy isusedby feministmovements to refer toabroadanddiverse setofpoliticalactionsofwomen'smovementswiththeaimofinfluencingpublicdebateasalsopolitical,socialandculturalactorsandinstitutionsinordertogeneratepoliticalandinstitutionschangesincivilsocietyandintheState,basedonthefeministagenda’sspecificcontentandproposals. 5Thereareseveralwaysofreferringtosuchstudies,accordingtothehistoricalmomentandthetheoreticaldiscussionsthatunderliethem:womanandwomen’sstudies,genderstudies,studiesongenderrelationsorgendertheories.



965

and identify some of feminist legal scholar pioneers6 in studies on women, gender,

relationsanddomesticviolence,agrowinginterdisciplinaryfieldsincethemid-1970s.

The classification of the types of interactions that happen between feminism

and Law in LatinAmerican, establishedby Isabel Cristina Jaramillo (2000), helps us to

analyze theBrazilian case. According to her,wehave: a) feminism as Law critique; b)

Law as a tool of feminism. Jaramillo also divides feminist critical legal studies in two

parts:acritiqueofLawgeneralelements(feministcriticallegaltheories)andcritiquesof

particular juridical (and political) institutions. Among the production that discuss the

uses of Law, she also distinguishes those that approach the strategic and the

nonstrategicuseofLawbyfeminisms.

Brazilian feminist academic production on Law, despite its recent expansion,

may seem rather small or incipient when compared to the strength of Global North

feminist legal studies. This is because the studies gatheredunder theaxes of feminist

jurisprudence or feminist legal theory have been consolidated as an important

theoretical field of legal criticism since the late 1980s in the United States, in some

EuropeancountriesandintheUnitedKingdom.

WeconsiderthatBrazilianfeministanalysesofLawarebeingconsolidatedasa

delimitedfieldofresearchinthelegalacademy.Ontheonehand,theyhavebeenmade

indialoguewithavigorous interdisciplinary field inBrazil since themid-1970s: theso-

calledstudiesonwomen,genderandviolenceagainstwomen-and,ontheotherhand,

they have been strongly associated with the feminist strategies of political-legal

mobilizationfortheaffirmationofwomen'shumanrights.

ThisfieldofstudyalsoemergedfromthedynamicsofBrazilianfeminismandits

interaction with European and North American feminisms, which was marked by a

processofreception-assimilationandconflict-differentiation-accommodation.According

to Bila Sorje and Maria Luiza Heilborn (1999), in the United States the so-called

Women's Studies emerged from protests that took place in universities in the 1960s

alongwithracialstudies,questioningthescientificfoundationsofthesocialsciences.In

Brazil, studiesonwomenandgenderarosealongwithother leftmobilizationagenda,

suchasthecriticismofsocialinequalitiesandpoliticalauthoritarianism.Socialresearch

aimedatthefoundationofpublicpolicyproposalsandspecificnormativechangeswere

6WenamedlegalscholarsthoseimportantBrazilianfeministswhohavebuiltacriticalframeworkonLawnotonlyfromwithinuniversities,butmainlyfromtheirpoliticalperformanceandlegalknowledge.



966

also more recurrent among Brazilian feminists, in relation to the North American

emphasisonepistemologicalcriticism.

Concerning the interaction between feminism and Law, our argument is that

Brazilianfeministlegalscholarsfocusedlessonlegaltheoryorepistemologyissues,and

more on the elaboration of critical analyzes about specific legal institutions and the

strategic use of legal discourse. This can be clearly perceived when we analyze, for

example, thediscussionsabout the theoretical productionondomestic violence. They

reflect, to a large extent, the conceptual contributions of feminism to national and

international laws about human rights and the notions of the subject of rights,

citizenship,publicspace,democracyandaccesstojustice.

Brazilian academic production on women, gender and violence has grown

considerablysincethe1970sinseveralareas.Thiswasduetotheconditionscreatedby

the re-articulation of the Brazilian feministmovement in this same period and to the

greater importance given to the theme of violence against woman (BANDEIRA, 2014;

BRUSCHINI;UNBEHAUM,2002).

Wehopethatthisworkcanhelptostrengthenastillincipientresearchagenda

on Brazilian feminist legal thought and on the theoretical and methodological

contributionsthatstudiesonviolence,genderandfeminismhavebroughttoLaw.

1.Overviewoflegal-feministstudies,genderrelationsandviolenceagainstwomenin

theyears1970-1990

The resurgence of the feminist social movement, especially since 1975, has been

articulatedwithsocialstrugglesfordemocracy(forexample,thestruggleforAmnesty).

ItwasbasedonsometheoreticalMarxistaspectsandalsoonAmericanandEuropean

feministperspectives,inthiscasespawnedmainlybytheexileofBraziliansabroad.

Debating democratic freedoms, Brazilian feminists launched newspapers to

spread their ideas. In São Paulo, two important newspapers, Brasil Mulher andNós,

Mulheres,begantoreflectfeministdiscussions.AccordingtoMariaPaulaAraújo(2000),

thosenewspapers innovated in languageand for spreadinganewpolitical conception

thatexplainedtherelationsbetweenpublicandprivatedomains.Theypoliticizedwhat

was, until then, considered personal matters and politicized emotions, personal



967

relationships,andfamilyties.Theyalsodealtwithchangesineverydaylifeandissuesof

thedomesticsphereandwiththemessuchaslove,sex,pain,frustration.Thisway,they

soughttogiveattentiontopersonalexperiences.

