· Web viewUnless otherwise specified, the reference direction is generally understood to be magnetic North. Unfortunately, magnetic north and true north are not one and the same

Field Methods in Research and Conservation of Vertebrate Populations

FW 4108

August 2008

FW 4108 – Field Methods in Research and Conservation of Vertebrate PopulationsCloquet Forestry Center Late Summer Session

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Lead InstructorDr. J.L. David Smith, Profesor, University of Minnesota

Teaching Assistants (all Students in the Conservation Biology PhD Program, University of Minnesota)

Bhim GurungPete Cutter

Jesse KroeseNamfon Cutter

Peter CutterMike Rentz

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Table of Contents

I. Course Overview.................................................................................................................................. 5Calendar: Assignments, Quizzes, and Exams................................................................................6Exams and Quizzes........................................................................................................................ 6Attitude and field performance........................................................................................................6Overall Course Evaluation..............................................................................................................6

II. Introduction to Minnesota’s Geography and Ecological Zonation...............................................7Unit 1: Navigation, Telemetry, and Field Data Collection................................................................11

1.1 Map Concepts............................................................................................................................. 111.2 Basic Orienteering....................................................................................................................... 11

Assignment 1.1: Basic Orienteering Skills....................................................................................131.3 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)..............................................................................................15

Differential GPS............................................................................................................................ 16Assignment 1.2: GPS Use............................................................................................................18

1.4 Navigating Without a Compass or GPS.......................................................................................181.5 Telemetry.................................................................................................................................... 20

Telemetry Concepts......................................................................................................................20Assignment 1.3: Telemetry...........................................................................................................22

Unit 2: Natural History and Field Identification of Minnesota Vertebrates.....................................232.1 Minnesota Vertebrate Diversity, Conservation and Management in Context...............................232.2 Mammal Natural History and Identification..................................................................................24

Exam Review Strategy: Mammal Identification.............................................................................322.3 Birds of Minnesota.......................................................................................................................32

Exam Review Strategy for Birds...................................................................................................332.4 Fish of Minnesota........................................................................................................................34

Exam Review Strategy for Fish.....................................................................................................342.5 Reptiles and Amphibians of Minnesota.......................................................................................34

Recommended Field Guide:.........................................................................................................36Exam Review Strategy for Herps..................................................................................................36

Unit 3: Statistical Analysis.................................................................................................................. 373.1 Chi-Square (Goodness of fit) test................................................................................................37

Assignment 3.1: 2 Analysis.........................................................................................................423.2 Capture – Mark – Recapture Analysis.........................................................................................46

Unit 4: Designing and Conducting Field Projects............................................................................484.1 Successful Project Planning........................................................................................................484.2 Small Mammal Distribution and Habitat Use...............................................................................49

Background to the Project.............................................................................................................49Assignment 4.1: Small Mammal Trapping and Analysis...............................................................49

4.3 Mammal Telemetry......................................................................................................................52Assignment 4.2: Bear Telemetry Project......................................................................................53

4.4 Bird capture, banding, and survey techniques.............................................................................55Assignment 4.3: Bird Lecture Notes.............................................................................................55

Unit 5: Aquatic Vertebrate and Ecological Assessment..................................................................565.1 Stream Ecology Study.................................................................................................................56

Assignment 5.1: Estimating Stream Flow.....................................................................................56Assignment 5.2: Invertebrate sampling........................................................................................56

Unit 6: Wildlife Management and Policy............................................................................................586.1 Straight River Trout Population Assessment...............................................................................58

The Scenario................................................................................................................................ 58Assignment 6.1: Fish Sampling Work Plan...................................................................................60Assignment 6.2: Professional Letter.............................................................................................60

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References........................................................................................................................................... 62Appendices.......................................................................................................................................... 63

Appendix 1. Map of Cloquet Forestry Center Property and Surrounding Areas................................63Appendix 2. 2 Distribution and Critical Value Table.........................................................................65Appendix 3: Some common writing problems encountered in past classes......................................67

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I. Course OverviewGoal: To develop skills and confidence in planning and undertaking effective fieldwork.Objectives

1. To provide experience in planning and conducting field management and research projects.

2. To introduce a variety of techniques used in assessing and/or monitoring populations.

3. To develop basic field and management skills. 4. To develop skills in data collection and management 5. To increase knowledge of the basic natural history of the Great Lakes ecoregion.6. To enjoy the course and your time in Northeast Minnesota

UnitsThe course is divided into seven major units. Each unit consists of background

information, classroom instruction and practical fieldwork. Topics covered are:

Introduction to Minnesota geography and ecological zonation Species identification Statistical analysis Field projects Aquatic Ecological Assessment Wildlife Management and Policy

Online ResourcesWe have created a WebVista site for the course that should be accessible from your

student account. This site contains readings, maps, and other resources. If you have not used WebVista or encounter any problems, please see one of the TAs for assistance.

Data / Assignment ManagementData will be collected either on data sheets, notebooks, or entered into a class Google

spreadsheet. The Google spreadsheets can be accessed by navigating to:

www.gmail.com Use the following to log in:

Username: cloquet2007Password: fieldworkOn the first screen click on docs to access all documents. When you are entering data

onto any Google document it is saved automatically.

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http://www.gmail.com/


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Calendar: Assignments, Quizzes, and Exams

No. Assignment and ExplanationAssigned to: and Evaluation Date Due*

-Field NotesYou are required to keep daily field notes. Please carry an appropriate pen and notebook at all times. We will discuss the rationale and strategies for taking field notes.

IndividualField notebooks will be reviewed at least twice.

1.1 Basic Orienteering Individual1.2 GPS Use Individual1.3 Telemetry Groups3.1 2 Analysis Individual4.1 Small Mammal Project Groups4.2 Bear Telemetry Project Groups4.3 Bird Lecture Notes Individual5.1 Estimating Stream Flow Individual5.2 Invertebrate Sampling Groups6.1 Fish Sampling Work Plan Groups6.2 Professional Letter Individual

Exams and QuizzesExam or Quiz Date*Quiz: Navigation and Field MeasurementsQuiz: PlantsQuiz: Mammal Lab This will focus on mammals of the region. Quiz: BirdsThis will focus on the common species of Minnesota. Final ExamThis will include questions from any and probably all topics covered in the course. Additionally, you will be expected to be able to identify and name common Minnesota fish species as set out in the PowerPoint Field Guide Project.

*These dates are subject to modification based on the timing of other activities and the weather during the course. Adequate advance notice will be given.

Attitude and field performanceThe success of field projects depends on effective cooperation, planning, coordination in

processing data, and communicating results. Virtually any professional evaluation you encounter in a natural resource agency scenario will take your performance in these areas into account. Performance evaluation for this course will reflect this by taking into account your field skills, communication skills, and your ability to work in a team.

Overall Course EvaluationThe contribution of each element of the course will weigh towards your final grade as

follows:

Course Element %Trout Project (Report and Letter) 10Small Mammal Project Report 10Telemetry Project Report 10Stream Analysis 5Bird Quiz 5Mammal Quiz 10Final Exam 30Field Notes 10Attitude and Field Performance 10

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II. Introduction to Minnesota’s Geography and Ecological Zonation Physical Geography of Minnesota

Quarternary geology strongly influences present plant distributions in Minnesota. The following is an overview, excerpted from http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/snas/naturalhistory.html.

Glacial advancesThe gigantic Laurentide Ice Sheet, centered in what is now the Hudson Bay, grew and

retreated with climatic changes throughout the Ice Age. During colder periods, it extended southward across the upper midwest in what are called glaciations, each named for a geographic area: Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoian, and Wisconsin.

The Wisconsin glaciation, the most recent, had `the last word' as it created the surface features we live with today. Beginning about 75,000 years ago, it, too, experienced periodic growth and decay with changing conditions. Its advances produced tongues of ice called lobes, each named for a specific geographic area: Wadena, Rainy, Superior, and Des Moines. Each lobe also experienced periodic growth and decay.

The Wadena Lobe advanced from the north several times. Its last advance deposited the Alexandria moraine (which was later reglaciated), the Itasca moraine, and the drumlin fields spanning Otter Tail, Wadena, and Todd counties.

The Rainy and Superior Lobes came out of the northeast and advanced, sometimes with and sometimes independently of the Wadena. Its last advance left a coarse-textured till of basalts, gabbro, granite, iron formation, red sandstone, slate, and greenstone strewn across the northeastern half of Minnesota and as far south as the Twin Cities.

The Des Moines Lobe originated in the northwest and advanced in a southeasterly direction across Minnesota and into Iowa. Its fine-textured till consisted of limestone, shale, and granite fragments, from which developed the fine prairie (now agricultural) soils found in these areas.

Earlier lobes and glaciations also left their marks, though their effects are generally buried beneath more recent glacial drift. We occasionally glimpse

the underlying till that is distinctive of their origin, or the striations on bedrock outcrops that indicate their direction of travel. They echo much earlier times.

Glacier definedBecause glaciation is so significant to understanding today's landforms, it warrants a

closer look. A glacier is a large body of ice moving slowly across a land surface. It forms when snow accumulates faster than it melts over a long period of time. Under the weight of the ice mass, a sole of ice melts at the bottom and allows the glacier to move. A glacier also moves by internal, plastic flow. The ice mass shrinks or expands yearly, reflecting the net effect of the year's weather.

Glacial erosionGlaciers sculpt the surface of the earth as they expand, cutting through relatively soft

materials, picking up occasional pieces of rock or debris along the way, and depositing them further on. As the sole picks up various sizes of debris, it acquires texture and abrasive power that varies much like grades of sandpaper. On some bedrock outcrops today, parallel lines scar the surface, indicating that a rock frozen into the glacier's sole passed here long ago.

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Figure 1. Minnesota's most recent glacial lobes and paths.

http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/snas/naturalhistory.html


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These markings are called striations, while wider, deeper markings are known as grooves. Finely textured particles in the sole produced highly polished rock surfaces, much like fine sandpaper. Striations and grooves are helpful in identifying the direction of the glacial flow that took place on a given site. Gneiss Outcrops and Swedes Forest SNAs are good places to see such markings.

Glacial depositsThe glacier deposits its collection of rocks and debris in a variety of ways. Glacial deposits,

generally, are called drift. However, other terms are more descriptive of the materials and their formation. A collection of debris, unsorted by size or substance, is known as till. Single rocks deposited far from their source are known as erratics. A thin blanket of low hills and lowlands laid down while the glacier is moving is called ground moraine. Ground moraine that has been molded into streamlined hills with its long axes parallel to the direction of ice flow is called a drumlin field. An end moraine is an irregular, hilly deposit of till at the ice margin or toe of the ice sheet; Prairie Coteau SNA is a fine example.

Figure 1. Glacial formations.

Often a huge chunk of ice, buried by debris, becomes isolated from the glacier. It then slowly melts, and leaves a collapsed pit of debris. This is called a kettle or ice-block, which often becomes a kettle lake when conditions are right. In the prairie, these are called potholes. Boot Lake SNA contains a kettle, or ice-block, lake.

Along the margins of the glacier, wet sediment collects, then settles and slumps, forming hummocks and uneven terrain. A chain of lakes often forms along these glacial margins.

Stagnant ice sometimes forms a melt out depression that fills with outwash deposits when the rest of the ice melts. This leaves a conical hill called a kame. Yellow Bank Hills SNA, in Lac qui Parle county, preserves kames that host a prairie community.

Recurrent melting within the glacier creates streams of meltwater that tunnel through the ice mass. These streams carry debris, which may actually plug a tunnel, resulting in the formation of a new tunnel. Later, when the glacier melts away, this plug is left on the land in a long, molded ridge of sand and gravel called an esker. Ripley Esker SNA, just north of Little Falls, protects a fine example of such a plug. If the stream carries the debris outside the glacier, it may be deposited as outwash, or sorted sand and gravel sediment deposited along the stream bed; Helen Allison Savanna SNA is a good example.

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Figure 3. Minnesota's glacial lakes and rivers.


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Glacial lakes and rivers Glacial lakes are another great legacy of the glaciers. All were dammed on one side by the

ice sheet and many approached the scale of a sea. Glacial Lake Agassiz was the largest. Fluctuating in size and depth, it left behind a series of beaches that now outline the broad, flat Red River Valley. Others include Glacial Lakes Upham, Aitkin, and Duluth.

