Philosophies Developed during the Zhou Dynasty During the Zhou Dynasty, a period of warfare and increasing decentralization

occurred known as the “Age of Warring States” In this time period of warring lords and chaos, philosophers developed new ways of

thinking about society and personal relationships Confucius developed a philosophy based on five primary relationships [emperor

and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother and friend and friend]

In Confucianism, an individual must know his role in society and act accordingly; the superior must set a good example and provide for the inferior while the inferior must obey

In Daoism, an individual is encouraged to live naturally and close to nature In both Confucianism and Daoism, new belief systems emerged from political

disorder; these belief systems did not worship a deity and remained primarily regional beliefs

Reasons for the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West Germanic invaders – called Barbarians by the Romans – invaded These widespread and intensified barbarian invasions weakened the Empire in the

West and ultimately led to the collapse of empire in the West In addition, corrupt emperors and an ineffective way of selecting an emperor did

not help or that emperors ruled for life, even bad emperors Certainly, high taxes did not help either Yet invaders ultimately ended Roman rule in the West

Social Structure of Han China and of Classical India In Classical India, there was the caste system: Priests, Warriors, Merchants,

Farmers and Untouchables or Outcastes In Han China, there were scholar-gentry, peasants, and merchants Clearly, the difference is found in the elite In the top position in Classical India was the Brahmin or Priest In Han China, the scholar-gentry were the elite The scholar-gentry were men who had passed the examination for government

service and were rewarded with government service, land, and privilege Yes, the Chinese placed bureaucrats rather than priests at the top of the social

hierarchy

Japanese Feudalism and Feudalism in Western Europe Both systems were largely decentralized where lords had private armies and

soldiers and kings or shoguns depended on these lords to ensure their power and rule

Japanese and European feudalism were also similar in that both ended as their respective regions developed centralized governments

But there were differences too European feudalism was contractual

In European feudalism, there was a contract between a lord and his vassal that clearly spelled out the obligations of each party

Japanese feudalism, however, was based on the personal relationship between lord and vassal but not a contract

In Japanese feudalism, loyalty was paramount

Judaism Monotheism – a belief in a single, omnipotent deity Ethical and Moral Religion [The Ten Commandments] ... certain behaviors are

required of a Godly people A covenant or agreement exists between God and his People such as to worship one

God and obey His Commandments By obeying God’s Commandments, the Hebrews are blessed By disobeying God’s Commandments, the Hebrews are punished Judaism is the longest, lasting monotheistic faith in the world

Southeast Asia Prior to 1000 C.E. Southeast Asia is located between India and China Southeast Asia was part of the Indian Ocean trade network Cultural diffusion from India and China influenced Southeast Asia Even after 1000 C.E., the French referred to their colony in Southeast Asia as

“Indochina” Present-day nations in the region include Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar

[Burma], Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand

Meritocracy A meritocracy is a system in which the talented are chosen and moved ahead on the

basis of their achievement It is a system where leadership is selected on the basis of intellectual criteria and

ability Clearly, the examination system in China was a meritocracy Open to all men, the Chinese examination system selected men for government

service based on intelligence and ability The examination was difficult to pass but if the candidate passed the examination –

regardless of his background – he was rewarded with government service and became a member of the elite scholar-gentry

A characteristic of a meritocracy is the increasing use of civil service exams to fill government positions

Buddhism and Its Acceptance and Rejection of Hindu Beliefs Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was raised a Hindu While Siddhartha rejected many Hindu concepts and created a new belief system,

he did accept several Hindu doctrines Upon achieving Enlightenment and becoming the Buddha, Siddhartha formulated

the Four Noble Truths on the causation and cessation of suffering

He accepted the Hindu doctrine of karma – that all deeds have consequences – and samsara or reincarnation

He rejected the Hindu caste system or the idea that a person is born into a social class and remains in that class throughout his lifetime

In Buddhism, there is no caste system

The Proper Chronological Order of the French Revolution The French Revolution begins with the formation of a National Assembly After the representatives of the Third Estate walked out of the meeting of the

Estates General and took the Oath of the Tennis Court, they formed a new government – a representative government known as the National Assembly; of course, France was at this point a Constitutional Monarchy as the King still ruled although his power was limited by the National Assembly