Dialoguing with Marxism, these journals addressed the theme of the female

labor force or female wage labor, but also incorporated other subjects such as

maternity, reproduction, sexuality, daycare, schools andhealth, aswe can read in the

passagebelowfromthenewspaperNósmulheres:Wedemand good daycare centers and schools for our children, collectivelaundriesandrestaurantsatpopularprices,sothat,togetherwithmen,wecantakeontheresponsibilitiestosociety.(Nósmulheres,1976,page2).

This is also the arrangement of works produced by the pioneering Brazilian

scholarswithafeministapproach.Forexample,HeleiethSaffioti,asociologist,published

the book A mulher na sociedade de classes: mito e realidade in 1969, which soon

becameoneofthemainreferencesindiscussionsonthestatusofwomenintherealm

of work. She analyzes how the “sex factor”works in class societies to get rid of the

femalelaborforceinthemarket.Forher,thecapitalistorganizationproducesahierarchy

betweensexesasakindofexpropriationanddeterminestherolesthatawomanplaysin

the family (sexuality, reproduction and child socialization). Thus, the condition of the

woman,bothasthe“worker”figureandthe“inactive”figure,arebuiltfromahierarchy

of sex differences (SAFFIOTI, 1969). This book became a reference for the Brazilian

academicreflectiononthefeminineconditioninclasssocietiesandforfeministgroups

that emerged in that period throughout the country and influenced a number of

scholarlyfeministapproaches.

The support given by United Nation for holding the Conference on Brazilian

Women in The International World Women Year (1975) led Brazilian feminists to

approachthediscourseonwomen’srightandtoincludeitinfeministpoliticalstrategies.

Thecloseinvolvementofthefeministmovement,whichwasbecomingbiggerandmore

transnational, in national and international human rights networks has strengthened

feministadvocacy,whichfromthemonstartedtocondemndiscriminatoryBrazilianlaws

and to propose new ones, using human rights as a tool to denounce and demand

investigationsintowomenrightsviolations(PITANGUY,2002;BARSTED;HERMAN,1999).

ItisinthiscontextthattheBrazilianfeministcriticallegalstudieswillcomeabout.



968

SilviaPimentel,authorofthebookAevoluçãodosdireitosdamulher(1978), is

one of the first feminist legal scholars to use the feminist approach in the Brazilian

academy.Inthiswork,sheanalyzestheevolutionofwomen’srightsinBrazilandaround

theworld. She ismainly concernedwith researching the rights granted towomen by

Law, analyzing the position ofwomen in the social structure, and finally reflecting on

axiologicalaspectsofgenderrightsequalityandthe levelofparticipationofwomen in

society.Shedevelopsherargumentsatlegal,sociologicalandaxiologicallevels,withfew

references to international feminist hot topics of the time. For example, when she

reflects on equality before the law, she reviews the constitutional debate without

referring to discussions about equality and difference issue, an important subject

discussedamongglobalnorththeoristsofthesameperiod.

In the 1980s, concomitantly with the struggle for democracy and for a

constituentassembly,Brazilian feminists started to fight for rules that couldguarantee

genderequalityinthenewConstitution7.

Silvia Pimentel’s other bookAmulher e a constituinte (1985) is a result of her

activity inside the feminist movement for democracy in Brazil. In this work, a

comparative studyonwomen’s rights in theBrazilian constitution andother countries

provides the basis for some proposals for changes in the constitution to strengthen

democracy.Referringtothelegalequalityprincipleshestates: The article 153 from the current constitution is insufficient: ‘all are equalbefore the lawwithoutdistinctionof sex […]’. It is important that thenewConstitution affirms thatwomen andmen have the same rights regardingfamily,social,economic,politicalandculturallife(PIMENTEL,1985,p.11).

This passage expresses the 1980s Brazilian feminist movement concern about

therelevanceofincludingthedemandsofwomeninthenewconstitutionforaproper

democraticsociety.

Pimentelalsoaffirmsthat legalequality (legal recognition)alone isnotenough

to change women’s condition in Brazilian society; it would be also necessary to

guarantee a set of rights such as the right to public daycare, labor rights and other

measures that could introduce social tools for the socialization of domestic and care

activities. Collective laundries and restaurants, for example,would be a necessity that

should be guaranteed by the new Constitution (PIMENTEL, 1985). This would allow

7ThestrongfeministperformanceintheBrazilianconstituentassemblywasknownasLipsticklobby.



969

decentworkingconditionsformenandwomen,whowouldthenbelessconcernedwith

the conditions of childcare and work relations. In these proposals for the new

Constitution,wecanclearlyseesocialistfeminism’sinfluenceonPimentel’sthinking8.

Similarly, Florisa Verucci and Ediva Marino in Os Direitos da mulher (1985)

analyzetheconditionofwomeninmanylegalfieldsandcriticizecivil,criminal,laborand

socialsecuritylawthatstilldiscriminatewomen.Theproposalofthebookistoprovidea

perspectiveofthedevelopmentofwomen'srightsinthedecade,[butthat]ishampered

bythefactthat“adecadeinlawisinsignificant"(VERUCCI;MARINO,1985,p.5).Inthis

period,theycallattentiontothepromulgationofthelawondivorceandthedraftbillon

marriedwomenincludedinthenewcivillawproject.Regardingtheproposaltoamend

thepenalcode,theauthorsreflectonfeministideasandaffirm: All feminists agree that rape can no longer be considered a crime againstacceptedbehaviorandshouldbepenalizedasacrimeagainstpersons,asinthemostadvancedlegislation,suchasItalianandSwedishones,whererape,inadditiontobeingconsideredaqualifiedaggression,cannotbedefendedwith the classic claim that the woman provoked the crime. (VERUCCI,MARINO,1985,p.5).