From time to time these glacial lakes overflowed, and cut huge river channels. At its highest level, Glacial Lake Agassiz crested a moraine at Brown's Valley and spilled over to become the Glacial River Warren. Its bed continues to drain the surrounding uplands, though the water volume of today's Minnesota River is a fraction of the original flow. Consequently, the broad river valley and high stream terraces, remnants from long ago, dwarf today's river. This is also true for today's St. Croix and Mississippi River valleys. Visit the high terrace on Bonanza Prairie SNA near Big Stone Lake to get a sense of the magnitude of the ancient river as you look across this broad lake to the bluffs in North Dakota.

Biomes (Provinces)The ecological classification system developed by the MN Department of Natural

Resources distinguishes three major climatic zones, called provinces or biomes. Climate plays an important role in landscape development. Minnesota's climate is affected in the north by Arctic air, and in the south by weather systems from the Gulf of Mexico. There is a division among the biomes, with coniferous forest in the colder northern climate, and prairie and deciduous forest most broadly distributed in the warmer, southern part of the state.

Biomes are large enough to contain localized areas not entirely characteristic of the province itself. For example, a bluff top along a river in the Deciduous Woods may produce a dry "goat" prairie rather than a woodlands, due to its exposure, soils, and drainage. In turn, the Prairie Grasslands biome contains not only prairies, but rivers lined by flood plain forests.

Plant communitiesPlant and animal species flourish or

perish, depending upon their environmental conditions. Local groupings of trees, shrubs, grasses, and forbs are called plant communities, and are characterized by the kinds and quantities of species they contain.

Communities are subject to change. The change may be rapid, as after a disturbance, when pioneer species move into the altered environment. As the community develops, it may change the local conditions enough to favor other kinds of species, and a new community succeeds the old. Climax communities, such as the maple-basswood forest, continue to thrive under the conditions they create, and remain stable until disturbed.

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Figure 2. Ecological Provinces of Minnesota.


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Unit 1: Navigation, Telemetry, and Field Data Collection1.1 Map Concepts

As abstract models of the real world, maps vary greatly in terms of their projection system and symbology. In many cases, a printed topographic or other type of map can be an invaluable asset in the field as it contains a wealth of information in a compact format. Field notes can refer to symbols on the map or applied directly to the map.

Although modern advances such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have in some ways transformed how we navigate over the landscape, basic map and compass skills remain relevant to numerous aspects of outdoor work and should always be respected as a fall back to your GPS

1.2 Basic Orienteering Compass work

Compasses are used to determine angles for land survey work. For day-to-day fieldwork, a hand compass will often provide sufficient accuracy (within 1 to 2 degrees). If greater accuracy is required a staff mounted compass or transit can be used.

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Figure 5. Diagram of a standard hand compass.

Key to adjust declination

Bezel


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Compasses can be used to determine direction to a specific object, or to run a line in a specified direction. Directions are specified as bearings. A bearing is the clockwise angle between a reference direction and the direction to an object. Unless otherwise specified, the reference direction is generally understood to be magnetic North. Unfortunately, magnetic north and true north are not one and the same (see Figure 3. Compass error due to declination.). The deviation between magnetic and true north is called declination. Declination differs from place to place and changes over time. Isogonic charts such as the one shown

in Error: Reference source not foundcan be used to determine declination. Currently, declination in the Cloquet area is approximately 3 E. Due to the inconsistency of magnetic north, survey directions should always be corrected for declination before recording. Your compass can be adjusted to account for declination. If not, the surveyor must manually account for declination when finding bearings. If your compass cannot be adjusted for declination and you are in an area of east declination, add declination to your azimuth reading to get true azimuth. Likewise, in an area of west declination you would subtract. Local mineral deposits, fences, etc. can

interfere with direction determination with a magnetic compass. Such local attraction can only be accounted for if both foresights and backsights are taken along compass lines. Likewise, it is important to be aware of metal objects you are wearing or carrying and how they may affect compass behavior.

Running accurate compass lines with a hand compass only comes with experience. A common problem many beginning surveyor’s have is determining how often they should refer to the compass; the tendency is to err on the "too frequent" side. The proper way to proceed through an area with a compass is to sight on an object 30 to 50 meters away (or as far as conditions allow if less

than 30 meters) and walk to that object before taking an new reading. If local attraction is expected, backsights should also be carried out.

Distance DeterminationPacing is commonly used for measuring distances. A pace is

equivalent to two steps. Paces must be individually calibrated against known distances. All calibration and measurements should be carried out with a natural, comfortable gait that could be maintained over prolonged periods. Consistency in pace is the greatest contributor to accuracy of this technique. Distances should never be recorded in paces; they should be converted to a standard unit (e.g. meters).

Generally, distance measured in the field will be used counted as horizontal when used on maps or in GIS projects. This means that you may have to calibrate your pacing for several types of conditions and terrains. Usually, your pace tends to

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Figure 8. Selecting a reference object in line with a sighted bearing.

Figure 6. Isogonic chart: global scale.

Figure 3. Compass error due to declination.


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shorten in sloping terrain (both uphill and downhill). The “shortened pace” effect will be exasperated further because slope distance is always longer than horizontal distance. A potential source of error in distance determination is losing track count of paces. Tallies in two or five chain increments can alleviate this problem.

Under the best conditions, the experienced surveyor can maintain an accuracy of 1:80 through pacing. Other distance measurement options include the use of a traditional hip-chain (a chain pulled to a specific tension to measure a distance), a heavy duty cloth tape measure (often used to take measurements within vegetation plots), a floss hip chain system (essentially disposable thread that is fed out through a measurement device attached to a waist-belt), and a GPS (covered in greater detail below).

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Assignment 1.1: Basic Orienteering SkillsA pacing course 400 meters long over typical, fairly flat "open" and "forest" terrain has

been divided into two 200-meter segments. Pace over the course twice. Record in the table below the number of paces between each pair of stakes marking the segments. Compute the average number of paces (to the nearest one-quarter pace) required for each segment and for each trip.

Segment (cover type)Trip Open Forest Average AcrossNo. 100 m 100 m Segments12

Avg. Across Trips

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Average paces across segments and trips: __________

Average paces per 20 meters: __________

Back in the class room, enter your data into the Google spreadsheet named A2: Compass and pacing. Hand in the map to the assignment tray.

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1.3 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are worldwide radio signal-navigation systems to assist

with navigation throughout the globe. The United States’ GPS was the first such system and remains the most robust and widely used. Russia has a separate system and the European Union is working to develop their own system (Galileo) by 2010. The US’s GPS system has a constellation of 21 active and 3 backup satellites and various ground stations as its reference points. Each 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the globe at an altitude of about 12,000 miles (19,300 km), making two complete rotations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at any time there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky from anywhere on Earth. Small, mobile receivers (called “roving receivers”) use these satellites as reference points to calculate positions accurate to within meters. More advanced forms of GPS allow for measurement to within less than a centimeter! A reduction in size and cost of producing GPS receivers has made the technology accessible to a wide variety of users.

In a nutshell, here's how the GPS works: http://www.howstuffworks.com/gps2.htm A roving receiver (typically either a handheld or vehicle-mounted unit) receives the

necessary information from a system of satellites to triangulate its position. To triangulate, a GPS receiver needs 2 key pieces of information from each of several

satellites:1. The position of each transmitting satellite in space2. The time it takes for the transmitted signal to travel from the satellite to the

receiver. Rather than using directional information to triangulate (as one might use in orienteering

or telemetry), a location is calculated as the intersection point of 4 radii of known length (or the intersection of 3 radii and additional information on the location of the earth’s surface).

The GPS process can be seen as consisting of 5 key components:

Known locations of satellites (the baseline spatial reference information)To use the satellites as references for range measurements we need to know exactly

where they are in space.

Each satellite in a GPS constellation is a high, stable orbit which allows for accurate location information at any given time.

Minor variations in orbits are measured by ground stations and passed on to other elements of the GPS so that corrections can be made.

Effective Communication Between Satellites and Receiver A coded radio signal (1575.42 MHz frequency in the UHF band) is used to transmit

information from satellites to roving receivers. These signals can travel through porous materials including air, clouds, glass and

plastic but not through most solid objects such as buildings and mountains. They consist of 2 general types of information: A pseudorandom code which contains the information necessary for the

receiver to calculate the signal’s travel time from the transmitting satellite; and Almanac data which provides the GPS receiver with the locations of both the

transmitting satellite and every other satellite in the GPS constellation.

Accurate Timing Accurate timing is the key to measuring the distance between a satellite and a GPS

receiver.

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http://www.howstuffworks.com/gps2.htm


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Accurate timing is accomplished through atomic clocks on board each individual satellite.

The atomic clocks on the GPS satellites constantly update a less expensive quartz clock in the GPS receiver to achieve acceptable levels of accuracy (~10 billionth of a second).

The range to a given satellite is determined by measuring how long a radio signal takes to reach the GPS receiver from that satellite and multiplying that time by the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s or ~30 cm in a billionth of a second). If the traveled time of the signal is increased by just 3 nanoseconds, the calculated distance between satellite and receiver will increase by about a meter!

Triangulation Four satellite ranges are required to derive a precise, unique location in 3D space.

However, with very rough information about the approximate location of the surface of the earth, a GPS can “rule out” one of two location solutions for 3 satellites and estimate a position.

Error Correction Several factors can affect the accuracy of the GPS system at a given time. These

include delays in the GPS signal speed due to ionospheric and atmospheric interference, the number and configuration of satellites in the sky, and orbital perturbations caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon.

Some errors can be corrected or reduced by incorporating information from other satellites in the system into the various calculations made by both satellites and receivers.

Differential GPS and the WAAS system (see below) can eliminate much of the error found in the standard GPS system described above.

Differential GPSIn order to correct the various inaccuracies in the GPS system, a system of “differential”

GPS or DGPS was introduced. DGPS can provide positional accuracy to within a couple of meters in applications where the receiver is moving, and even better accuracy in stationary situations.

The key to a DGPS system is an additional instrument beyond the satellites and receiver described above. This additional component (commonly called a “base station”) has both a receiver and transmitter and communicates with both the satellite constellation and a GPS receiver unit.

The base station is placed at a known location. It compares this location with its calculated location and from this, calculates "error correction" factors for all visible satellites. It's as if the reference receiver is saying: "OK everybody, right now the signal from satellite #1 is ten nanoseconds delayed, satellite #2 is three nanoseconds delayed, satellite #3 is sixteen nanoseconds delayed...." and so on.

A roving receiver within the range of the base station gets the complete list of errors and applies the corrections for the particular satellites they're using—thus improving location accuracy.

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS): A system of satellites and ground stations that provides GPS signal corrections improving

positional accuracy (up to 5 times better than a regular GPS configuration). A WAAS – capable receiver can give you a position accuracy of better than three meters 95 percent of the time. WAAS consists of approximately 25 ground reference stations positioned across the United States that monitor GPS satellite data. Two master stations, located on either coast, collect data from the reference stations and create a GPS corrections message. This

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correction accounts for GPS satellite orbit and clock drift plus signal delays caused by the atmosphere and ionosphere. The corrected differential message is then broadcast through one of the two geo-stationary satellites, or satellites with a fixed position over the equator. The information is complete with the basic GPS signal structure, which means any WAAS-enabled GPS receiver can read the signal.

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Assignment 1.2: GPS Use Form three groups of 10-11 people, with one GPS between ~ three people within each

group. Examine the map of the Cloquet area and determine a potential location to fix a GPS

point. Drive to that point, using the map for navigation. Each member of the group takes a GPS waypoint at this location, starting each time with the GPS off.

Record the waypoint coordinates and save the waypoint in the GPS using your initials. Plot the GPS point on the map. Position a flag in a place where another team can find it, given that they have successfully navigated to the correct location.

Return to the classroom. Each person should enter their GPS data onto the Google spreadsheet named A1: GPS use and map work. One person from each group should record the coordinates of the flags planted by their group on the blackboard.

You will be assigned another group’s location to work with. Plot that group’s waypoint on your map. Enter the GPS coordinates into your group’s GPS and then navigate to that point using your group’s GPS to navigate. Collect the flag you find there and return to the classroom.

Hand in the data sheet and map in the tray provided at the front of the classroom by 9.00 p.m.

1.4 Navigating Without a Compass or GPSNature provides some extremely useful navigational aids. These may be used in situations

when a high degree of precision is not necessary or when a compass or GPS device is not available. Emergency situations may call for additional steps that are not covered in detail here.