After a bit of time, France was attacked by enemies of the Revolution and there was fear that within France, there were counterrevolutionaries plotting against the Revolutionary Government in addition to foreign armies massing on France’s borders

Thus, the Revolution entered the second phase or the Reign of Terror – a period when the guillotine was used to behead suspected counterrevolutionaries

After the French tired of the bloodshed from the Reign of Terror, a new government formed yet again known as the Directory

But the Directory failed to solve the problems confronting France Finally, Napoleon came to power and ruled as a dictator and an emperor and so, the

French Revolution came to end when Napoleon came to power – although he did keep many of the ideas of the Revolution like equal rights for men

A Development Partially Resulted from Knowledge of Greek Science [1000 to 1450] Islamic medical books in Baghdad It is important to remember that the Byzantines and the Muslims preserved Greek

and Roman learning As a result of this preservation, new scientific ideas built upon earlier Greek ideas

regarding rationalism and using the intelligent mind to understand the universe

Muslims in Northern India From Islam’s earliest days, there were Muslims in India – primarily through trade As the years passed, Muslims armies began to conquer parts of the Indian

subcontinent Before the Mughals – establishing an empire with a Muslim minority ruling a Hindu

majority in the 1500s – Muslims invaded Northern India Indeed over two hundred years, between the 1000s and 1200s, Muslims seized parts

of northern India The Delhi Sultanate is one example of Muslim conquests in this period

Dhimmis “People of the Book” in Islam – usually fellow monotheists

Islamic law made a distinction between two categories of non-Muslim subjects – pagans and dhimmis (“protected peoples,” or “peoples of the book”; i.e., those peoples who based their religious beliefs on sacred texts, such as Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians)

The Muslim rulers tolerated the dhimmis and allowed them to practice their religion

In return for protection and as a mark of their submission, the dhimmis were required to pay a special poll tax known as the jizya

The jizya was a head or poll tax In general, Jews and Christians were “People of the Book” in that they, too,

worshipped a single God and a single sacred text – the Bible

The Turks The Turks entered the Middle East in the eleventh century C.E. and came to

dominate most of Anatolia The Turks were originally from Central Asia and eventually converted to Islam They were skilled warriors on horseback The Turks were also the third carriers of Islam after the Arabs and the Persians The Turks established the Ottoman Empire, the empire that conquered

Constantinople in 1453 The Turks ruled over Anatolia and a vast empire at its height under Suleiman the

Magnificent, an empire that ruled over parts of three continents – Europe, Asia, and Africa

The Tokugawa Shogunate Japan’s Tokugawa (or Edo) period lasted from 1603 to 1867 until the Meiji

Restoration of 1868 toppled the long-reigning Tokugawa shoguns and propelled the country into the modern era

Tokugawa Ieyasu’s dynasty of shoguns presided over 250 years of peace and prosperity in Japan, including the rise of a new merchant class and increasing urbanization

To guard against external influence, they also worked to close off Japanese society from Westernizing influences, particularly Christianity

The Tokugawa Shoguns had come to power after a devastating civil war in Japan The primary goal of the Tokugawa Shoguns was to ensure unity and peace Indeed, the years of the Tokugawa Shogunate are known as “The Great Peace” To prevent any disunity, the Tokugawa shoguns isolated Japan – this meant no

foreigners in [excluding the Chinese and Dutch who were allowed to trade at the port of Nagasaki] and no Japanese out

The Japanese were forbidden from going abroad for if they travelled abroad, they would return with new ideas that could create division within Japan

The Japanese were not allowed to leave and the foreigners were not allowed to enter Yet in this time of isolation, there was tremendous productivity And isolationism did not mean a rejection or earlier cultural borrowing; the

Japanese still practiced Buddhism and Confucianism

Isolationism also did not mean economic depression as merchants became increasingly wealthy from expanded internal trade opportunities and agriculture became very productive thereby freeing many Japanese from farm work

Yet with the arrival of Commodore Perry, an American, the Japanese had fallen dangerously behind, and the Tokugawa Shoguns were forced to end their policy of isolationism by opening Japan to foreigners