Aswecansee,theauthorsharshlycriticizedtheproposalforanewpenalcode

that would continue treating rape as a crime against “accepted behavior”. They also

argued that physical violence against women practiced by their partners in their

domestic setting should be treated by law and by authorities as a bodily injury crime

rather thanasaprivatematterbetweencouples, leaving themunpunished.Theyalso

affirmedthatthebeatingofwomenisnotadequatelydealtwitheitherbylaw,Brazilian

societyorevenbythepolice,whowouldnottakethiskindofreportingseriously.

Considering women’s homicide as a crime of passion and claiming legitimate

defenseofhonorasalegalstrategytofreecriminalsfromconvictionissomethingthat

Verucci&Marinoalsostronglyoppose.

ThreeremarksareclearlyemphasizedinVerucci&Marinostudies,whichare:a)

the rejectionof the framingof femalehomicideas crimeofpassionand repealof the

legitimatedefenseofhonorthesis;b)therecognitionofrapeasacrimeagainstpersons

andnotasacrimeagainstcustoms;c)areviewofthetreatmentgivenbycriminallawto

bodily injury crimes, especiallywhen committed by intimate partners againstwomen.

8ItisalsoremarkabletheinfluenceofHeleiethSaffioti’sthinking.



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Without this, 'the so difficult equality', to quote Fanny Tabak and Florisa Verucci’s

phrase,wouldnotbeachieved.

SilviaPimentel,FlorisaVerucciandEdivaMarinowritingsexpresslyrefertothe

legal changes necessary to achieve legal and material equality between women and

men.Thelawisseenasatoolforsocialchangecapableoftransformingthelegalstatus

andthefemalecondition.AccordingtoFannyTabakandFlorisaVerucci:The law may serve to extend the rights already recognized, to combatdifferent forms of discrimination based on sex, to penalize violations ofthese rights and topunishattacksonwomen’sphysical, psychological andmentalintegrity.(TAKAK,VERUCCI,1994,p.47).

According to thisperspective, the Law is considered tobeapath for concrete

change,as itwouldeffectively secureandbroaden rights, servingasan instrument to

fightdiscriminationandpenalizeviolations. Legal feminismembracesaprofound legal

reform in all fields.According to them, the constitution shouldenshrine legal equality

betweenwomenandmeninallotherareassuchascivil,familyandcriminallaw.Atthe

sametimethatfeministlegalscholarsfoughtforequalityinthenewconstitution,they

also sought reforms, especially in civil and criminal law, as a strategy for dealingwith

violenceagainstwomen.InthebookAmulhereodireito(1987),FlorisaVeruccitakesup

the analysis of women’s rights and gives more attention to the issue of the barriers

againstthedecriminalizationofabortioninBrazil.

Specifically in the field of criminal law, Ester Kosovski may perhaps be

consideredthefirstfeministcriminologist.Inher1983bookAdultério,sheclaimsthatit

wouldbe“patriarchalsociety’smaintaboo,onethatpersistsinthelegalprohibitionofa

manorwomanhavingsexoutsidemarriage"(KOSOVISKI,1983,p.24).Sheinvestigated

the historical reasons for the criminalization of adultery and advocated its

decriminalization. It is interestingtonotethatwhenEstertalksabout family,marriage

and divorce there is little reference to foreign feminist authors, revealing a reflection

and theorizationmade fromnational issues, since adulterywas an important topic to

Brazilianwomen.

In addition to the national debate, Brazilian feminist legal scholars have also

followed the feminism agenda on internationally recognized human rights, especially

thesexualandreproductiveones.Theworksthatexemplifythisapproachare:Cladem:

MulhereDireitosHumanosnaAméricaLatina,organizedbySilviaPimentel(1992)and



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AsmulhereseosDireitosHumanos,organizedbyLeilaLinharesBarstedandJacqueline

Herman(1999).

From the 1990s onwards, some works started to highlight issues related to

health, sexual and reproductive rights. This may be due to the interaction that took

placeintheprocessofmobilizationaroundtheconstituentassembly,betweenfeminists

andsocialmovements,activistsandscholarsthat fought forapublichealthsystem. In

addition, Brazilian feminists, unlike those of the global north, do not address the

abortion issue as an individual and universal right, but as a public health problem

because of the risks to women's health and physical and emotional suffering. Such

framework, according to Bila Sorj (2002, p. 103), seemed to best fit the struggle for

abortiondecriminalizationwithinBrazilian social reality,markedby social inequalities,

andmobilizesupportandcoalitions,especiallybetweenthe leftand importantsectors

of the Catholic Church, which share a social and political agenda with other social

struggles.Accordingtoher:Thediscursivestrategyofthefeministmovementavoidsproducingconflictsrootedindifferentsystemsofmoralunderstanding,whoseresolutiontendsto be a zero-sum game, precisely because of the doctrinal character thatunderliesthem.Thestruggleforabortion inthecountryfocusesmainlyonargumentsaboutsocialjusticeand,toalesserextent,ontheaffirmationofindividual rights that are expressed in the sovereignty of individuals overtheir own bodies, from which the right to abortion is a necessaryconsequence.

This kind of approach on sexual and reproductive rights can be found in the

following documents: Direitos humanos, ética e direitos reprodutivos, organized by

DeniseDoraandDomingosdaSilveira(1998);Mulher,SaúdeeCidadania:cuidedasua

saúdeeconheçaseusdireitos,organizedbyLeilaLinharesBarsted,JacquelineHermann

and Ruth Mesquita (1997); Cairo-Brasil: 5 anos de experiências relevantes em saúde,

direitos reprodutivos e sexuais, organized by theNational Feminist Network of Health

and Reproductive Rights (SOS-CORPO, 1999) andCadernos Themis - Direitos Sexuais,

organized by Denise Dora (2002). Most of these works were organized by authors

affiliated to feminist NGOs founded in the 1990s9 and which, in the early 2000s, are

articulatedaroundfeministadvocacyactionstocreateMariadaPenhaLaw.