Getting the “Lay of the land” Whenever possible, it is a good idea to seek a high vantage point to get an overall feel for

the larger landscape and use this information to develop a route. This could mean climbing a hill or perhaps a tall tree if vegetation prevents a good view of the larger surroundings. Remember that in most terrain, a straight line is not always the most effective way to get from point A to point B. Understanding the overall terrain and vegetation patterns can help avoid difficult areas (such as marshes or bamboo thickets) and target areas or routes that are will be most efficient for travel. On the other hand, climbing may be exhausting so other cues may suffice. Depending on the availability of water, it is often preferable to travel along watercourses although in some cases, ridges may offer the most efficient route. If possible, and especially if no paper map is available, record key landscape figures on a hand drawn map for reference when your landscape perspective is limited.

Often, signs of human activity or settlement are visible and even if they are slightly off your intended route, may offer the best hope of navigation or emergency response.

Establishing DirectionBecause direction angles are all relative to one another, establishing a single direction

means that you have a solid basis for moving generally in any chosen direction.

Celestial ‘reference points’ The sun, moon, planets, and other celestial bodies have been used to establish direction

and distance for thousands of years both with and without a compass. As we all know, the sun rises approximately due east and sets due west. If it is necessary to establish direction when the sun is higher in the sky, true north can be established by finding a level spot of ground and placing a straight stick upright in the ground. After marking the end of sun

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shadows cast by the stick every 15 minutes through the middle part of the day, there will be a point where the shadow is shortest. That is true north.

Moving at night is often riskier and more mentally and physically demanding than daytime travel and a clear view of the sky is usually necessary if navigating by the stars. However, Polaris (the “North Star”) can be used to establish north direction in the Northern hemisphere) and the Southern Cross can be used to establish south direction in the southern hemisphere.

Ecological CuesSometimes weather conditions or other factors will prevent the use of basic celestial

navigation techniques. In these cases, or to increase ones confidence in an improvised navigation situation, there are several natural cues that might further assist in establishing direction. It is important to understand that these are not only imprecise but may not even be accurate in some cases and so none should be taken as hard and fast rules. Many of these cues are simply related to the fact that the sun’s is not directly overhead (it is aligned with the equator and so appears to move through the southern portion of the sky in the northern hemisphere and through the northern portion of the sky in the southern hemisphere) and therefore affects surfaces differentially depending on their aspect (the direction in which they face). The following tend to be true for south-oriented surfaces in the northern hemisphere and north-oriented surfaces in the southern hemisphere:

1. They tend to be drier, have less snowpack, have less-developed woody plants (limited moisture), show earlier ripening of fruits, and in many cases, show distinctive variation in species composition (interpreting this may require some local understanding of the flora;

2. Trees usually show fewer branches (usually easiest to see if you look up along the trunk of the tree)

3. Tree trunks and branches tend to have less epiphytic growth (e.g. mosses, lichens, etc.);4. Rocks tend to have less moss.

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1.5 TelemetryTelemetry Concepts

In considering whether to undertake a telemetry study, the researcher should ask him/herself: “is telemetry the best way to test the stated hypothesis?”, and “Will it provide the information I want?”. Telemetry is costly and time consuming, and capturing and immobilization animals subjects them to risks. However, telemetry is sometimes the best, if not the only avenue for addressing the questions you want to answer. Telemetry allows identification of individuals and acquisition of repeated locations of animals without disturbing them. Telemetry can be used to investigate:

Spatial useo home range sizeo movement patterns o habitat selection

Behavioro activity patterno finding animals for observationso predation/survival/reproduction rateso location of dens or nests

Physiologyo heart rateo body temperatureo respirationo energy requirements

Seasonal differences and effects of an animals reproductive status and age class can also be investigated.

Telemetry HardwareA sampling scheme and data collection protocol needs to be tailored to the field conditions

and data requirements for testing the stated hypothesis. Sampling can be done continuously, night verses day, at random intervals or ad hoc.

Receivers and transmitters use the following frequencies:164-167; 152-154; 147-148 for terrestrial animals and birds, and 52-54; 27-28 for fish and other aquatic animals

Transmitters usually weigh 1-5 % of the animals body weight, but weight ratios should be carefully assessed on a case by case basis

Transmitters can be attached as neck collars (be careful with male ungulates in rut), implants (otters, fossorial animals [pocket gophers, badgers], flying squirrels), glue on backs of birds, harnesses for birds and some mammals with large necks and small heads

The effect that a transmitter has on a collared animal can be analyzed by evaluating differential survival, differential growth rate and behavioral change.

Home RangeThere are a multitude of definitions of the home range of an animal, including:

Burt (1943): that area traversed by the individual in its normal activities of food gathering, mating, and caring for young. Occasional sallies outside the area, perhaps exploratory in nature, should not be considered as in part of the home range.

Harris et. al. (1990): a more-or-less restricted area where an animal moves during its normal activities.

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Kernohan et. al. (2001): The extent of an area with a defined probability of occurrence of an animal during a specific time period.

A home range must essentially be sufficient to meet energy requirements for the animal in question together with any dependent offspring. In some cases, the home range will be restricted in size, either by the distribution of resources or the need to defend those resources from conspecifics. The home range size reflects social organization and mating systems, in some cases also indicating habitat quality.

Home range estimation techniques can be classed into probabilistic (assesses the animals probability of occurrence at each point in space) and non-probabilistic. Probabilistic methods incorporate utilization distributions. A utilization distribution has been defined as "the two-dimensional relative frequency distribution for the points of location of an animal over a period of time" (Van Winkle 1975). Taking this into account, Jennrich and Turner (1969) proposed a definition of home range as "the smallest sub-region which accounts for a specified proportion, p, of its total utilization"

Furthermore, an estimator can be either parametric (incorporates assumptions regarding animals use of space) or non-parametric. Commonly used home range estimators are Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP), Bivariate normal, harmonic mean and kernel.

The MCP (Mohr 1947) is by far the most commonly used estimator found in the literature, in part due to its early development and its simplicity of application. It is both non-probabalistic and non-parametric and is constructed by connecting outermost locations, with no angles pointing into the center of the polygon. As the sample size of animal observations increases, so to does the estimated MCP, which therefore tends to underestimate home range size when sample size is small (e.g. when n < 50). One of the MCP’s weaknesses is that it can incorporate area clearly never utilized by the animal, i.e. when part of the home range shape is concave (Worton 1987).

Similar to the MCP is the modified minimum area method (Harvey and Barbour 1965). In this approach, points are only joined if they are no more that a ¼ of the range length apart. This decreases usused potion of home range but using >¼ of the greatest length is arbitrary.

Stickle (1954) made the boundary strip method, where a strip is added around the minimum trapping grid area, with the strip equal to half the distance between the traps. May correct “minimum” nature of MCP but strip distance is arbitrary.

The grid square method (Siniff and Tester 1965) records which squares are used by the animals. Multiple squares have to be used by the animal to suggest a home range. The home range size generated is positively correlated with grid size and is affected by sample size bias.

A simple way of visualizing the home range is the circular method (White 1964), calculated around the arithmetic mean center of activity. A big disadvantage is, however, that this approach assumes that the home range is circular.

Jennrich and Turner (1969) developed the bivariate normal estimator, which is less dependent on sample size than the MCP. The bivariate normal estimator is probabilistic; assumes underlying bivariate distribution of locations. It is also parametric, with location closer to the center of the range weighted more than those further away. Graphically, this estimator creates an ellipse around a calculated center of the range. This ellipse and center construction is often an unrealistic representation of an animal’s use of space, so the bivariate normal technique tends to be infrequently used.

The harmonic mean estimator (Dixon and Chapman 1980) is a probabilistic but non-parametric technique; it estimates the probability of an animal being encountered at each intersection of a grid, values for which are joined to make contours. This allows inferences of more than one center of activity. Problems in this technique include sensitivity to grid size

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choice (Worton 1987) and possible issues when observed locations are at similar distances apart as grid intersections. Furthermore, home ranges tend to be both overestimated and underestimated at large and small sample sizes respectively.

Another class of popular grid based estimators are the kernel-based methods known as adaptive kernel (AK) and fixed kernel (FK). First a grid is superimposed onto the location data and density of each grid intersect is calculated. Each animal point is covered with a three dimensional “hill” of probability density. The hill’s shape and width has to be defined, taking into account estimated error. As the value of the smoothing factor increases, so to does the influence of distant locations to each grid intersect density estimate. A robust means of selecting optimal band width is Least Squares Cross Validation (LSCV), which selects the smoothing factor that minimizes error.

Unlike the harmonic mean, kernel home ranges are not sensitive to grid size or placement. Furthermore, kernels are least affected by sample size and variance can be calculated by bootstrapping (Silverman 1986).

Adaptive and fixed kernels differ in that adaptive kernels allow the smoothing factor to vary over the entire surface, so that low density areas receive more smoothing.

For all methods it is possible to investigate the affect of sample size using area curves. As sample size increases, so will the area until at some point, the gain in area is negligible where the curve reaches the asymptote. At this point there can be reasonable confidence in the full extent of the home range being realized.

Each method has strengths, weaknesses and inherent assumptions. Selection of the appropriate method may include consideration of (a) sample size, (b) independence of serial locations, (c) previous application, (d) comparability to other studies and (e) general underlying theoretical framework.

Assignment 1.3: Telemetry Form groups of 3-4 people. Take a receiver, compass, and standard telemetry

datasheets to the activity area (determined by the TAs) where two GPS collars will have been placed one on either side of the road. Take four bearings for each collar following established guidelines. For each bearing, record all data indicated on the datasheet. Make sure that each bearing is at least 20 degrees divergent from the previous one. Plot the bearings on the map side of the telemetry datasheet using a protractor. Judge whether the bearings are accurate enough to give you a good idea of where the collar is and take more bearings if necessary.

Back in the classroom, record the coordinates of the point you think best estimates the location of each GPS collar. Enter all your data into the Google spreadsheet named A3: Telemetry. Hand in your data sheets and map in the tray.

The class will have time to work through the data, discuss problem areas and work out solutions.

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Unit 2: Natural History and Field Identification of Minnesota Vertebrates

2.1 Minnesota Vertebrate Diversity, Conservation and Management in ContextTo understand the diversity and conservation status of Minnesota’s vertebrates, it is useful

to see it in the context of global and national figures. Consider the following table:

Number of species in vertebrate group

Endangered or threatened species in 2000 (% of total spp)

% of total in group threatened Extinct species

Global* US MN Global US MN Global US MN Global US MN

Mammals 4,763 456 831,130 (24%)

68 (15%)

1(1%) 24% 15% 1% 87 3 1

Birds 9,946 848 3191,183 (12%)

77 (9%)

2 (1%) 12% 9% 1% 131 30 1

Reptiles 7,970 285 29296

(4%)14 (5

%)0

(0%) 4% 5% 0% 22 0 0

Amphibians 4,950 283 22146

(3%)12

(4%)0

(0%) 3% 4% 0% 5 2 0

Fishes 25,000 1,153 147752

(3%)71

(6%)1

(1%) 3% 6% 1% 92 21 2

Totals 52,629 3,025 6003,507(7%)

242(8%)

4(1%) 9% 8% 1% 337 56 4

*Although these figures are considered robust for mammals and birds, it is estimated that they only represent 10-15% of total extant species of reptiles, amphibians, and fish.

Global data from: http://www.cbd.int/gbo1/chap-01-02.shtml; US data from:www.natureserve.org/explorer/sumvert.htm ; MN data from: http://files.dnr.state.mn.us/assistance/nrplanning/bigpicture/cwcs/biodiversity.pdf

One can see that compared to diversity figures for the US, Minnesota’s vertebrate diversity is modest with the exception of birds for which nearly 38% of species occurring nationally occur in MN. Also noteable is the relatively low level of endangerment of Minnesota’s vertebrates. Rather than focus on recovery efforts, Minnesota’s vertebrate conservation efforts often focus on staving off potentially invasive species that could be deleterious to native species. The figure below also provides perspective for appreciating Minnesota’s diversity (in this case number of vertebrate families) in the context of the rest of the world.

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2.2 Mammal Natural History and Identification83 Mammal species occur in Minnesota. The following isopleth map shows the North

American patterns of mammalian species diversity.

Mammalian characteristicsMammal characteristics developed 245-65 mya.

The defining mammalian characteristics include (1) three middle ear bones (maleus, incus and stapes), (2) true hair and (3) mammary glands – modified sweat glands. Other characteristics include large brains, complex teeth, sex determined by XY cs, muscular diaphragm, endothermy, secondary palate, 4-chambered heart, squamosal-dentary articulation (reptiles have quadrate articular), and live birth. There are approximately 5000 extant mammal species that are classified into 26 orders.