With this change, the government also changed as the Japanese realized that to compete in the world, modernization was required

The Byzantine Empire Formerly the Eastern Roman Empire Capital – Constantinople Location – Between Europe and Asia Conquered and collapsed in 1453 by Ottoman Turks Many traditions and practices which began in the Roman Empire endured in the

Byzantine Empire even after Rome fell in Western Europe. The Hagia Sophia, which was built as a church under the Byzantine Empire,

continues today as a mosque. One of its emperors, Justinian, systemized Roman law [the Code of Justinian] in

such a manner that it became the basis for law in most of Western Europe Orthodox Christianity was the religion of the Empire Caesaropapism was its political theory – the Emperor was the head of the state and

the Church

Janissaries Janissary also spelled Janizary or in Turkish, Yeniçeri, Members of an elite corps in the standing army of the Ottoman Empire from the

late 14th century to 1826 Highly respected for their military prowess in the 15th and 16th centuries, the

Janissaries became a powerful political force within the Ottoman state The Janissary corps was originally staffed by Christian youths from the Balkan

provinces who were converted to Islām on being drafted into the Ottoman service Subject to strict rules, including celibacy, they were organized into three unequal

divisions (cemaat, bölükhalkı, segban) and commanded by an ağā The Janissaries frequently engineered palace coups in the 17th and 18th centuries,

and in the early 19th century they resisted the adoption of European reforms by the army

Their end came in June 1826 in the so-called Auspicious Incident On learning of the formation of new, westernized troops, the Janissaries revolted Sultan Mahmud II declared war on the rebels and, on their refusal to surrender,

had cannon fire directed on their barracks Most of the Janissaries were killed, and those who were taken prisoner were

executed Yet they will always be remembered as Christian boys taken from conquered

territories and raised as Special ForcesManchu Leaders in China by the early 1800s

The Qing or Manchu Dynasty was the last dynasty of China The Manchus, although foreigners, claimed the Mandate of Heaven and ruled

China from the 1644 to 1911 The Manchus adopted the examination system and Confucianism yet required

Chinese men to wear the queue or a braid The queue was a sign of Manchu domination over the Han Chinese In the beginning of their reign, the Manchu were strong and capable rulers but

over time, China began to decline in global power as Europe grew in power With the infusion of opium into the Chinese market, the Manchu faced increasing

problems After defeat in the Opium Wars, the Manchus faced rebellions and resistance But even before the Opium Wars, the dynasty was beginning to decline due to

corrupt rulers and an economy that was not expanding fast enough to meet the needs of China’s growing population

Thus, by the early 1800s, the Manchus met with popular discontent and widespread reaction against corruption and economic malaise

The Impact of the Haitian Rebellion Haiti was the first nation in Latin America to declare independence from a

European colonial power Haiti’s independence movement was also the world’s first successful slave rebellion

that led to independence and the end of a minority planter-class that dominated a society of largely African slaves

After independence, the Haitian government often aided other Latin American nationalists seeking to overthrow European colonial control

Indeed, the great liberator of South America, Simón Bolívar received aid from Haiti The Haitian Rebellion inspired rebellions elsewhere in Latin America and caused

France to abandon its main colonies in the New World It is important to remember that after the French loss of Haiti, Napoleon offered the

Louisiana Territory to U.S. President Thomas Jefferson

Classical Persia In 549 BCE, the Persians, led by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid family,

overthrew the Median court of Western Iran Cyrus thus founded the first Persian Empire The Achaemenid kings are known to have been very pious Zoroastrians, trying to

rule justly and in accordance with the Zoroastrian law of asha (truth and righteousness)

The Avesta is the holy book of Zoroastrianism Zoroastrians believe there is one God called Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) and He

created the world They believe that the world is a cosmic battleground between good and evil and that

people are free to choose to follow good or evil Those who follow good are rewarded with Heaven and evildoers punished in Hell Cyrus the Great was relatively tolerant

While he himself ruled according to Zoroastrian beliefs, he made no attempt to impose Zoroastrianism on the people of his subject territories

The Jews most famously benefited from this; Cyrus permitted them to return to Jerusalem from exile in Babylon, and rebuild their temple