9Forexample,theworkseditedbyCEPIA,AGENDE,SOS-CorpoeTHEMIS.



972

Despite some affinities between foreign feminist theses and the Brazilian

production10, the subjects addressed in these works were in tune with the national

context. The critique of the discriminatory character of legal and political institutes is

developed from analyzes that emphasize social rights and the need for the

democratizationofBraziliansociety.Theseworksmustbeunderstoodinthecontextof

feministactionoutsidetheacademicspaceoflaw.Thepioneeringfeministlegalscholars

mobilized the struggle fordemocracyand facedmore specific issues suchas childcare

requirements,costoflivingandemployment.Theysoughttotracethelegalelementsof

thoserights,whileexplainedthediscriminatorynatureofBrazilianlaw.Inthe1970sand

1980s,someofthefacetsofthephenomenonofviolenceagainstwomenbegantobe

consideredinthesestudies.

The intellectual production presented above was essential to promote

institutionalchangesfordemocracyanddiscussthediscriminatorycharacterofBrazilian

law.However, its circulation in the academic legal environmentwas limited. In Brazil,

legalprofessions,whether in thepublicorprivatesphere,arehistoricallyconsolidated

as a field of male and white hegemony, drawing on the small contingent of women

holdingpositionsinlegalcareersandthevaluesandtypesofknowledgethatunderpin

Law and its professional practice. Feminists who attempted to influence academic

productioninthefieldoflawfacedseveralobstacleswhiletheoreticallyopposing"white

males" (using Saffioti's expression). However, feminist legal scholars were paving the

waytobuildafeministlegalthought.

2.Thedebateongenderandviolenceagainstwomen

Inthelateseventiesandearlyeighties,theissueofdomesticviolencegainsmomentum

withinsocialmovementsaswellasfeministacademiccircles.Forexample,themurder

of AngelaDiniz by her partner “Doca Street” in 1976, shocked the country. However,

defense allegations such as “legitimate defense of honor” and “killing for love” were

effectivetosoftentheconviction,whichwasharshlycriticizedby feminists.Therefore,

10Given theMarxist formationofBrazilian feminists, it is alsonecessary tohighlight the influenceof theRussianandGermanrevolutionariesRosaLuxemburg,ClaraZetkinandAlexandraKollontai.



973

theslogan“wholovesdoesn’tkill”waslaunchedasastrategytobringpublicawareness

tofemalehomicidescommittedbyintimatepartners.

Besides the“legitimatedefenseofhonor” thesis, theallegationsof“softrape”

or “rape by courtesy”11 are other recurrent examples of strategies to acquit the

defendant and condemn the victim in cases of sexual violence and femalemurder in

legalactionsbetweenthe1980sand1990s.Forthisreason,confrontingviolenceagainst

women and promoting changes in legal practices became important points in the

Brazilianfeministmovement’sagenda.

Thecreationofspecializedpolicestationsforwomen(DEAMs)canbeidentified

as the first experience of a criminal policy supported by feminism. The São Paulo

WomenSecondCongress,heldinValinhosin1980,andthecreationofwomen’sgroups,

suchasSOSCorpoandCentrodeDefesadaMulherwereveryimportantfeministactions

to increasepublicdebateonviolenceagainstwomen.Thisdiscussion foundresistance

even among progressive sectors that were allied with feminists on other agendas.

AccordingtoMariaAméliaTeles(1993,p.131):Until then, Brazilianwomenhad remained silent about domestic violence.Theyboldlydenouncedthetorturesandmurderscommittedbythepolice,but omitted violence committed by their husbands or partners. Feministsdenounced domestic and sexual violence without however showingconcrete cases, such as a woman murdered by her partner or visiblybattered. This way, journalists and leftist leaders claimed that Brazilianfeminists only reproduced the agenda of the European, since this kind ofviolencewouldnotexistinBrazil.

Maria Amelia Teles’s conclusion openly shows that the issue of domestic

violenceonlygetscreditwhenspecificconcretecasesexplicit theviolencesufferedby

Brazilianwomen. It also shows the influence of European feminists on their Brazilian

counterparts, who, according to the press, "copied" the claims made by foreign

feminists.

Therelationshipbetweentheacademyandactivismwasimportantnotonlyto

develop a theoretical understanding of violence against women, but also to criticize

discriminatory legaleffectsand to formulatepublicpolicies.So, itwasonly in the late

1980s, following a significant growth in feminist academic research in many fields of

11Among these works, we highlight the studies carried out by Ana Lucia Schritzmeyer and ValériaPandjiarjianattheendof1990scalledEstupro:crimeoucortesia?



974

knowledge,thatstudiesongenderrelationsanddomesticviolencegainedcentrality in

theagendaoffeministlegalscholars.

According toMiriam Grossi, LuzineteMinella e Juliana Losso (2006) 12, in the

1980s,theissueofdomesticviolencewasmuchmorevisibleinthefeministmovement

agenda, which considerably influenced the development of feminist academic

productiononthissubject.Somescholarsofthisperiodarestillimportantreferenceson

studiesaboutviolenceagainstwomen13. Besideselaborating concepts,manyof them

havealsodoneempiricalresearchesonthefunctioningofspecialcriminalcourts,police

stations and criminal expert institutes. Such studies often presented diagnoses and

proposalsforpublicpolicies.