Counting teethBecause the jaw is symmetrical in the vertical plane, you only have to count one side of the upper and lower jaw to produce a teeth formula. Teeth are either incisors (I) canines (C), premolars (PM) or molars. Now all species have every type of tooth. Identifying the typ and number of teeth type in a skull is an invaluable tool for use in species identification. So, although you will not be asked in the mammal exam to write down a teeth formula, you must be able to make one if you are going to make a correct classification of the skull.

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Species list:In the specimen list a “1” indicates that you have to be able to identify that species using

either its skin or skull. For every mammal you must also know the following:

Kingdom AnimaliaPhylum Chordata

Sub-phylum VertebrataClass MammaliaSub-class TheriaInfraclass Eutheria or Metatheria

Order/Family Genus Species Skin SkullDidelphimorphia DIDELPHIDAE Didelphis D. virginiana 1 1 Insectivora 1 1SORICIDAE 1 1 Sorex (Lg-tailed shrews) 1 1 S. cinereus 1 Blarina (Sht-tailed shrews) B. brevicauda 1 TALPIDAE 1 1 Condylura (star nosed m.) C. cristata 1 1 Scalopus (eastern m.s) S. aquaticus 1 1 Chiroptera 1 1Carnivora 1 1FELIDAE Lynx L.candensis 1 L.rufus

P.concolor 1 1 CANIDAE Canis C.latrans C.lupus 1 1 Vulpes V.vulpes 1 1 Urycyon U.cinereoargenteus 1

Order/Family Genus Species Skin Skull

URSIDAE Ursus 1 U.americanus 1

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PROCYONIDAE 1 1 Procyon P.lotor 1 1 MUSTELIDAE 1 1 Martes M.americana 1 M.pennanti 1 Mustela M.erminea 1 M.nivalis M.frenata 1 M.vison 1 Gulo G.gulo 1 Taxidea T.taxus 1 1 Lontra L.canadensis 1 MEPHITIDAE 1 Mephitis M.mephitis 1 Artiodactyla 1 1CERVIDAE 1 1 Odocoileus O.virginianus 1 1 Alces A.alces 1

Family Genus Species Skin SkullRodentia 1 1MURIDAE 1 1 Peromyscus 1 P. maniculatus Order/Family Genus Species Skin Skull P. leocopus 1 Clethrionomys 1 C. gapperi 1 Microtus 1

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M. pennsylvanicus 1 Ondatra 1 1 O. zibethicus 1 1 Rattus 1 1 R. norvegicus 1 1 ERETHIZONTIDAE 1 Erethizon 1 E. dorsatum 1 LEPORIDAE 1 1 Sylvilagus S.floridanus 1 1 Lepus L.americanus 1 L.townsendii SCIURIDAE 1 1 Tamias 1 T.striatus 1 T. minimus 1 Marmota 1 M. monax 1 Family Genus Species Skin Skull Spermophilus 1 S. tridecemlineatus 1 Order/Family Genus Species Skin Skull Sciurus 1 1 S. carolinensis 1 1 Tamiasciurus 1 T. hudsonicus 1 Glaucomys 1 G. volans 1 CASTORIDAE 1 1 Castor 1 1 C. canadensis 1 1

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GEOMYIDAE 1 1 Geomys 1 1 G. bursarius 1 1 DIPODIDAE 1 1 Zapus 1 Z. hudsonius 1 Napaeozapus N. insignis 1

Common Field Diagnostics Note that these are not all the characteristic features of each taxonomic group: merely

some that we think are the easiest to use with regards to differentiating from the other specimens available. You will probably have to add additional characteristics for full identification. Do not use this list to determine which Latin name you have to learn for the exam: that is contained in the specimen list above.

O. DIDELPHIMORPHIA: Skull: Small brain case, large gap between canines and nearest other teeth. Skin: Opossum

F. Didelphidae Didelphis virginiana (American opossum)

O. INSECTIVORA: Skull: rostrum elongated; canines present but not prominent. Skin: ear pinnae inconspicuous or absent, soft fur

F. Soricidae: Skull: red, pointed teeth. Skin: Small insectivore, not Talpidae

Sorex (Shrews):

S. arcticus (Arctic shrew): Skin: tri-colored, back dark brown to black, sides lighter brown, under parts paler than the sides.

S. cinereus (Masked shrew): Skin: small size, dark mask between eyes, fur gray-brown, with ventral side lighter-colored than dorsal

S. palustris (Water shrew): Skin: largest member of the genus in area; bicolor fur, dark above, silver below; stiff hairs on large hind feet an toes

Blarina brevicauda (Short-tailed shrew): Skin: gray from front, black from behind

F. Talpidae: Skull: insectivore with white teeth. Skin: Mole

Scalopus aquaticus (Eastern mole): Skull: incisors point down. Skin: Large forefeet.

Condylura cristata (star-nosed mole): Skull: Incisors pointing forward. Skin: funny nose

O. CHIROPTERA: Skull: large brain case, sharp teeth, short rostrum

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O. CARNIVORA: Skull: Canine teeth, 3 upper incisors. Skin: Carnivore like

F. Canidae: Skull: carnassials well developed; rostrum elongated.

C. lupus (Gray wolf): Skull: large skull (>200mm)

Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Gray fox): Skull: “U” shaped temporal ridge.

F. Ursidae:

Ursus americanus (Black bear): Large, dog-like skull, carnassials modified for crushing

F. Procyonidae:

Procyon lotor (Racoon): Skull: Large brain case, carnassial teeth poorly developed.

F. Mustelidae: Skull: extended palate. Skin: long weasel like

Martes: Skull: brain case less flattened and auditory bullae more rounded long, slender body

M. americana (American pine marten): Skin: pale buff on throat and breast M. pennanti (Fisher): Skin: pale buff on groin

Mustela:

M. erminea (short-tailed weasel): Skin: black-tipped tail (short)

M. frenata (Long-tailed weasel): Skin: black-tipped tail (long)

M. vison (Mink): none of the others

Gulo gulo (Wolverine): Skull: wide, powerful, large sagittal crest.

Taxidea taxus (Badger): Skull: see pre-molars Skin: white stripe over top of head

Lontra canadensis (River otter): Skull: elongated skull.

F Mephitidae

Mephitis mephitis (Striped skunk): Skull: Short palette

F. Felidae:

L. canadensis (Lynx): Skull: rostrum shortened, large eye sockets

O. ARTIODACTYLA:

F. Cervidae:

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O. virginianus (White-tailed deer): Skull: antlers present in male

Alces alces (Moose): Skull: snout overhanging, short nasals

O. RODENTIA: Skull: large, orange incisors.

F. Sciuridae: Skull: postorbital process sharply pointed.

Tamias striatus (Eastern chipmunk): Skin: 2 light and 3 dark stripes, orange rump.

Tamias minimus (Least chipmunk): Skin: stripes as in T. striatus, but not extending to base of tail

Marmota monax (Woodchuck): Skull: White incisors. Skin: brown brick

Spermophilus tridecemlineatus (13-lined ground squirrel): Skin: 11 light colored stripes on body

Sciurus carolinensis (Gray squirrel): Skin: fur gray or black

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus (Red squirrel): Skin: red stripe

Galucomys: Skin: fold of skin between fore and hind limbs

F. Castoridae:

Castor canadensis (Beaver); Skull: skull large; diameter of infraorbital foramen larger than that of foramen magnum. Skin: webbed feet

F. Geomyidae:

Geomys bursarius (Plains pocket gopher): Skull: 2 distinct longitudinal grooves on front of each upper incisor.

F. Dipodidae (Zapodidae): Skull: infra-orbital foramen large and oval shaped. Skin: long tail.

Zapus hudsonius (Meadow jumping mouse): Skin: general color yellowish olive with dark dorsal stripe

Napaeozapus insignis (Woodland jumping mouse): sides orange, brown dorsal stripe

F. Muridae: Skull: not other rodent family teeth

Peromyscus maniculatus (Deer mouse): tail distinctly bi-colored

Peromyscus leucopus (White-footed mouse): tail usually indistinctly bi-colored;

Clethrionomys gapperi (Red-backed vole). Skin: chestnut stripe down middle of back

Microtus pennsylvanicus (Medow vole): uniformly dark brown above, with slightly paler sides and silver-tipped hairs on belly;

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Ondatra zibethicus (Musk rat); Skull: zig-zag teeth. Skin: tail naked and laterally flattened

Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat)

F. Erethizontidae:

Erethizon dorsatum (Porcupine): Skull: infra-orbital foramen larger than foramen magnum

O. LAGOMORPHA: Skull: incisors 2/1

F. Leporidae

Lepus americanus (Snow shoe hare): Skin: black fur on tip of ear.

Sylvilagus floridanus (Eastern cottontail); Skin: bright rufous patch on the nape; underparts (except throat) white; underside of tail white.

Exam Review Strategy: Mammal IdentificationLearn the mammal species available in the lab. There will be an exam towards the end of

the course. Time will be put aside for instruction in identification but more time outside of class will be required to do well in the exam. In the exam there will be a specimen (either a skin or a skull) placed at each station, from which you will have to write down some aspect of that specimen’s taxonomy. You will not be examined on mammal evolution, life history characteristics or distribution.

Resources will include TA instruction, power points, species lists and text books. There are also learning diagrams that can be downloaded and filled in (named mammal ID sheets) on the Google mail site.

2.3 Birds of MinnesotaThe following text, by Kim Eckert, is excerpted from the introduction of Birds in

Minnesota (by Dan Janssen).Minnesota’s range of varied and productive habitats is equaled by few other states and

gives Minnesota an impressive avifauna diversity. The coniferous bogs and forests to the north spill over the Canadian border, reach their southern extreme in Minnesota, and are characteristic of the northeastern quarter of the state. Deciduous river bottom forests with their southern aura come north to include the Mississippi River watershed which includes much of the southeastern quarter of the state. Western prairie-type habitats extend east into western Minnesota from the Dakotas in the form of extensive farmlands interrupted by frequent wetlands and an occasional remnant of native grasslands. And the Great Lakes, represented by Lake Superior, even introduce a pelagic flavor, a coastal element, into the state.

Speaking of lakes, wetlands of all kinds represent another important facet of the states mosaic of habitats. Minnesota may be known as The Land of Ten Thousand Lakes, but in fact there are approximately 12,000 of them, so that no other state has as much surface water area. Shallower wetlands, such as prairie potholes, sedge and cattail marshes, river backwater marshes, and the bogs, fens, and alder swamps of the boreal forest are even

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more numerous and also contribute to the diversity and abundance of Minnesota’s breeding and migrating water birds. Major river systems, such as the Mississippi, Minnesota, St. Croix, and Red Rivers not only carve out valleys that serve as migration corridors for all varieties of land birds, but their backwaters and floodplains, especially in springs of high water levels, are also favored by flocks of migrant waterfowl.

Figure 4. North American resident bird diversity isopleths.

We will use a Powerpoint presentation to introduce you to approximately 70-80 of the most common birds in Minnesota which any fisheries or wildlife biologist working in this state should know even if he or she has not had a course in ornithology. The birds in this Powerpoint were selected by Dr. Francie Cuthbert and the classes over the past 2 years have refined the Powerpoint. A group of students in this year’s class will be responsible for updating the Powerpoint. You may want to add needed song clips and natural history information.

Dr. Cuthbert will introduce you to mist netting and also review federal regulations regarding handling of birds. She will also give you the bird quiz.

Exam Review Strategy for BirdsFocus on your notes from the bird lecture and on the powerpoint to practice recognition.

2.4 Fish of MinnesotaAccording to the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Minnesota is home to 158

fish species occurring on more than 5500 lakes and over 15,000 miles of streams. Only 1 of these species is listed as threatened (the Topeka shiner). Invasive fish species are considered a threat to virtually all fish habitats and current invasives include several carp species, white perch, and the sea lamprey.

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Minnesota ranks first among US states in the number of fishing licenses sold per capita and these revenues support most of the states conservation and management efforts. A number of sport fishing species are actively stocked on an annual basis including: walleye, northern pike, muskellunge, and large and smallmouth bass. The state's commercial fish harvest exceeds 4.5 million pounds.

We learn the common names of the fish that we handle in class. Because our exposure to fish is limited to the field trip to the Straight River, we would appreciate some of you anglers to bring in some examples of other common fish (e.g. walleye, rock bass, various pan fish, perch, bullheads, northerns, etc.). Last years fisheries students have made a Powerpoint of the common fish. This year we would like a group of you to improve the Powerpoint.

Exam Review Strategy for FishFish identification will be included on the final exam. Study the powerpoints and take notes

on field identification techniques during the Straight River field trip.