Darius the Great, another significant emperor, was also famously pious and showed the same general tolerance for other faiths as his predecessor Cyrus

Under Darius the empire was stabilized, with roads for communication and a system of governors (satraps) established

Darius initiated two major building projects: the construction of royal buildings at Susa and the creation of the new dynastic center of Persepolis

A culturally diverse empire However, in 498 B.C.E., the eastern Greek Ionian cities, supported in part by

Athens, revolted It took the Persians four years to crush the rebellion, although an attack against

mainland Greece was repulsed at Marathon in 490 B.C.E. The Royal Road was a road of a distance of more than 1,500 miles The Royal Road connected the empire Royal messengers, who, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, were stopped

by “neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night,” traversed the entire road in nine days, thanks to a system of relays

The Christian Community in Tokugawa Japan To maintain political stability, Tokugawa Ieyasu issued the Christian Expulsion

Edict prohibiting all Christian activity among Japanese Christians were brutally persecuted and driven into secrecy It was made a capital offense for a Japanese to be a Christian, and daimyos were

forbidden to have Christians in their employ Military assaults were made against Christian strongholds Captured European and Japanese Christians were executed, and some Christians

survived to pursue their Christianity in secret Dutch traders, managed to hold on to a small trading post on the island of Deshima,

next to Nagasaki, and to the south in the Ryukyu Islands, south of Kyushu The Dutch accomplished this by agreeing to give up all show of Christianity and by

agreeing to restrictions regarding trading and place And the Dutch enjoyed seeing their trading rivals, the Spaniards and Portuguese,

expelled

Creole Elites in Latin America In colonial Latin America, the social hierarchy consisted of peninsulares, creoles,

mestizos, and Indians and Africans Peninsulares were individuals born in Spain – on the Iberian Peninsula;

peninsulares were given the most prestigious and powerful jobs in colonial Latin America and were often wealthy landowners

Creoles were born in the Americas of European ancestry Creoles were the children of peninsulares

Although creoles were often wealthy landowners, they were not employed in the top positions of colonial government

As a result of their lower status, creoles became agitators for independence and often led the independence movements in Latin America

Creoles, however, were cautious revolutionaries While creoles wanted independence, they did not want to radically change the class

hierarchy Yes, creoles wanted to replace peninsulares but they did not want to elevate the

lowest classes Creoles were cautious revolutionaries because the fear that slaves and other

oppressed groups would target local elites as part of a general social upheaval certainly did not appeal to them

Creoles wanted independence but not land redistribution Creoles did not want to empower the lowest classes

Johannes Gutenberg Little is known about the life of Johann Gutenberg, including his year of birth The few known facts about Gutenberg’s life originate from a handful of legal and

financial papers These papers reveal that he was born Johann Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg in Mainz,

Germany and moved to Strasbourg sometime before 1434 Legal records show that he and a partner produced metal hand mirrors used by

pilgrims visiting holy sites His metal-working skills must have been useful to him as he developed a method of

making metal type for printing Sometime between 1444 and 1448, Gutenberg returned to Mainz, but there is little

information about his activities for the next ten years It is likely that he spent this time developing his new printing method, as some

scholars believe it took at least ten years for Gutenberg to take his ideas from conception to invention

Gutenberg’s Bible was completed around 1455 A 1455 document known as the Helmsperger Instrument shows that Gutenberg's

wealthy business partner Johann Fust sued him for the return of a large sum of money loaned by Fust

These funds were most likely used in the development of Gutenberg’s printing method and the production of the Bibles

Gutenberg lost the lawsuit and had to turn over some of his printing equipment to Fust, who later formed an important printing partnership with Peter Schoeffer, Gutenberg's assistant

Little is known about Gutenberg’s later years, except that he was financially supported by the Archbishop of Mainz and may have lived comfortably until his death in 1468

Movable type or Gutenberg’s printing press greatly increased the production of books

Dharma and Karma These concepts are Hindu and Buddhist concepts

Both Hindus and Buddhists believe in Karma or that all actions have consequences Hindus speak of dharma as the rules of the caste Buddhists speak of dharma as the teachings of the Buddha Both Hindus and Buddhists are familiar with karma and dharma