MarizaCorrêa, inherworksOscrimesdapaixão (1981)andMorteemFamília:

representações jurídicasepapéissexuais (1983),waswhofirstcriticizedtheuseofthe

legitimate defense of honor thesis in cases ofmurders ofwomen committed by their

husbands as a legal strategy to acquit the defendant. Jaqueline Hermann and Leila

LinharesBarsted(1995)examinedcriminallegalproceedingsthatinvolvedmurdersand

bodilyinjurycrimesagainstwomenpracticedbytheirintimatepartners.Theysoughtto

identifyaspectsoftheanswersgivenbyjudgestotheissueofdomesticviolenceagainst

womenandhowthoseanswerscould transformdifferencesbetweensexes intosocial

inequalities.Accordingtothem,legaldecisions,especiallyabout“crimesofpassion”,are

based on judgments about feminine sexual morality. Legal proceedings about crimes

betweenpartnerswouldbedefinedbyjudgmentsaboutthewoman,whethervictimor

offender: if she was a good mother, a good wife and a good house-wife. Therefore,

“family”asaninstitutionisoftenconsideredalegalgoodofmoreimportance,valueand

worthy of protection than women´s lives. When a woman’s behavior threatens the

familyorganization,thereisastrongtendencytosocialcomplacencyabouthermurder

oraggressioninthehandsofherpartner.

Othersimilarsocio-legalstudiesalsosoughttodenouncesituationsofviolence

againstwomenandaddressedtheuseofbiasedstereotypes in trials involvingwomen

and women's perceptions of the legal system. They were frequently done by

12 The authors carriedout a balance sheet on the expansionof studies on violence and gender in Brazil,basedontheanalysisofthestudyofpostgraduatestudies(thesesanddissertations)andtheconclusionofcoursesongenderandviolencepublishedbetween1975and2005indifferentknowledgeareas. 13 Some of the authorswe canmention include:Mariza Corrêa,Maria Amélia Azevedo,Marilena Chauí,HeleiethSaffioti,PaulaMontero,BilaSorj,DanielleArdaillon,HeloisaAndréPontes,GuitaDebert,MatildeRibeiro,LuizaBarrios,EdnaRoland,SueliCarneiroandWaniaSantanna.



975

multidisciplinary research groupsof feminist legal scholars,whowere also involved in

advocacy for changes in a discriminatory legal framework. Someof these studies are:

Quandoavítimaémulher:análisedojulgamentodecrimesdeestupro,espancamentoe

homicídio (1987) byDanielleArdaillon andGuitaGrimmDebert;A figura/personagem

mulher em processos de família (1993), by Silvia Pimentel, Beatriz Giorgi and Flavia

Piovesan; Percepções das mulheres em relação ao direito e à justiça (1996) by Silvia

PimentelandValériaPandjiarjian.

Theacademicdiscussiononviolenceagainstwomeninthe1990s,comparedto

the1970sand1980s,presentsagreatertheoreticalunderstanding.Theaggressionsand

homicidescommittedagainstwomenby theirpartners started tobeseenasa sortof

violenceand, therefore,shouldbe legallyknownasahumanrightviolation.Then, the

research carried out in this area started to present types,meanings and concepts on

violence againstwomen alongwith changes in feminist politics and the rise of others

analytical categories such as: gender, body, sexuality, race, ethnicity, social class and

age.

While in the 1970s, for example,we only considered violence againstwomen

homicidescommittedbyhusbands,partnersorlovers,fromthe1980son,withfeminist

NGOsandspecializedpolicestationsforwomen,westartedtorecognizeotherkindsof

violenceindomesticormaritalrelationships,andlater,todiscussothersubjectssuchas

sexual harassment, child abuse and ethnical violence (GROSSI, 1994). The homicides

committed by intimate partners against women were now called by the Brazilian

feministsfeminicide14,incontrastwiththelegaldefinition:“crimesofpassion”.

Criminallawwasrepeatedlycriticizedbyfeministlegalscholars.FlorisaVerucci

wroteintheforewordofMariaAméliaAzevedo’sMulheresEspancadas:Incriminallawthereisnodifferencebetweensexesforbodilyinjurycrimesbutineffect,thiscrimeisnotpunishedwhenitcommittedbymenagainstwomen.Domestichomicidecannolongerbecalled“crimeofpassion”anditmustbe seen,which is in themost cases, as aqualified crimeagainst adefenselessperson.Rapemustalsobeconsideredinthecaseofcouples,asitisinItalyandSweden,forexample.Thiswouldallowwomentoreportatspecialized police stations […]. In criminal law, we are still far away fromequalityandrespect,muchmorethaninotherlegalfields(VERUCCI,1985,p.IX).

14Asanexample,wecanciteSuelyAlmeida(1998).



976

FlorisaVerucci'sdiscoursehighlightstwoimportantpointsinthisdebate:onthe

one hand, legal equalitymust be built also in the field of criminal law. On the other

hand,thedifficultiesofachievingthistypeof"equality"inthisfieldseemtobegreater

than in others. Althoughnot explicitlymentioned, it canbe said that FlorisaVerucci’s

analyticaleffortsaimtomakeexplicitthesexistnatureofcriminallaw15.

In the 1980s, the issue of violence against women started to be addressed

throughagender-basedapproachwithoutturningbackonthe“woman”and“women”

categories,though.

From a gender perspective, two interpretations on violence against women

arise: The first,which identifiedwithMarxismand radical feminism, understoodmale

violence as a reflection of patriarchal andmale domination16. The second, of amore

relativistic nature, considered violence as part of domination/submission in gender

relations(GREGORI,1993;GROSSI,1991).