2.5 Reptiles and Amphibians of MinnesotaFrogs and Toads (from www.dnr.state.mn.us/reptiles_amphibians/frogs_toads/index.html)

Toads and frogs often conjure up thoughts of wet places--misty swamps and enchanted nights when mysterious calls rise from the water's edge. Although wetlands are crucial to their life cycle, these amphibians don't live exclusively in water. They often emerge from their aquatic homes to become land dwellers. Some hardy toads and frogs even spend their entire winter in the leaf litter of a forest floor or in a deep burrow below the frost line of an open grassland.

Toads and frogs are collectively known as anurans--tailless amphibians. The 14 species of toads and frogs found in Minnesota are grouped into three families: toads (3 species), treefrogs (5 species), and true frogs (6 species). All species within each family share similar features, but each individual species has its own unique breeding call, survival strategy, and environmental niche. Over thousands of years, Minnesota's toads and frogs have adapted to survive a wide range of conditions. By learning more about these amphibians, their habitats, and their survival methods, Minnesotans can better appreciate why we need to conserve the wetlands, grasslands, and forests where these fascinating animals live. Their presence is an indication that we are doing a good job of preserving wetland habitat and water quality. Conversely, when toads and frogs disappear, it could mean the ecosystems that sustain them are ailing.

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Figure 5. Global Species richness patterns.

SnakesMinnesota has 17 species of snakes, two of which are endangered (Timber Rattler and

Massauga). The following are the four most common species:

Common garter snake

The common garter snake and it's cousin, the plains garter snake, are medium-sized snakes reaching up to 3 feet in length. They are black with three, yellow lengthwise stripes on their back and sides. These are the most common snakes found around buildings. If handled, these snakes may try to bite and will usually defecate on the person or thing picking them up. Learn more about common garter snakes.

Fox snakeFox snakes can reach over 5 feet in length. They are not common in urban areas but are found around farms and houses in rural areas. This snake usually won't come into a house, but can be found in sheds, barns, or other buildings where rodents are present. Learn more about fox snakes.

Redbelly snakeThe redbelly snake is a small snake rarely more then a foot long. It is brown or gray on top with a bright salmon-red belly. This snake spends most of its time under logs, rocks, or leaf litter. It is commonly found when cleaning up yard debris and woodpiles. This beautiful and docile snake can be handled without risk. It rarely bites, and its tiny teeth are unlikely to penetrate skin. Learn more about redbelly snakes.

BullsnakeThe bullsnake (also called gopher snake) is the largest snake in Minnesota, growing to over 6 feet. They are usually seen in rural areas. They can be found in yards with pocket gopher or ground squirrel activity. They spend a majority of their time underground. A bullsnake's first line of defense is to escape down a gopher hole. Learn more about bullsnakes.

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http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/snapshots/snakes_turtles/bullsnake.html

http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/snapshots/snakes_turtles/redbellysnake.html

http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/snapshots/snakes_turtles/foxsnake.html

http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/snapshots/snakes_turtles/foxsnake.html

http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/snapshots/snakes_turtles/commongartersnake.html


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Lizards Minnesota has three species of lizards, none of them endangered:Six-lined Racerunner,

Five-lined Skink, and Northern Prairie Skink.

TurtlesMinnesota has 9 species of turtles: Blanding's, Painted, Snapping turtle, False map turtle,

Northern map turtle, Ouachita map turtle, Smooth softshell, Spiny softshell and Wood turtle. Among them, only Blandings Turtle is threatened.

Recommended Field Guide:Tekiela, S. 2003. Reptiles and Amphibians of Minnesota Field Guide and CD. Adventure

Publications, Cambridge. 140 pp. CD: 81 Tracks.

Online Field Guide:http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/herps/amphibid/index.htm

Exam Review Strategy for HerpsYou will only be responsible for identifying and knowing the names of any amphibians and

reptiles we encounter in the field during the session.

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Unit 3: Statistical Analysis3.1 Chi-Square (Goodness of fit) test

Chi-square (2), is a quantitative measure of the extent to which the observed counts differ from those predicted by a particular null hypothesis (Ho). It is used when an investigator obtains a sample of nominal scale data (i.e. counts of items or events in each of several classifications) and would like to know whether the population from which it came conforms to a certain hypothesized distribution.

For example, a plant geneticist raised 100 F1 progeny from a cross that is hypothesized to result in a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of yellow-flowered to green-flowered plants. He observes a ratio of 84 yellow: 16 green, although out of this 100 F1 plants his hypothesis would predict a ratio of 75 yellow: 25 green. The question to be asked , is whether the observed frequencies (84:16) deviate significantly from the frequencies expected under the Ho (75:25).

Null hypothesis (Ho): The sample data came from a population having a 3:1 ratio of yellow-to-green flowers.

Alternative hypothesis (HA): The sample data came from a population not having a 3:1 ratio of yellow-to-green flowers.

Chi Square Requirements2 is a nonparametric test meaning that it does not require the sample data to be more or

less normally distributed (as parametric tests like t-tests do). But chi-square, while forgiving, does have some requirements:

1. As with any test of statistical significance, your data must be from a random sample of the population to which you wish to generalize your claims.

2. You should only use chi square when your data are in the form of raw frequency counts of things in two or more mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories. Converting raw frequencies into percentages standardizes cell frequencies as if there were 100 subjects/observations in each category of the independent variable for comparability. Part of the chi square mathematical procedure accomplishes this standardizing, so computing the chi square of percentages would amount to standardizing an already standardized measurement.

3. Any observation must fall into only one category or value. (For some kinds of analysis, you may need to include an "uncodable" category.) In any case, you must include the results for the whole sample.

4. You should use chi square only when observations are independent: i.e., no category or response is dependent upon or influenced by another.

5. Chi-square is an approximate test of the probability of getting the frequencies you've actually observed if the null hypothesis were true. It's based on the expectation that within any category, sample frequencies are normally distributed about the expected population value. Since (logically) frequencies cannot be negative, the distribution cannot be normal when expected population values are close to zero--since the sample frequencies cannot be much below the expected frequency while they can be much above it (an asymmetric/non-normal distribution). So, when expected frequencies are large, there is no problem with the assumption of normal distribution, but the smaller the expected frequencies, the less valid are the results of the chi-square test. We'll discuss expected frequencies in greater detail later, but for now remember that expected frequencies are derived from the total number of observed frequencies. Therefore, if you have cells in your bivariate table which show very low raw observed frequencies (5 or below), your expected frequencies may also be too low for chi square to be appropriately used. In addition,

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because some of the mathematical formulas used in chi square use division, no cell in your table can have an observed raw frequency of 0.

The following minimum frequency thresholds should be obeyed (see Roscoe & Byars 1971):

for a 1 X 2 or 2 X 2 table, expected frequencies in each cell should be at least 5; for a 2 X 3 table, expected frequencies should be at least 2; for a 2 X 4 or 3 X 3 or larger table, if all expected frequencies but one are at least 5 and

if the one small cell is at least 1, chi-square is still a good approximation. In general, the greater the degrees of freedom (i.e., the more values/categories on the

independent and dependent variables), the more lenient the minimum expected frequencies threshold. (We'll discuss degrees of freedom in a moment.)

k = categories

Degrees of freedom = k-1

For the above example:

Category (Flower Color) Yellow Red n

Observed 84 16 100Expected 75 25 100

Determining degrees of freedomDegrees of freedom will always be the total number of possible categories – 1.

So, for the above example, degrees of freedom (DF) = k-1 = 2-1 =1 and:

Setting a critical valueOne way to think of a critical value (or “p-value”) is that it will represent the chances that

you have rejected the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, correct or accepted the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, incorrect. Although much of the scientific literature has historically used values of 0.1, 0.05, or 0.01, these values are not set in stone and prior to selecting a critical value, you should consider the underlying biology of your research question and the implications of the selected value.

For example, if you were given the task of predicting whether a particularly noxious invasive species would spread under a certain management regime (and might lose your job if you ultimately get the answer wrong) you would probably consider a research design that would enable you to report results at a very high critical value.

On the other hand, if your research question is simply related to choosing from one or more potential ways to marginally increase productivity of Aspen in an area, a lower critical value may be entirely warranted and may be necessary in designing a research plan within budget and other constraints.

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For the purposes of this exercise, we will be using a critical value of 0.05.

From the Chi-Square distribution value table:

Therefore, the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected over the alternative hypothesis (HA). In narrative format, one might say:

“There is a significant difference between observed and expected frequencies (2=4.320, df=1, p<0.05) that the sample was not drawn from a population having a 3:1 ratio of yellow-to-green flowers.”

You might recall that the 2 test for habitat selection only tells us whether there is selection within the entire system of habitat types. It cannot resolve selection at the individual habitat level. Usually, one can get a pretty good idea of what is going on with such selection by simply looking at the data. However, there is a more formal test that allows us to make clear statements about selection for or against individual habitat types.

Resolving results of a significant 2 outcome: Constructing Bonferroni confidence intervals around individual habitat outcomes

The Bonferroni correction states that if an experimenter is testing multiple (n) independent hypotheses on a single set of data, then the statistical significance level that should be used for each hypothesis separately is 1/n times what it would be if only one hypothesis were tested.

For example, when testing two hypotheses, instead of a p value of 0.05 for each, one would use a stricter p value of 0.025.

If applicable, we will use a Bonferroni corrected confidence interval approach.

Here’s how it works in the context of a habitat selection analysis:

For each habitat for which we would like to compare actual use with expected use (actual capture rate with expected capture rate in our case), we will be constructing confidence intervals around our observed values. If the expected value for that habitat is within our Bonferroni confidence interval, then we do not have compelling evidence for selection or avoidance of that habitat. If the expected value is either above or below our confidence interval, then we have good evidence that there is selection (if the expected value is below our interval) or avoidance (if our expected value is above our interval).

To calculate the Bonferroni confidence intervals, we first need to select a significance level that we would like to apply to our overall analysis. Because Bonferroni confidence intervals

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Bonferroni confidence limits are set so that p-values for each hypotheses tested using the same sample data sum to a desired overall p-value.

For one-tailed analysis, the Bonferroni value = / k (k = # of hypotheses. For two-tailed analysis, the Bonferroni intervals = /2k).

Note that use of Bonferroni values makes each individual hypothesis test more conservative.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_significance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing


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tend to be very conservative (e.g. very wide intervals), many authors use an overall value of .10 instead of the .05 which is widely used in other tests.

Your value _______

Next, we need to keep track of how many hypotheses we are testing within the same data set. We’ll call this number of hypotheses k. In our case, we have 4 similar hypotheses—one for each habitat type—that the observed capture rates will reflect expected capture rates.

For our study, k = _______

We will also need to note how many observations our hypotheses are based on. Since all come from the same data, this number (n) will be the same for each hypothesis we test. It is the total number of captures for the species in question.

Our n = _______

The last piece of information we need prior to calculating our interval is the z value for a standard normal distribution that corresponds to:

1-/2kThis can be accomplished easily by going to:

http://www.quantitativeskills.com/sisa/calculations/bonfer.htm supplying the correct and k values and hitting the “calculate” button.

Our z value for each test _______

Because this method operates on proportional data format, we will need to convert our expected and observed values into proportions of 1. For expected values this will be:

Expected captures for a habitat / Total capturesAnd for observed values:

Observed captures for a habitat / Total capturesTo get the bounds for each interval we use the following formula:

To make life easier, we have set up an excel table with these equations already programmed. All you need to do is plug in the correct numbers and compare the calculated confidence intervals with expected values.

We will work an example in class.

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http://www.quantitativeskills.com/sisa/calculations/bonfer.htm


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Assignment 3.1: 2 AnalysisPart IBackground Information:

In a small research project relating to vole habitat use, habitat was classified into 4 categories: coniferous forest, deciduous forest, mixed forest, and meadow. The total capture of Microtus pennsylvanicus was 200. Use the following data sets and a 2 approach to test the following:

Ho: There is no habitat preference in Microtus pennsylvanicus (i.e. the species occurs equally in all habitat types).

HA: There is habitat preference in Microtus pennsylvanicus.

First, choose a critical (p) value you want to use as criteria to reject the null hypothesis.