The Mongols and Moscow When the city of Kiev resisted the Mongols, it was destroyed Moscow, however, cooperated and the princes of Moscow became the primary

collectors of Russian tribute for the Mongol Empire The Mongols ruled Russia for 240 years during the 13th to 15th centuries One of the greatest effects of Mongol rule in Russia was the rise of Moscow as not

only the preeminent city in Russia but also the central power of a large and expanding empire

Badly plundered and partially burned in the early Mongol assaults, the city was gradually rebuilt and its ruling princes steadily swallowed up nearby towns and surrounding villages

After 1328, Moscow also profited from its status as the tribute collector for the Mongol khans

Its princes not only used their position to fill their own coffers, they annexed further towns as punishment for falling behind on the payment of their tribute’

A result of the Mongol invasion, Moscow used its position as collector of tribute for the Mongols and the seat of Russian Orthodoxy to emerge as the political leader of Russia

As Moscow grew in strength, the power of the Golden Horde declined Mongol religious toleration benefited both the Orthodox church and Moscow The Metropolitan, or head of the Orthodox church, was made the representative of

all the clergy in Russia, which did much to enhance the church’s standing The choice of Moscow as the seat of the Orthodox leaders brought new sources of

wealth to its princes and buttressed Muscovite claims to be Russia’s leading city In 1380, those claims received an additional boost when the princes of Moscow

shifted from being tribute collectors to being the defenders of Russia In alliance with other Russian vassals, they raised an army that defeated the forces

of the Golden Horde at the battle of Kulikovo

The Inquisition The Inquisition was a permanent institution in the Catholic Church charged with

the eradication of heresies Unlike many other religions, the Catholic Church has a hierarchical structure with

a central bureaucracy In early years, there were several competing sects that called themselves Christian But after the Emperor Constantine I made Christianity the state religion of the

Roman Empire, doctrinal arguments were settled by Church Councils, beginning with the Council of Nicaea in 325

Those whose beliefs or practices deviated sufficiently from the orthodoxy of the councils now became the objects of efforts to bring them into the fold

Resistance often led to persecution

The Holy Inquisition was created to track down and punish heretics and religious nonconformists

Heretics are individuals who do not believe or practice according to official religious teachings

The Inquisition was a Catholic court that punished heretics

The Spread of Islam along Trade Routes in West Africa Islam entered West Africa along the Trans-Saharan trade routes North African nomads carried not only salt but religion in their quest for West

African gold Many West Africans voluntarily converted to Islam A mosque in Mali is evidence of the spread of Islam along trade routes Islam in West Africa is an example of diffusion

The West African Kingdom of Mali The Mali Empire was the second of three West African empires to emerge in the

vast savanna grasslands located between the Sahara Desert to the north and the coastal rain forest in the south

The Mali Empire was strategically located between the West African gold mines and the agriculturally rich Niger River floodplain

Mali’s rise begins when the political leaders of Ghana could not reestablish that empire’s former glory following its conquest and occupation by the Almoravids in 1076

Consequently a number of small states vied to control the salt and gold trade that accounted for Ghana’s wealth and power.

In 1235, Sundiata Keita, the leader of one of these states, Kangaba, defeated its principal rival, the neighboring kingdom of Susu, and began consolidating power in the region

Sundiata’s conquest in 1235 is considered the founding of the Malian Empire Under Sundiata’s successors Mali extended its control west to the Atlantic, south

into the rain forest region, including the Wangara gold fields, and east beyond the great bend of the Niger River

At its height in 1350 the Mali Empire was a confederation of three states, Mali, Memo and Wagadou and twelve garrisoned provinces

The emperor or mansa ruled over 400 cities, towns and villages of various ethnicities and controlled a population of approximately 20 million people from the capitol at Niani

The Malian Army numbered 100,000 men including 10,000 cavalry During this time only the Mongol Empire (China) exceed Mali in size The mansa reserved the exclusive right to dispense justice and to tax both local and

international trade That trade was centered in three major cities, Timbuktu, Djenne and Gao Between 1324 and 1325 Mansa Musa, the most famous of the Malian Emperors,

made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca in Arabia, bringing thousands of followers and hundreds of camels carrying gold