Whether in academic environments or in social movement, the discussion

among those two perspectives divided feminists. The first one, closer to sociology, is

more often used by feminist legal scholars. But further research carried out by

anthropologistsandsociologists, suchas LourdesBandeira,MireyaSoares, LiaZanotta

Machado, Bárbara Musumeci Soares and Eliane Brandão, sought to break up the

dualism.Althoughtheissueofviolentmenbegantobediscussed,therewerenotmany

studiesinthisarea17andveryfewmaleresearcherstookviolenceagainstwomenasan

objectofstudy.

ThearticulationbetweenraceandgenderhadalreadybeenconsideredinLelia

Gonzalézstudiesfromthe1970s.Inthe1990s,itwaspresentinapproachesadoptedby

scholarslinkedtoblackwomen’slibsuchasSandraAzeredo(1994),EdnaRoland(1995),

MatildeRibeiro(1995)andLuizaBarrios(1995).Later,SueliCarneiro(2003)emphasized

theneedforblackeningfeminism:

(A) Foryears,blackwomenhavebeentryingtoextendtheconceptofviolenceagainstwomenbeyondaggressionandsexualabuse.Theconceptof racialviolence would be a way of approaching actions that produce physical,psychological,developmentaldamageordeprivation.(...)Storiesthatsoundmore like echoes of the colonial period remain present in the social

15 Carol Smart inTheWomanof LegalDiscourse (1992) presents three elements for reflecting on law assomethinggender-biased. 16SeealsoHeleithSAFFIOTI(1987,1994,2004)andMariaAméliaAZEVEDO(1985). 17MariaReginaLisboamentionsthatthefirst"SymposiumofMan"organizedbymenandformenwasheldinOctober1985.



977

imaginary. Renewed, they havenew functions in a supposedly democraticsocialorderinwhichtherolesestablishedforgenderrelationsaccordingtocolor or race, since the slavery period, remain intact. This traditioncontinues to legitimize specific formsof violence currently experiencedbyblack women such as sexual tourism and trafficking in women. All thesesubjectsclaimaracialaxisasafundamentalframework.

Studiesalongthislineare:AsMulhereseaLegislaçãoContraoRacismo,byLeila

LinharesBarsted, JacquelineHermannandMaria ElviraVieiradeMello (2001);Razão,

‘cor’ e desejo: uma análise comparativa sobre relacionamentos afetivo-sexuais “inter-

raciais”noBrasilenaÁfricadoSu”,byLauraMoutinho (2004)andViolênciacontraa

mulher e saúde: umolhar damulher negra, organized by Casa de Cultura daMulher

Negra(2004).

At the beginning of the 21st century, studies on domestic violence play an

important role in the feminist agenda. The previous feminist position of denouncing

impunity for violence and legal system disregard for violence against women raised

concernsaboutproposalsofchangeinlaw.Thischangeoccurredduetothreeimportant

facts inthisperiod:a)thecreationofthefirstspecializedpolicestationsforwomenin

1985; b) the successful feminist intervention in the National Constituent Assembly,

whichresultedinanumberofproposalsapprovedinthenewConstitution18andc)the

emergenceofnon-governmentalwomen'srightsorganizations19.

At theendof1980s, feminists started todo research toevaluateandmonitor

specializedwomen'spolicestationsandotherpublicpoliciesdesignedtocurbdomestic

violence.Theideawastoencouragereportsondomesticviolencebymeansofamore

welcomingenvironment,countingonqualifiedfemaleprofessionalstoconductrequired

criminalprocedures.Also,thiswouldmeananopportunitytogivevisibilitytotheissue

andshowStateactionthroughthecriminal liabilityof theaggressors.Theexpectation

was that women who suffered violence would have access to proper services and

therefore denounce abusers, who would be exemplarily punished. Despite being a

publicpolicesupportedbythefeministmovement,several furtherstudiespointedout

difficultiestoaccomplishthegoalsestablished20.

18According to Cecília Santos (2010), the National Council ofWomen's Rights played a significant role inincorporating80%ofthefeministproposalsinthe1988ConstitutionAssembly. 19Formoreinformationaboutthechangesinthewomen'smovementandthecreationofNGOs,seeMiriamGrossi(1998). 20 See Bárbara SOARES,1996; JacquelineMUNIZ, 1996; Lia ZanottaMACHADO, 2001 andWânia PasinatoIzumino(1998).



978

Ontheotherhand,thetransnationalactivismofthefeministmovementinthe

1990saroundinternationalhumanrightstreatiesmadeforeignfeministscomecloserto

Brazilians.AldaFacio,Carol Smart,RebeccaCook,KimberléCrenshaw,VirginiaVargas,

Gladys Acosta, Lorena Fries are some of themost recurring foreign authors in works

producedbyBrazilianfeministlegalscholarsatthattime.

In themid-2000s, the setof studiesonviolenceagainstwomendeveloped for

almostthirtyyearsgavebasisforfeministadvocacyworksorientedtoapproveMariada

PenhaLaw,whichproposedanimportantchangeinlegalapproachonviolenceagainst

women. This process gave wing to the theoretical-critical approaches to law and

institutions of the legal system through varied feminist perspectives (SEVERI, 2018,

CAMPOS,2017).

3.Violence,genderandrecentfeministpublicationsinthefieldoflaw

Feminist publications - even theproductionof the authorsherepresentedare absent

frommost university libraries aswell as references in professional and scholarworks,

whether by teachers, students and Brazilian courts of law. This production began to

expand and become more visible in the legal field only in the last decade, with the

creationofMariadaPenhaLaw,whichbecameoneofthemostrecurringtopicsinthe

studiesonviolenceagainstwomen(SEVERI,2018).