Critical (p) value = _____________

Data Set 1Habitat Type Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2 (O-E)2/EConiferous 52 50Deciduous 46 50Mixed 47 50Meadow 55 50 200 200 -

df =______________p = ______________2 value to meet or exceed____________Calculated 2 value= _____________Reject Ho ? ________Narrative conclusion:



Data Set 3Habitat Type Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2 (O-E)2/EConiferous 60 50Deciduous 35 50Mixed 40 50

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Meadow 65 50 200 200 -




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Part IIBackground

In a small research project relating to salamander habitat use, habitat was classified into 4 categories: coniferous forest, hardwood forest, pioneer forest, and wetland. A pitfall trap method was used to sample various blocks within these different habitats for 3 species of salamander:

To represent pitfall trap data, you will count and record individual color-coded symbols within sample areas at various locations within your study area, the Cloquet forestry center, from the map provided for the exercise. You will then use a 2 approach to evaluate whether densities of salamander are equal across habitat types. Formally stated, your investigation should test the following:

Ho: There is no habitat preference (i.e. the given species occurs in equal densities in all habitat types).

HA: There is habitat preference.

First, choose a critical (p) value you want to use as criteria to reject the null hypothesis.

Critical (p) value = _____________

Data Set 1Habitat Type Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2 (O-E)2/EConiferousDeciduousMixedMeadow -




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3.2 Capture – Mark – Recapture AnalysisThe Petersen method is the simplest mark-and-recapture method because it is based on

a single episode of marking animals and a second single episode of recapturing individuals. The basic procedure is to mark a number of individuals over a short time, release them, and then recapture individuals to check marks. The second sample must be random sample for this method to be valid; that is marked and unmarked individuals have the same chance of being captured in the second sample. The data obtained are

M = Number of individuals marked in the first sampleC = Total number of individuals captured in the second sampleR = Number of individuals in second sample that are marked

From these three variables, we need to obtain an estimate of

By a proportionality argument, we obtain

or transposing

This formula is the “Petersen estimate” of population size and has been used widely because it is intuitively clear. Unfortunately, formula (1) produces a biased estimator of population size, tending to overestimate the actual population. This bias can be large for small samples, and several formulas have been suggested to reduce this bias. Seber (1982) recommends the estimator

which is unbiased if (M+C) > N and nearly unbiased if there are at least seven recaptures of marked animals (R>7). This formula assumes sampling without replacement in the second sample, so any individual can be counted only once.

In some ecological situations, the second sample of Petersen series is taken with replacement so that a given individual can be counted more than once. For example, animals may be merely observed at the second sampling and not captured. For these cases the size of second sample (C) can be even larger than the total population size (N) because individuals might be sighted several times. In this situation we must assume that the chances of sighting a marked animal are on the average equal to the chances of sighting an unmarked animal. The appropriate estimator, from Bailey (1952), is:

Which differs only very slightly from equation (2) and is nearly unbiased when the number of recapture (R) is 7 or more.

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Unit 4: Designing and Conducting Field Projects4.1 Successful Project PlanningKey Considerations

Resource assessment / availability Methodological / scientific framework Information review Logistical Spatial / temporal scale Statistical issues Observability Observer bias Observer effect

Resource Assessment: Methods How have others approached the question? Published references? Relevance of work on other taxa or phenomena Relevance of work in other areas

Resource Assessment: Information Data on target taxa, pattern, process Context data: other taxa, environmental variables, impacts, etc. Format and costs of data

Resource Assessment: Logistics Time Manpower Technical / Field / Analytical skills Equipment Funding

Spatial Issues Size of study area: Larger scales = more resources and greater administrative needs Patchiness: Increased travel time between sites Relevance of study site to other areas

Temporal Considerations What experimental/observational time frame is appropriate to the question being asked?

Observability How accessible or observable is the research target (e.g. taxa, pattern, process, etc.) Direct observations? Indirect observations? Periodic observability

Observer Effect How will target animal be affected by field activities? How will data be influenced by field activities?

Observer Bias How much do the chosen techniques rely on expertise of data collectors

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4.2 Small Mammal Distribution and Habitat UseBackground to the Project

Dr. Robert Stine, the Coordinator of Cloquet Forestry Center and a group of professors plan to submit a proposal to establish a Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) site at the Center. Their research will examine the effects of increased nitrogen on the dynamics and community structure of a northern Minnesota forest ecosystem. They plan to apply nitrogen fertilizer to a series of plots near the station and follow the changes in these and a set of control plots over the next 20 years.

One component of the project will examine the effect of increased nitrogen on the small mammal community. In preparation for their proposal to the National Science Foundation they need information on the small mammal community in the vicinity of these plots. Two possible small mammal responses are an increased abundance of small mammals as primary production increases and/or a change in species composition. Bob has asked you, the Assistant Resident Manager, to establish a small mammal grid near the station and carry out a short baseline study on: (1) the species present, (2) their relative abundance, and (3) habitat preference (for the more common species). The FW 4108 class has volunteered to help you with the project. The timeframe for the preliminary study is short, as the full proposal must be submitted by the end of August.

Assignment 4.1: Small Mammal Trapping and AnalysisThe class will be divided into 10 groups, each containing 3-4 persons. Each group will

collect:

Item AmountSherman Aluminum Folding Live Traps 20-25Sharpie pen (for labeling traps) 1Orange flagging (for marking trapsites) 1 RollRolled oats for baiting traps 60 (3 per trap)Cotton balls to serve as nesting/insulation material for captured animals

4-5/trap

Compass 1Field Notebook 1/researcher

Laying out the Trap Grid and Preparing Traps (see diagram) Each of the ten transects will be spaced 20 m

apart Along each transect 20 traps will be spaced

10 m apart

Placing the trapsEach group will start their trap line 20 m from

the adjacent group along a pre-established base line. Group A will label traps with their sharpie starting from A1 (then A2, etc. to A15). Thus, the 10th transect’s traps should be labeled J1, J2, etc. to J20.

Set the first trap on the base line and then proceed in the agreed direction, placing a new trap every 10 m. Sight carefully with your

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compass and keep an eye on surrounding teams to ensure you stay in alignment. At each trap site, kick the ground with your shoe make a flat space to bed the trap. Place 4-5 cotton balls and a small handful of rolled oats in each trap to keep the animal fed and warm during the night. Mark each your trap site with the flagging ribbon. Record the vegetation type of each trap site in your note book.

Checking trapsNote: Hanta virus has occurred in some species of rodents--mostly in the Southwestern

part of the United States. We will discuss Hanta virus in class before we start this project.

Each morning of the trap period, representatives of each group will check their trap line, collect the traps that are closed, and bring them to a central location to be identified by the instructors. Animals will be kept in a plastic bag while viewing for safety and ease of handling. After identifying all animals they will be placed back in the trap in which they were captured and then released at their respective trap sites . All traps will then be closed so that we do not catch animals during the day. In the evening we will come out and open traps and re-bait/add more cotton if necessary.

AnalysisA 2 analysis will be performed to determine whether there is a habitat preference in any

of those species for which we have an adequate sample.

The results will include (1) a list of species captured together with their relative abundance, and (2) a 2 test of the null hypothesis that density is equal in all habitats (for species with enough captures to allow for analysis).

ReportThe small mammal project should be written up as a scientific report. Be sure to use

complete sentences and edit your report carefully. Ask one of your classmates to review your paper once. Make the appropriate edits and get one further review from a TA. When you hand it in, provide the name of the reviewers. Use the same format used as The Journal of Wildlife Management. The headings should follow the standard structure of a scientific paper:

1. Introduction2. Methods3. Results4. Discussion5. References

Introduction Clearly state the necessary background information for the reader to be able to

understand why the research is being carried out. Stat the problem, issue, etc. Summarize what others have done and state what you did. You should state what questions you specifically sought to answer, where you did it, and why you choose that particular study site. Refer to the scenario above for this section.

Methods This section should describe what you did with enough detail so that someone could

repeat or test the experiment exactly as you carried it out. You should include the size of your grid, the type, number and distribution of traps, what you baited them with, how many times and when you ran your traps, how you marked and released animals, and how you characterized habitat. You should also explain how you analyzed the data. Relative abundance is simply the percent of each species present. Chi-square will be used to test for habitat preference of the more abundant species. Your null hypothesis is that there is no habitat preference.

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Results This section should be a straightforward description of the data you collected and

analyzed. These include the species detected, total captures, number of captures in each habitat type, and relative capture rate. You should also report on the results of any statistical tests you carried out. Consider the use of tables, maps, and/or diagrams to get your message across in a clear and concise way.

Discussion Here you should enumerate the points you think are interesting in comparing the

results of your study with your null hypothesis and/or with what is known from past research. For example, you might discuss which species the literature indicates should occur in the habitats in your study area, but were not found there. Another topic might be how the results of your habitat use analysis agree with the literature on habitat preference for the species encountered.

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4.3 Mammal TelemetryTerritoriality

Territoriality is an important behavioral trait which affects the spatial organization of population (Mizutani and Jewell, 1998). Territoriality has been defined by several authors: Noble (1939) definition as any defended area. Davies (1978) defined territoriality as where animals were spaced further apart than would be expected from a random occupation of suitable habitats. Brown and Orians (1970) defined as ‘a fixed, exclusive area with the presence of defence that keeps out rivals’ and proposed three criteria for territoriality: little overlap between home ranges, scent marking behavior and agonistic interactions. Evidence of territoriality was any site–dependent behavior resulting in conspicuity and in avoidance by others similar behaving individual (Fretwell, 1972). Bailey (1993) found evidence for polygamous mating system of territoriality among resident male leopards was little overlap between adjacent home ranges of neighboring resident males, site-dependent scent marking and vocalizing behavior, especially in resident males, avoidance behavior between males and lack of known breeding by nonconspicuously behaving males.

Habitat selectionFor management purposes it is necessary to understand how a species are using a

particular ecological setting, so that important resources that relate to their survival can be identified and protected (Alldredge & Ratti 1992; Marker & Dickman 2005).

Understanding the ecological needs of a particular species will help prioritize sites for additional survey.

The first step to discerning an animal’s needs is to try and identify what resources or “habitat types” it is selecting, with the presumption that the animals are choosing that which should increase survival and reproduction potentials.

When attempting to characterize selection, there may be problems associated with the two main underlying assumptions; that recorded observations can be used to infer habitat selection, and that evidence of selection is related to fitness and population growth (Porter & Church, 1987; Alldredge & Ratti, 1992; Garshelis, 2000). However, investigating how a species selects different features of its environment is still an essential step towards assigning importance to those features, with the acknowledged caveat that subsequent measurements of survival and reproduction parameters will be needed.

Inference of selection will be greatly influenced by the choice of data collection and analysis methods employed.

There are a number of variations on the definitions associated with study of an animal’s resource use. For this course, we will use the following terminology:

Habitat use: the quantity of that component utilized.

Habitat selection: the process by which an animal chooses that component.

Habitat preference: a reflection of the likelihood of that component being chosen if offered on an equal basis with others.

Habitat importance: habitat quality relative to other habitat-its contribution to the sustenance of the individual/population.

Several statistical issues regarding habitat selection that need to be taken into account. A major issue is the potential error that can be generated by Inappropriate level of sampling and sample size. Some analysis approaches use the animal locations themselves as the sample unit, normally with all locations pooled across individuals to represent the sample size. This is a problem because serial correlation and individual variation is not accounted for. When sequential locations are not independent, the second location may be dependant of the

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position of the first. Also, two individual animals may use the same habitat differently even if they are both of the same sex, age, condition and are faced with the same environmental conditions

Both non-independence and individual heterogeneity inflates the apparent number of degrees of freedom, thus increasing the likelihood of making a Type I error.

Another issue to overcome is the non-independence of proportions; because the habitat proportions sum to 1 (the unit sum constraint) then the use of one habitat is linked to the use of other types.

A third issue is that animals may use habitat differently depending on age, sex, condition etc. Finally definitions of habitat availability can be arbitrary or poorly defined and the choice of study area and home range can be largely subjective and dependent on the spatial analysis technique employed.

The number of analysis techniques for investing habitat selection continues to grow. Traditionally the most often used methods include Chi squared test, Neu’s method and Johnson’s method. Each of these approaches is deficient in accounting for at least some of the issues mentioned above. A relatively recently developed technique, called compositional analysis overcomes the first three issues by (1) using individual animals as the sample unit, (2) taking into account use of one habitat not being independent of use of other habitats, and (3) placing individual animals into groups where appropriate.

Although there is no totally objective way of overcoming the necessarily arbitrary delineation of study area and home range, this problem can be overcome to a certain extent by using by looking at habitat selection in the hierarchicy outlined by Johnson (1980):

1st order habitat selection: selection of habitat across the landscape (Distribution)2nd order habitat selection: selection of home range within the landscape 3rd order habitat selection: selection of habitat patches within home range 4th order habitat selection: selection of items within habitat patches

Within this framework, the selection of study area and home range extent will still be subject to the analysis technique used. A comparison of homerange estimation approaches can be found in Appendix 5.