Through the highly publicized pilgrimage and indirectly through an elaborate trade that sent gold to the capitals of Europe and Asia, Mali and its ruler became famous throughout the known world

Mali’s power however was eventually weakened by palace intrigue that prevented an orderly succession of imperial power and by the desire of smaller states to break free of its rule to reap the benefits of the salt and gold trade

The first people to achieve independence from Mali were the Wolof who resided in what is now Senegal

In 1430 the nomadic Tuareg seized Timbuktu; this conquest had enormous commercial and psychological consequents: a relatively small but united group had occupied the richest city in the Empire and one of the major sources of imperial wealth

The greatest challenge, however, came from a rebellion in Gao that led to rise of Songhai

The once vassal state to Mali conquered Mema, one of the Empire’s oldest possessions in 1465

Three years later they took Timbuktu from the Tuareg Beginning in 1502, Songhai forces under Askia Muhammad took control of virtually

all of Mali’s eastern possession including the sites for commercial exchange as well as the gold and copper mines at the southern and northern borders

In 1545 a Songhai army routed the Malians and their emperor from their capital, Niani

The Gunpowder Empires of the Islamic World Safavid Persia, Ottoman Turkey, and Mughal India Scholars often use the term “gunpowder empire” to describe each of these three

empires, focusing attention on their military exploits, which were, indeed, impressive

Each made use of newly-developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires

And to equip their armies, each state developed a highly centralized administration that could mobilize the financial, manpower and natural resources necessary to purchase gunpowder arms and then supervise the deployment of those arms and the training of soldiers to use the weapons

But all three empires were also centers of impressive cultural (artistic, literary and architectural) achievements

In addition, each was also all based on Islam in one form or another In the Safavid Empire, for example, it was Shah Ismail I who really established the

Shiite faith as the dominant religion of Iran/Persia

Epidemics in Sixteenth-Century Mesoamerica Smallpox devastated the Native American Indians of Mesoamerica The largest decline in percentage of global population in history occurred as a result

of epidemics in sixteenth-century Mesoamerica The Native American Indians lacked immunities to smallpox and other diseases due

to a lack of domesticated animals in the Americas

Within just a few generations, the continents of the Americas were virtually emptied of their native inhabitants – some academics estimate that approximately 20 million people may have died in the years following the European invasion – up to 95% of the population of the Americas

No medieval force, no matter how bloodthirsty, could have achieved such enormous levels of genocide

Instead, Europeans were aided by a deadly secret weapon they weren’t even aware they were carrying: smallpox

For thousands of years, the people of Eurasia lived in close proximity to the largest variety of domesticated mammals in the world – eating, drinking, and breathing in the germs these animals bore

Over time, animal infections crossed species, evolving into new strains which became deadly to man

Diseases like smallpox, influenza and measles were in fact the deadly inheritance of the Eurasian farming tradition – the product of thousands of years spent farming livestock

Yet the people of the New World had no history of prior exposure to these germs They farmed only one large mammal – the llama – and even this was geographically

isolated The llama was never kept indoors, it wasn’t milked and only occasionally eaten – so

the people of the New World were not troubled by cross-species viral infection When the Europeans arrived, carrying germs which thrived in dense, semi-urban

populations, the indigenous people of the Americas were effectively doomed They had never experienced smallpox, measles or flu before, and the viruses tore

through the continent, killing an estimated 90% of Native Americans Smallpox in the Americas was the deadliest epidemic in world history; more people

in the Americas died from smallpox than any other epidemic in world history

Comparison - Ships of Zheng He and Columbus From 1405 until 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven ocean

expeditions for the Ming emperor Over sixty of the three hundred seventeen ships on the first voyage were enormous

“Treasure Ships,” sailing vessels over 400 hundred feet long, 160 feet wide, with several stories, nine masts and twelve sails, and luxurious staterooms complete with balconies

The likes of these ships had never before been seen in the world, and it would not be until World War I that such an armada would be assembled again

During the first expeditions, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast

In his fourth voyage, he traveled to the Persian Gulf Zheng eventually went all the way to east coast of Africa The European Caravel on the other hand was a significantly smaller vessel A Caravel was a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th

century by the Portuguese to explore along the West African coast and into the Atlantic Ocean