Thisisnotacoincidence:MariadaPenhaLaw(Brazil'sFederalLaw11340)isthe

result of a long trajectory of feminist movements and advocacy in the country; it

reinforces the duty of the Brazilian State to guarantee women’s human rights in

accordance with international treaties Brazil was already bonded to; it brings several

legal institutes and novel concepts into Brazilian legislation; it also introduces the

conceptofgenderasacategoryforlegalanalysis.

Althoughinprogressforatleastthirtyyears,theeffortstocomprehendthelaw,

dispute itsmeaningsandseta feminist standpoint in critical legal studieshasbecome

moreprominentinBrazilianlegalacademyonlyinrecentyears,throughtheeffortsofa

widefieldoffemaleactivistsandauthorsfromvariedtheoreticalstrands.

Thisrecentproductionhasbeenbringingvisibilitytopreviouslylittleknown,or

evendenied,bibliographyonthehistoryoffeminismandfeministlegalcritiquesaswell



979

as to thevastproductionongenderand feminism inother fieldsofhumanandsocial

sciences.

Oneof themainbooks that faceaconsiderablepartof thesechallenges isLei

Maria da Penha comentada em uma perspectiva jurídico-feminista, organized by

Carmen Hein de Campos, as coordinated by CLADEM / Brazil - Latin American and

CaribbeanCommitteeforWomen'sRightsdefense.Mostofthetextsinthisbookwere

producedbymembers21ofthefeministNGOsconsortiumthatdraftedthebillofMaria

daPenhaLawandbythelegalmindswhotookpartinthedebatesaboutthecreation,

interpretationandenforcementofthislawinaccordancewiththepurposesthatledto

its elaboration. The texts also analyzedMaria da Penha Law from awomen’s human

rightsframeworkandthroughtheperspectiveofthesocialmovementsthatfoughtfor

itsapproval.

Thefirstsectionofthebookpresentsdataaboutthetrajectoryofthefeminist

strugglefortheapprovaloftheMariadaPenhaLawinBrazil.Itanalyzesthelegislative

processthatresultedinthepassingofthislaw,thelegaldisputeoverthedefinitionofits

final textand themainchallenges for its legal interpretationandpracticalapplication.

ThesecondsectioniscomposedofarticlesthatstudiedeachofthelegaldeviceinMaria

daPenhaLaw,consideringthesocialandlegalreasonsforwhichtheywereestablished.

IndialoguewithfeministtheoriesonLawproducedallovertheworld,thebookbroke

new ground for the construction of a feminist critique on the main criminological

paradigms and juridical-penal hegemony in theBrazilian academy. It also provided an

interpretationofMariadaPenhaLawthatwasmoreattunedtowomen’shumanrights.

The analysis of Maria da Penha Law, or even laws on domestic violence in

general,isanusualsubjectinfeministlegalstudies.Manyoftheseapproachespointto

thestrengtheningofthedialoguebetweenBrazilian,foreignfeministsandothercritical

legal approaches. An important part of this production also calls attention to the link

betweentheproblemofviolenceagainstwomenandtheracialissue.

Thiskindofapproachcanbeseen intheseworks:DiscursosNegros: legislação

penal,políticacriminaleracismo,organizedbyAnaFlauzina,FelipeFreitas,HectorVieira

andThulaPires(2015);AsituaçãodosDireitosHumanosdasMulheresNegrasnoBrasil:

21Someofthenamesinclude:CarmenHeinCampos,LeilaLinharesBarsted;MyllenaCalasansdeMatos,IárisCortes,RosaneM.ReisLavigne,SilviaPimentel,WâniaPasinato,FabianeSimioni,RúbiaAbsdaCruzandElaWieckoV.deCastilho.



980

violências e violações, organized by JuremaWerneck andNilza Iraci (2016);Tramas e

dramas de gênero e de cor: A violência doméstica contra mulheres negras, by Bruna

Cristina Jaquetto Pereira (2016); and Da expectativa à realidade: a aplicação das

sançõesnaLeiMariadaPenha,byLuannaThomazdeSouza(2016).

This production, unlike the initial frameworks that emphasized exclusively

criminal lawor criminological issues,bringsnew readingsofMariadaPenha Law that

callattentiontotheracialdimensionindomesticandfamilyviolenceagainstwomen.

Inthissense,BrunaPereira(2016)makesapointofthesilenceabouttheracial

issueinstudiesonviolenceagainstwomeninBrazil.Sheunderlinesthatitisextremely

necessary to include race/ color as an analytical category in studies of domestic and

family violence, since Brazilian women are constituted by, and through, racialization

processes. Feminist studies from the 1980s and 1990s succeeded in turning the

domesticviolenceissueintoapublicdebate,butit isalreadyessentialtodiscussother

aspectsofthiskindofviolencethathappensindomesticenvironmentfromframeworks

thattakeintoaccounttheinterlockbetweenracial,genderandsocialclassaxes.

AnaFlauzina(2015),forexample,inframingdomesticviolencethroughgender

and race categories, highlights other effects of racism in the interpretation and

applicationofMariadaPenhaLaw,whichweakenitsgoalsanddeepenthevulnerability

ofblackbodiesbeforethecriminaljusticesystem.Accordingtoher,Unfortunately, the discussions on Maria da Penha Law have not givenattentiontothesefeaturessince,fromasexistandracistlogicreinforcedbythe aggressors, they have silenced important aspects of psychological andphysicalabusesagainstblackwomen.Inthissense,thedefinitionofwhatisviolenceagainstwomen indomesticand family settingsdoesnot considertheaggressionsbasedonraceasanimportantaspectthatmustbeanalyzednotonlytoframethecrimewithaccuracybutalsootheractionsaddressedtotheaggressors,suchasgroupsofreflection.Aswecansee,thedemandfor women’s protection against domestic violence is based on whiteness,leaving aside those whose lives are shaped by racial terror in their lives(FLAUZINA,2015,p.138).