Assignment 4.2: Bear Telemetry ProjectCapture and immobilization

Survey the CFC area and ask experienced people to help you decide where to place 3 bear traps. Bear traps are metal barrel traps mounted on a wheeled trailer. Select an appropriate bait type, take a GPS point of the trap location and make sure one of the team monitoring each trap checks it every morning before breakfast and every evening either before or after dinner.

If you find a bear in the trap then immediately return to camp and inform Dave or one of the TAs. It is important for the safety of the animal to keep its stress levels to a minimum.

When the bear is being immobilized use the data form to record: time, drug type, dosage, method of administration, species, sex, age class, weight, measurements, condition, reproductive status respiration, heart rate, recovery time, and antidote.

Research team organizationThis project will be student lead, using instructors as advisors rather than directors. A

successful study relies on good planning, communication, leadership and adaptation to changing conditions.

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The final product that you will be marked on as a class will is a PowerPoint presentation covering all aspects of the project from introduction, through methods into discussion.

Organize your team and assign clear roles. Two or three students must act as project coordinators, while other responsibilities will be assigned to other students. Roles will have to cover project coordination, data collection, data management, data analysis and presentation preparation. The presentation should include (1) Introduction, (2) Methods: study area, (3) Methods: capture and immobilization, (4) Methods: telemetry and error estimation, (5) Methods: estimating home range size, (6) Methods: investigating habitat use, (7) Results – one section for each of the methods sections, and (8) Discussion

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4.4 Bird capture, banding, and survey techniquesBird capture, banding, and survey techniques

Birds present unique challenges and opportunities for field study. Their distinctive vocalizations provide skilled observers with a valuable identification opportunity that is generally less apparent in other vertebrate groups. Also unlike other groups, the number, skill level, and dedication of a huge pool of non-professional observers has contributed greatly to our knowledge of bird distribution, and population trends. For example, the Christmas Bird Count, an annual nation-wide effort, engages more than 50,000 people collecting data in 17 countries (mostly in the US and Canada). These data, while not as rigorous as a tightly controlled scientific survey, are considered invaluable by scientists, managers, and conservationists.

Birds' adaptations for flight often render their physical structures fragile--thus making capture and handling a necessarily delicate operation. Various nets and other capture devices are available for minimizing the risk of injury when capturing and handling birds and, as with most wildlife, specialized permits are required for these activities.

Through a detailed lecture and hands-on mist-netting exercise, we will be reviewing some of the specifics of bird capture, the value and procedures of bird banding, and the relevant legal and ethical considerations in undertaking a bird study. Major concepts are outlined below and this should serve as a guide as you prepare for the final exam.

Outline of Bird Survey / Capture Concepts a) Banding and color-marking live birds i) Federal:Bird Banding Laboratory

Office of Migratory Bird ManagementUSFWSLaurel, MD 20708

ii) State: DNR

b) Permits for salvaging dead birds, collecting live birds or propagating or holding live birds i) Federal: Regional federal office of USFWS ii) State: DNR

Capturing birds a) Mist net e) Chemicals b) Pull string trap f) Bait traps c) Corral nets/drift traps g) Cannon nets d) Spotlighting/hand nets h) Nest snares

Marking birds a) USFWS bands e) Bill markers b) Colored plastic leg bands f) Marking and coloring feathers c) Neckbands g) Radiotelemetry d) Wing markers

Surveying and censusing birdsa) Road side surveys e) Territory mappingb) Point counts f) Aerial countsc) Transects g) Mist netsd) Playback-response

Assignment 4.3: Bird Lecture NotesUse the space below to take detailed notes on the bird survey methods lecture.

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Unit 5: Aquatic Vertebrate and Ecological Assessment5.1 Stream Ecology StudyAssignment 5.1: Estimating Stream Flow1. Select a portion of the stream channel with a minimum number of obstructions and

relatively uniform bottom.2. Stretch the measuring tape across the stream channel and measure the stream width.

Record the data on your notebook.3. Divide the total width into 5 sections of equal width (W).4. Turn the flow meter on and wait until you get a constant reading.5. Set the time constant mode (rc=6 sec).6. Move along the tape and record depth (D) and current velocity at 0.6x depth (CV) at each

of the locations determined in (3) above.7. Estimate stream discharge using following equation:

Discharge = width (W) * average depth * average current velocity

Sum for each stream width segment

Discharge = [W*((CV1+CV2+CV3+CV4+CV5)/5)*((D1+D2+D3+D4+D5)/5)]= ……. cuft/sec

Assignment 5.2: Invertebrate sampling 1. Examine the stream carefully and locate different micro-habitats and substrate types.2. Collect 2 samples each, using “Hess sampler” and “Surber sampler” at least 5 meters

apart from each other.3. Collect 3-5 rocks (depending on size) from 3 sampling areas at least 5 meters apart and

collect all invertebrates along with cases (houses).4. Collect 3-5 branches or wood 6-18 inches long from 3 sites at least 5 meters apart and

collect all invertebrates along with cases (houses).5. Place the material you collected into a pan with some water.6. Using dissecting scope and lab key identify them into 4 major feeding groups:

a. Shredders: are dependent on large pieces of organic matter such as leaves, needles, wood and other plant derived primarily from the riparian zone.

b. Collectors: utilize small particles of organic matter (generally <1 mm in size), either from filtering from passing water or gathering from deposits in the sediments on the stream bottom.

c. Scrapers: are adapted for removing attached algae, especially where it grows on rock or log surface in the current.

d. Predators: are adapted through behavior and specialized body parts for the capture of prey.

7. Count total number of organisms you collected in each feeding group.How many different feeding groups did you see?What was the relative abundance of the various feeding groups?

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Unit 6: Wildlife Management and Policy6.1 Straight River Trout Population AssessmentThe Scenario

Imagine that you are an area fisheries biologist in Park Rapids, MN and that last week you received a letter from the president of the Twin Cities Trout Fishing Association. He reported that members of his organization were dissatisfied with fishing on the Straight River. They felt that trophy and memorable class fish had been declining over the past few years due to heavy fishing pressure. The association requested that you institute a special catch and release regulation for the Straight River to be in effect for the next two years. Because this is a premier trout river in your area and, in your mind, the best trout stream in Minnesota, you are inclined to go along with the request, but you are a bit nervous about the local community's reaction to a special regulation limiting the take of trout. You decide to discuss the issue with some of the local anglers at next week's Isaac Walton League dinner.

As you suspected, there was strong opposition to a catch and release regulation. Furthermore, you sensed that the real issue was an all too typical animosity by the locals to any outsiders suggesting how the local resources are managed. It is a familiar question: to whom does the resource belong?

You decide to do a Petersen mark and recapture population estimate on a section of the River and compare the data with that from 1996 and 1998. After analyzing the data you will write a letter to the group that will be most dissatisfied with your subsequent recommendations to explain your decision and garner their support.

There has been a long standing controversy about the management of the Straight River as a result of increased potato farming in the Straight River watershed. Potato farming is dependent on central pivot irrigation. Even before central pivot irrigation was used in the area the stream was warm for cold water species such as trout. The following article summarizes the issues.

The Straight River: In the shadow of a corporate farm By Dan Gunderson (Minnesota Public Radio May 6, 2002)

Managing Minnesota rivers is a complex task. The Straight River near Park Rapids is a case in point. The small spring-fed stream is a rare northern Minnesota trout fishery. It's also an area where crops are heavily irrigated. Natural resource managers find themselves walking a fine line- protecting the fish without harming the farmers. Straight Creek begins as a trickle flowing out of the sandy soil of eastern Becker County. A few miles away, the stream feeds Straight Lake, which in turn empties into the Straight River. Along the way, the river is fed by dozens of cold, clear springs. Trout need cold water to survive. Where the stream starts to take form, if flows over a V-shaped metal dam which records the stream flow. "I call this nothing but a swamp. That's what it is," says Bob Dewandeler, as he stands over the tiny stream he says is costing him a lot of time and money. "It's flowing water. You can call that a river I guess, but there's no reason to bring your fishing equipment." Bob Dewandeler farms about 900 acres. Most of it is irrigated. This sandy land produces little without irrigation.

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About a mile away is a freshly-drilled well. Dewandeler hopes to use the well to irrigate beans this summer on a new piece of land. He's likely to get a permit from the Department of Natural Resources, but he's not happy. The DNR made him pump water from the well for 72 hours. That test pumping will show if the well affects the Straight River. Dewandeler says the test cost him more than $2,000. Research shows irrigation wells can take water away from the small springs that feed the stream. Dewandeler points to the new well and shakes his head in disgust. "I just told 'em right from the start, 'We're just spending money that shouldn't be spent - my money,'" Dewandeler says. "I'm just a little guy. I'm not budgeted for this extra stuff either. I waited three years after buying the land to feel I could borrow the money to put in the irrigator. Then you add these expenses on it." Bob Dewandeler is a small farmer - a small player in the management of the Straight River. The big player here is the R.D. Offutt Co., growing thousands of acres of irrigated potatoes in the Straight River basin. Offutt is by far the largest water consumer, and the company continues to expand. Offut also runs a french-fry plant near the Straight River which uses millions of gallons of water. Offut company officials declined to be interviewed for this story. Scientists agree pumping a lot of water from wells can take water away from springs that feed the Straight River. But the interaction between groundwater and stream is complex, and not well understood. DNR Hydrologist Bob Merritt has been trying to understand this river basin for more than 20 years. "Certainly, we're a lot more proactive now than we were 10 or 15 years ago," Merrit says. "We're getting in front of it, and I feel good about that." Merrit says more research is needed. But research is expensive and time-consuming. He says the DNR is short of money and people. He's fairly confident the Straight River is not in immediate danger. But he worries about increased irrigation, and what may happen in a drought. "None of us wants to be the one who - sometime in the future - has to say, 'We screwed up.' We want to do it right. We also realize we need the economy up there. We need to do better in making sure both sides are taken care of," Merrit says. "A good place for a fish to sit is right there, where the water comes around," says Ron Miller, as he wades through thigh-deep water on a recent Saturday morning. It's trout season opener, and Miller is a self-described fly fishing fanatic. Miller, a pediatrician in Fargo, has been casting for trout in the Straight River the past 25 years. He knows every bend and riffle. "It's a wild, unique place. This morning already we've heard ducks, geese, coyotes, ruffed grouse, deer - now we're hearing some birds come." Ron Miller is also a member of Trout Unlimited, one of the groups that sued the state a decade ago, seeking greater protection for the Straight River. He says some good things have happened since then. Farmers' irrigation permits are more closely scrutinized. A study provided the DNR better information about the health of the stream and the fish that live in it. But Miller is frustrated that there is not yet a management plan in place to protect the river. "Can the DNR get it together and protect this river? Or are they going to go - hydrologists here and fisheries there -and just sort of never really get it protected?" Miller asks. "Will the intense agricultural pressures force them to capitulate in a political manner to those interests?"

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In reality, it's not quite that simple. The DNR wants to develop a management plan for the Straight River. It's not clear what the scope of the plan would be. But before the agency can call for changes in farming practices or restrict development, they need proof that irrigation damages the river. Area Fisheries Manager Doug Kingsley says that makes his job challenging. There's some anecdotal evidence the Straight River has deteriorated over the years. It once supported brook trout, but warmer water wiped them out, leaving the less sensitive brown trout. Kingsley says with rising water temperature, even the brown trout are not safe. "We are getting very close, I think, to the level these trout can sustain. We get periods where it's getting up into the 70s. And that's getting pretty close to the lethal limits," says Kingsley. But what's causing warmer water in the river? Is it because irrigation wells are sucking dry some of those cold clear springs? Kingsley says maybe. But state law protects farm irrigation. Once a permit is granted, it's very difficult to shut down the well. "The difficulty would be - if we saw effects on the fishery, we would have to be able to somehow prove it was because of the water withdrawals," says Kingsley. "That would be pretty difficult, maybe impossible to do, and I'm not sure we could prove that." Kingsley is hopeful the DNR will start work on a management plan sometime in the next several years. Meanwhile, a half dozen new irrigation wells will start pumping this summer.

Assignment 6.1: Fish Sampling Work PlanDNR regulation requires that you submit a work plan and estimated budget to your

supervisor before you can carry out your survey.