The lateen sails gave the caravel its speed and the capacity for sailing to windward Find images of both to visually recognize the ships and their differences

Trends in New Spain and Brazil That Were Similar during Colonization Colonies created to benefit the mother country Could only trade with the mother country Favored peninsulares or individuals born in Spain or Portugal – the Iberian

Peninsula Both European conquerors decimated Native American populations Enslaved Indians and Africans Depended on cash crops

Point of View in World History Students of history must take into account the “recorder” of history Students must consider the point of view of the individual recording the historical

event For example, a peasant might view the Communist victory in China in 1949

differently than a landowning aristocrat Historical records do not always include all points of view [i.e. conquerors often

write history from the perspective of the victors as opposed to the vanquished] Thus, the saying: “Until the lions have their historians, tales of hunting will always

glorify the hunter”

1450–1750 in the Americas In the period 1450–1750, cash crops such as sugar and tobacco were produced on

large plantations by slave labor Sugar and tobacco were significant commodities in the growing world market Cash crops farming radically altered the environment with the establishment of

plantations Cash crop farming also led to the exploitation of Africans and Native American

Indians

The Heian Period in Japan The Fujiwara Era in Japan When the emperor moved his government from Nara to Heian (Eighth Century

C.E.), the aristocracy took over most of the positions of the central government It was during the imperial court’s time in Heian that the Fujiwara clan emerged as

a powerful family in Japan The emperor began to lose his power as the Fujiwara clan increasingly made

governmental decisions The power and authority of the Fujiwara family rested not on military prowess but

on political strategy and on the family’s special relationship to the imperial family, which it carefully cultivated and exploited

This relationship stemmed from the Fujiwara policy of maintaining attachment to the imperial family through the marriage of Fujiwara daughters to emperors

It meant that the Fujiwara daughters were empresses, that their grandsons and nephews were emperors, and that members of their family, including its lesser branches, received all the patronage

Thus, the Fujiwara clan chieftain, whether he held office or not, could manipulate the reins of government

When the emperor moved his government from Nara to Heian (Eighth Century C.E.), the aristocracy took over most of the positions of the central government

During the Heian period, Japan experienced a golden age and Lady Murasaki wrote the first novel, The Tale of the Genji

Japan’s Feudal Period A shogun was a hereditary military dictator of Japan from 1192 to 1867 C.E. A shogun was the most powerful lord in feudal Japan Legally the shogunate or shogun’s government [bakufu] was under the control of

the emperor, and the shogun’s authority was limited to control of the military forces of the country

But the increasingly feudal character of Japanese society created a situation in which control of the military became tantamount to control of the country, and theEmperor remained in his palace in Kyōto chiefly as a symbol of sovereignty behind the shogun

The emperor was a mere figurehead But the shogun ruled Japan In the feudal hierarchy of Japan, the shogun, daimyo [lords], samurai [knights], and

peasants each occupied different stations in society

600 to 1450 – Women in India and Europe Were workers in domestic industries and field workers Patriarchy or male dominance existed and women were expected to perform certain

roles in society and in family life Yet the could work in domestic industries or as field workers

Trade in Eurasia and the Americas in the Period 600 to 1450 Trade in Eurasia moved along an east-west axis, while that in the Americas moved

along a north-south axis Thus, in Eurasia, diffusion of crops and livestock occurred more easily as a result of

a similar climate zone Diffusion was more difficult in the Americas due to differing climate zones

Patriarchy Men are accorded superior status Male dominance Women are viewed as weak and inferior and must be protected by men Women are lowly Sons are favored

Pre-Islamic Arabia

Animism Polytheism Mostly nomadic Bedouins Prior to Muhammad’s revelations, the religion of the Bedouin was mostly animistic

and polytheistic

The Hindu Concept of Samsara Reincarnation A belief that one’s soul lives, dies, and is reborn many times, until it is pure enough

to escape the cycle of rebirth

Akbar the Great The most significant emperor of the Mughal Empire of the Indian subcontinent During the Mughal Empire, a Muslim minority ruled a Hindu majority During Akbar’s reign, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth Akbar had created a powerful army and instituted effective political and social

reforms By abolishing the sectarian tax on Hindus – the jizya – and appointing Hindus to

high civil and military posts, Akbar the Great was the first Muslim ruler to win the trust and loyalty of his Hindu subjects