The embracing of the feminist perspective in different fields of Law became more

frequent in laterworks.Theyalsogavemoreattentiontootherdimensionsofgenderviolence.

ThisisthecaseofOlharesFeministassobreoDireitodasFamíliasContemporâneo,byLígia

Ziggiotti de Oliveira (2016); Práticas de justiça em direito de família: estudo de caso

sobre a guarda compartilhada, by Fabiane Simioni (2017); Feminicídio - uma análise

sociojurídicadaviolênciacontraamulhernoBrasil,byAdrianaRamosdeMello(2016);



981

Criminologia feminista: teoria feminista e crítica às criminologias, by Carmen Hein de

Campos (2017);Criminologia feminista: novos paradigmas, by Soraia da RosaMendes

(2017); and Lei Maria da Penha e o projeto jurídico feminista brasileiro, by Fabiana

CristinaSeveri(2018).

By the end of the 1990s, most feminist legal minds were strongly bonded to

feministmovements;onlya fewofthemwere inanacademicenvironment.Butthese

recentworksrevealthatfeministstudiesonLawarenowprofessionalizedastheyhave

started tobedoneby scholarswho, although relatively close towomen’smovements

providing specialized service in courts that deal with violence against women, are

researchersorteachersformallylinkedtolawschoolsorresearchgroupsinthisarea.

This considerable changedeserves special attention because both science and

Lawareplacesthatarehistoricallyaddressedtomen.Thisisnottosaythatwomenhad

been formally excluded from those fields and that barriers do not exist anymore. But

thereisaneedtoanalyzeingreaterdepththebreachesthatallowedthosewomento

beinthoseplacesdespitetheresistancetotheirpresence.

Recently, works concerned with legal education in a gender perspective have

beengrowing.Forexample,thebookofafeministactivist,MariaAmeliaTeles,entitled

Os cursos de direito e a perspectivas de gênero, was released by a legal commercial

publisher (Sergio Fabris). It focuses on presenting the main concepts, theoretical

frameworksandhistoricalrecordstoenableprofessionalstoadoptagenderperspective

whileanalyzinglaw,improvingtheimplementationofwomen’shumanrights.Thereare

alsootherworksdealingwithfeminismandlegaleducation(orpopulareducationinlaw)

such as:A violência de gênero nos espaços do direito, organized byVanessaDorneles

Schinke(2017),ManualparaPromotorasLegaisPopulares–PLPs,organizedbySuelaine

Carneiro and Tânia Portella (2013) Introdução crítica ao direito dasmulheres, a book

organized by José Geraldo de Sousa Júnior, Bistra Stefanova Apostolova and Lívia

GimenesDiasdaFonseca,in2011,withotherbooksofthecolletionOdireitoachadona

rua.



982

Conclusion

Ourresearchso farshowsthat former feminist legalstudieswerenot in thecenterof

thewholescholarproduction in law.Wealsohighlight that in this firstmoment these

studies are strongly linkedwith the agenda of feministmovements, in particular, the

demand forwomen’s rights. In this sense, theywerepartof the feministmovement’s

strategies to create new legal, political and institutional tools to confront violence

againstwomeninBrazil.

Sincethemid-2000s,feministlegalstudieshavebeengettingmorevisibilityand

expanding their research proposals, subjects and theoretical-methodological

approaches, with greater dialoguewith transnational feminism and other theoretical-

epistemologicalframeworks.Iffeministcriticalthoughtappearstodayassomethingnewintheacademicfield

and impose itself as a an innovative theoretical trendwith a strong critical potential,

thatisbecauseanumberofpioneerfeministlegalscholarshadalreadypavedtheway.

Thisisnotonlyduetotheoriginalityoftheiranalysis,butmainlytheintellectualmodel

role they tookonasboth thinkers and feminist activists that fought for legal changes

thatwereextremelyimportanttoenforcewomen’shumanrightsandconfrontviolence

againstwomen.

Maristella Svampa uses the image of an amphibian to explain this particular

abilityofbeing,at thesametimeascholar,a researcherandaprofessional, sincethis

kindofanimallivesindifferentworlds,withdifferentsolidaritiesandbonds.Unlike,for

example,thechameleon-whichadaptstodifferentsituations,accordingtothetypeof

interlocutor - “the so called amphibian scholar states her own knowledge and skills,

developingagreaterunderstandingand reflexivityon thedifferent social realitiesand

on herself”. The main challenge to the amphibian feminist legal minds was thinking

creatively "the crosses, the bridges and the linkages that are possible to establish

betweentheseverydifferentuniverses",even if theyarefleetingandprecarious. The

effectsofthiswork,inouropinion,canalreadybefelt.



983

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AbouttheauthorsCarmenHeindeCamposProfessoratLawSchoolGraduateandPosGraduateProgramoftheUniversityCenter–UniRitter/RS.PhdinCriminalLawatPontificalCatholicUniversityofRioGrandedoSul.E-mail:[email protected]:http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4672-0084.FabianaCristinaSeveriProfessor at Law School Graduate Program of the University of São Paulo in RibeirãoPreto (FDRP/USP). Associate Professor of Human Rights at College of Ribeirão Preto/University of São Paulo. E-mail: [email protected]. ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8399-7808.Theauthorscontributedequallyforwritingthearticle.

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Violence against women and the feminist critique of Law: a brief ... · Keywords: Feminist critique of Law; Violence against women; Rights of women. Resumo O presente artigo analisa