Working as a group on-site, you should develop a plan for our trout surveys using following format:

Objectives – the purpose of the population estimates, the number and length of river sections to be surveyed, past data you will use to compare this year’s estimate.

Work plan – briefly describe the plan of work, the personnel requirements, and any safety issues.

Equipment – a list of both equipment and expendables. Budget – there are two basic categories: personnel (your crew is paid $10/hour) and

equipment (most of the major equipment has been purchased over the years, but you need fuel, servicing of electro-shocking generator, some new waders or gloves).

Expected Impact of Survey on vegetation, fish, wildlife, birds, etc.

Assignment 6.2: Professional LetterWrite a letter to the president of the Twin Cities Trout Fishing Association responding to

his request and copy the letter to the president of the local chapter of the Isaac Walton League. Explain how you addressed his request and discuss the data as well as the sociopolitical aspects of your decision.

Address your letter to:

Mr. Sam Green, PresidentTwin Cities Trout Fishing Association220 West Lake StreetMinneapolis, MN 55555

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Be as diplomatic as possible. These two groups are your primary constituents and you need their support. On the other hand, trying to please both groups may not be good biology and may leave both unhappy.

Here are some things to think about on the field trip:1. Make a list of the field crew and all equipment.2. Ask Edie, Scott, and the rest of the MNDNR staff how they manage the river (types

of control structures, interactions with landowners).3. Check off the fish you see on your list of the fishes of Itasca.4. Ask what are the characteristics and species indicators of a good cold water trout

stream.5. Collect some fish samples for study.

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ReferencesAlldredge, J. R., and J. T. Ratti. 1992. Further comparison of some statistical

techniques for analysis of resource selection. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:1-9.

Marker, L. L., and A. J. Dickman. 2005. Factors affecting leopard (Panthera pardus) spatial ecology, with particular reference to Namibian farmlands. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 35:105-115.

Roscoe, J. T., and J. A. Byars. 1971. An Investigation of the Restraints with Respect to Sample Size Commonly Imposed on the Use of the Chi-Square Statistic. Journal of the American Statistical Association 66:755-759.

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AppendicesAppendix 1. Map of Cloquet Forestry Center Property and Surrounding Areas

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Appendix 2. 2 Distribution and Critical Value Table

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df P = 0.05

P = 0.01

P = 0.001

1 3.84 6.64 10.83 2 5.99 9.21 13.82 3 7.82 11.35 16.27 4 9.49 13.28 18.47 5 11.07 15.09 20.52 6 12.59 16.81 22.46 7 14.07 18.48 24.32 8 15.51 20.09 26.13 9 16.92 21.67 27.88

10 18.31 23.21 29.59 11 19.68 24.73 31.26 12 21.03 26.22 32.91 13 22.36 27.69 34.53 14 23.69 29.14 36.12 15 25.00 30.58 37.70 16 26.30 32.00 39.25 17 27.59 33.41 40.79 18 28.87 34.81 42.31 19 30.14 36.19 43.82 20 31.41 37.57 45.32 21 32.67 38.93 46.80 22 33.92 40.29 48.27 23 35.17 41.64 49.73 24 36.42 42.98 51.18 25 37.65 44.31 52.62 26 38.89 45.64 54.05 27 40.11 46.96 55.48 28 41.34 48.28 56.89 29 42.56 49.59 58.30 30 43.77 50.89 59.70 31 44.99 52.19 61.10 32 46.19 53.49 62.49 33 47.40 54.78 63.87 34 48.60 56.06 65.25 35 49.80 57.34 66.62 36 51.00 58.62 67.99 37 52.19 59.89 69.35 38 53.38 61.16 70.71 39 54.57 62.43 72.06 40 55.76 63.69 73.41 41 56.94 64.95 74.75 42 58.12 66.21 76.09 43 59.30 67.46 77.42 44 60.48 68.71 78.75 45 61.66 69.96 80.08 46 62.83 71.20 81.40 47 64.00 72.44 82.72 48 65.17 73.68 84.03 49 66.34 74.92 85.35 50 67.51 76.15 86.66 51 68.67 77.39 87.97 52 69.83 78.62 89.27 53 70.99 79.84 90.57 54 72.15 81.07 91.88

df P = 0.05

P = 0.01

P = 0.001

55 73.31 82.29 93.17 56 74.47 83.52 94.47 57 75.62 84.73 95.75 58 76.78 85.95 97.03 59 77.93 87.17 98.34 60 79.08 88.38 99.62 61 80.23 89.59 100.88 62 81.38 90.80 102.15 63 82.53 92.01 103.46 64 83.68 93.22 104.72 65 84.82 94.42 105.97 66 85.97 95.63 107.26 67 87.11 96.83 108.54 68 88.25 98.03 109.79 69 89.39 99.23 111.06 70 90.53 100.42 112.31 71 91.67 101.62 113.56 72 92.81 102.82 114.84 73 93.95 104.01 116.08 74 95.08 105.20 117.35 75 96.22 106.39 118.60 76 97.35 107.58 119.85 77 98.49 108.77 121.11 78 99.62 109.96 122.36 79 100.75 111.15 123.60 80 101.88 112.33 124.84 81 103.01 113.51 126.09 82 104.14 114.70 127.33 83 105.27 115.88 128.57 84 106.40 117.06 129.80 85 107.52 118.24 131.04 86 108.65 119.41 132.28 87 109.77 120.59 133.51 88 110.90 121.77 134.74 89 112.02 122.94 135.96 90 113.15 124.12 137.19 91 114.27 125.29 138.45 92 115.39 126.46 139.66 93 116.51 127.63 140.90 94 117.63 128.80 142.12 95 118.75 129.97 143.32 96 119.87 131.14 144.55 97 120.99 132.31 145.78 98 122.11 133.47 146.99 99 123.23 134.64 148.21

100 124.34 135.81 149.48


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Appendix 3: Some common writing problems encountered in past classesMany common problems with scientific writing are eloquently summarized with examples at the following website:

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/tenmost.htmYou should review this site so you know what each of the following refer to:

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http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/tenmost.htm


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Comma Splices Wordiness Fragments Misplaced Modifiers

Run-on Sentences Passive Voice Pronoun Reference Subject-Verb Agreement

Faulty Parallelism Indicating

Possession

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http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/possess.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/possess.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/parallel.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/s_v.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/pronoun.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/passive.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/runon.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/mmodifier.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/fragment.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/wordiness.htm

http://ace.acadiau.ca/english/grammar/comma.htm

Highlighted below are some of these problems plus a few additional issues that have frequently been encountered in this class.

You are responsible for carefully checking your own work for these problems and making the necessary corrections before handing in any written work.

Reference to something that has not been adequately introduced or established. Some examples are listed below.

In a paper reviewing a USFW Service Habitat plan, the writer refers to “the plan” with the assumption that the reader knows what is being referred to. It is essential to provide proper context (e.g. stating the formal name of the plan being reviewed, who prepared the plan, what the status of the plan is, etc.) prior to referring to something in an abbreviated or generalized way. If the specifics of a reference have been clearly established (e.g. the title, date of publication, and authors, etc.), it may be appropriate to refer to “the plan” as the subject of a sentence.

In the same review, the writer comments that:

“They didn’t mention critical habitat.”without having established who “they” are. Ensure that any such generic pronoun reference

is absolutely clear. More often than not, it is better to use the names of the authors (“Lewis and Clark failed to identify what constitutes critical habitat…”) or “The authors failed to identify…” (assuming that “the authors” have been introduced earlier in the paper).

Ambiguous / vague antecedent-pronoun pairs. This problem occurs when it is unclear what a pronoun used in a sentence refers to (it’s antecedent). Consider the following:

Within-sentence example::

“As with most top predators, the most crucial resource affecting their range is prey”.

In the above sentence, it is unclear what the pronoun “their” refers to. In some cases, a pronoun is used to refer to an antecedent in a previous sentence or

paragraph. If the reference is not clear, such phrasing can be unacceptably confusing.

Example:

“As with most top predators, the most crucial resource affecting the size of a wolf’s home range is prey density”. “They should have clarified this point.”

In the above sentence pair, the pronoun “they” is without a clear antecedent.

This issue is covered at the website above under pronoun reference.

Inappropriate / inconsistent tense. Consider the following example:

“The plan mentioned critical habitat but was not specific. It does not go far enough in describing what will be needed to conserve…”

In this case, not only are two tenses mixed, but the past tense should not be used for a plan that is still in effect. In fact, I suggest that the present tense should be used for any document that is still presently available. It “is” not “was”.

Inappropriate use of the conditional tense should also be avoided. Consider the following:

“Temperature would also be considered an abiotic resource.”


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Here, the word “would” implies that the idea expressed only holds under some specific condition. However, it the context of the sentence implies that the writer meant to say either:

“Temperature is considered another abiotic resource.”

(in which case, it would have been appropriate to cite the author or paper that considered it so), or simply:

“Temperature is another abiotic resource.”

Improper usage or phraseology. The following phasing should be avoided. Read these examples aloud and you may find that they simply sound awkward.

Not OK OK

“In regards to…” “In regard to…” ; “with regard to…”

“Prey is a large factor…” “Prey is a significant factor…”; “Prey is an important factor…”

“Disease is a very serious issue…”;

“Disease is a really serious issue…”

“Disease is a serious issue…” (‘really’ and ‘very’ have been so overused that they lack expressiveness and do not constitute the terse, efficient style of a scientific paper)

“The law prevents hunting…” “The law prohibits hunting…” (…whether this results in prevention is another issue…).

The mother kit fox carried it's pup in it's mouth. (Possessive pronoun, no apostrophe!)

The mother kit fox carried its pup in its mouth. (Possessive of pronoun ‘it’)

I think it's going to be a lean year for kit foxes. (Contraction of it is)

It's been a very long time since I’ve seen a kit fox. (Contraction of it has)

Species common names. There is no definitive rule for animal species common names (see for example, a fairly thorough debate at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Naming_conventions_(fauna) ).

However, the convention appearing most often in publications and other standardization efforts is that species common names should not be capitalized with the following exceptions: bird common names (these go through an international peer-review process for adopting

standardized, unambiguous names); cases where there are proper nouns within the name (e.g. Karner blue, Mexican long-

nosed bat); and leading a sentence (obvious).

From the website above:“To quote from the Chicago Manual of Style:

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Manual_of_Style

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Naming_conventions_(fauna)


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7.104. Common names of plants and animals are capitalized in a bewildering variety of ways, even in lists and catalogs having professional status. It is often appropriate to follow the style of an 'official' list, and authors doing so should let their editors know what list they are following.

7.105. In the absence of such a list the University of Chicago Press prefers a down [sic] style for names of wild plants and animals, capitalizing only proper nouns and adjectives used with their original reference [list of examples follows].”

Citing references. Some common problems / abuses:

improper in-text citation (for example, no date cited)

repeatedly citing the same source sentence after sentence. This is usually associated with an over-riding concern to avoid plagiarism. This, at least, is erring on the right side of things.

The simple rule of thumb with regard to proper citation is to ensure that all individual ideas can be clearly assigned to a specific source. If you are writing a review of a plan, for example, it is OK to clearly establish a reference system early in the document and follow it throughout. For example, “This is a review of the California Kit Fox Habitat Plan (Brown 2001) (hereafter referred to as “the plan”).”

If you must break the attribution of several thoughts from a single source into separate sentences, consider citing the source after the first sentence and following with a reference to the authors. For example,

“Kit foxes depend on small rodents for the majority of their food (Brown 2001). Brown also documents kit foxes’ ability to go for several days without water and their use of established trails in their daily movements.”

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Informal diction. For technical papers, it is advisable to use a more formal, affirmative tone.

Too Informal OK“I really think that they should have gone into more detail about what critical habitat for the polar bear is.”

“The authors provide little detail on the polar bear’s critical habitat.”

“They could have talked more about other species that would benefit from the plan.”

“A more detailed treatment of how the plan will potentially benefit other species would have strengthened the plan.”

“I think they really included the important information about the polar bear’s critical resources and constraints. I would say that this plan will be successful.”

“Given the detailed and well-documented inventory of the needs and availability of the polar bear’s critical resources and the constraints on the species use of these resources, the plan will likely be successful in accomplishing its stated

“It sort of seemed like they wanted to say that prey is not important to kit foxes.”

“The authors imply that prey is not important to kit foxes.”

“I would say that field mice are an important part of the kit fox’s diet.”

“Field mice are an important part of the kit fox’s diet.”

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Documents

· Web viewUnless otherwise specified, the reference direction is generally understood to be magnetic North. Unfortunately, magnetic north and true north are not one and the same