He had Hindu literature translated, participated in Hindu festivals, Realizing that a stable empire depended on strong alliances with the Rajputs, fierce

Hindu warriors, he married a Rajput princess Akbar was truly an enlightened ruler, a philosopher-king who had a genuine

interest in all creeds and doctrines at a time when religious persecution was prevalent throughout Europe and Asia

Understanding that cooperation among all his subjects – Muslims, Hindus, Persians, Central Asians and indigenous Indians – would be in his best interest, he even tried to establish a new religion that encouraged universal tolerance

Akbar was strong-willed, fearless and often cruel, but he was also just and compassionate and had an inquiring mind

He invited holy men, poets, architects and artisans to his court from all over the Islamic world for study and discussion, and he created an astounding library of over 24,000 volumes written in Hindi, Persian, Greek, Latin, Arabic and Kashmiri, staffed by scholars, translators, artists, calligraphers, scribes, bookbinders and readers

Manifesting the ancestral love of the arts on a monumental scale, Akbar filled the landscape with walled cities of royal pleasure and comfort, designed to dazzle the native rajas and advertise the glory of his reign

In the lovely capital city of Agra, Akbar built his remarkable Red Fort beside the Jamuna River

The Neolithic Revolution During the Neolithic Revolution, people learned to farm and domesticate animals As a result, people settled in villages Sedentary village communities were established

A reliable food source was produced Population increased Class and gender divisions emerged Epidemic diseases occurred due to proximity to animals

Siddhartha Gautama An Indian prince Raised a Hindu Came to discover the existence of suffering Went in search of the causation and cessation of suffering Became enlightened or a Buddha Founder of Buddhism Formulated the Four Noble Truths

- Life has suffering- Desire causes suffering- Suffering can end- Follow the Noble Eightfold Path [Right Speech, Right Meditation, etc.] or the path to end suffering

Nirvana: the end of suffering No caste system Monasticism for men and women: monks and nuns Two major sects today: Theravada and Mahayana Mahayana Buddhists believe in Bodhisattvas or beings who have attained

Enlightenment but remain on Earth to bring others to the end of suffering

Ottoman and Mughal Empires Both Islamic Empires Both ruled over culturally diverse and religiously diverse populations Both empires were established by skilled warriors on horseback who came

originally from Central Asia Both were Gunpowder Empires

Swahili A language and a culture A combination of Bantu and Arabic East African city-states Participated in Indian Ocean Trade An example of syncretism or cultural blending A language that came into existence after 1000 as the direct result of expanding

global trade patterns

The Scientific Revolution The 1600s and early 1700s in Europe were considered a period of scientific

revolution Isaac Newton developed a unified system of physics and mathematics The scientific method was revived and used widely

Scientists discovered that living things are made of cells The telescope was invented Observation and experimentation became the basis for determining truths about the

natural world Rationalism or the use of reason was applied by scientists in their understanding of

the natural world

Africa The birthplace of humanity The first humans lived in Africa Mary Leakey was an important anthropologist who discovered evidence about early

humans in Africa

The Civilizations of Mexico and Central America The civilizations in Mexico and Central America before 1000 C.E. more

sophisticated than those in North America in that in the former, social structure was more complex, astronomical knowledge was greater, and architectural skills were more advanced

Zanzibar Experienced the greatest fusion of Arab, African, and Indian cultures in the

nineteenth century The Stone Town of Zanzibar is a fine example of the Swahili coastal trading towns

of East Africa It retains its urban fabric and townscape virtually intact and contains many fine

buildings that reflect its particular culture, which has brought together and homogenized disparate elements of the cultures of Africa, the Arab region, India, and Europe over more than a millennium

Trends Associated with Europe’s Industrial Revolution Machines to produce goods Faster production of goods and therefore lower prices for manufactured goods Urbanization or movement to cities Population growth A general increase in prosperity, especially after the 1840s The standard of living increased The rapid expansion of the middle class