Victor H. Mair - Two Papers on Sinolinguistics

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SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS

Number 34 October, 1992

Two Papers on Sinolinguistics:

1.A Hypothesis Concerningthe Origin of the Termfanqie(Countertomy)

2.East Asian Round-Trip Wordsby

Victor H. Mair

Victor H. Mair, Editor

Sino-Platonic PapersDepartment of East Asian Languages and Civilizations

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305 USA

[email protected]

www.sino-platonic.org


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A Hypothesis Concerning the Origin of the Termfanqie ( Countertomy )Victor H. MairDepartment of Asian and ME StudiesUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA 19 104-6305USA

Dedicated to Zhou Yiliang, master of medieval Sino-lndiun cultural studies in C h i mThere is an old scholarly consensus, going back at least to the Song period, that the

fanqie ii tg method of spelling has an Indian basis, l but no one has ever demonstratedwith precision what that might be. The purpose of this brief paper is to suggest onepossible avenue for further investigation toward determining the source offanqie.

As an example of Song views on this subject, Xu ~ u a n d ? ~statedhat Theancients had no countertomy for graphs [i.e., in antiquity there was no way to spell out thesounds of words] 5 % /5i t7 .... In fact, it derives from the

? v&.drahmanical [i.e., Sanskritor Indian] learning of the Western Regions. fT Y = 2Another Song scholar, Chen Zhensun r E % fl. 121 1-1249), expressed thesame opinion with somewhat greater specificity: Knowledge of countertomy enteredChina from the Western Regions. By the QI(479-501) and Liang (502-556) periods itbecame prevalent and after that the discussions about phonological defects [in poetry]becamemoredetaild, t7 f a , @ T fq B ' 4 @6 k T ,% 4

The celebrated early Song polymath, Shen Gua ig 6 (1030-1094), had alreadypointed out the fundamental place of Indian influence in the development of Chinesephonology: After Shen Yue zq 441-5 13) established the four tones and IndianBrahmanical learning entered China, the techniques f '~ f phonology6 t were gradual1y refined. 5 The system of rhyme classification6toriginally came from the Western ~ e~ ions . 7

There can be little doubt that the Chinese were aware of the concept of Indianspelling by no later than the beginning of the fifth century, if only vaguely, for~umZraj&a's 344/350-409) translation of NZggarjuna's (the patriarch of MZdhyamika)~ a & ~ r a j ~ p i i r m i t a ~ ' & r a g / 6 ,completed between 402 and 405, has the

r C Bfollowing sentence: The42 graphs are the root of all graphs f = 3 E w a . 8As stated, of course, this makes no sense, but what ~ u m h j ~ v and his assistants must


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Victor H. Mair, AHypothesis Concerning the Origin of the Termfonqie ( Countertomy )

certainlyhave been trylng to convey is something like the following: The 42 letters are thebasis of all words. This is obviously a reference to an Indian or Indian-derived alphabet.But fifth-century Chinese phonologists w ere far from fully comprehending the m echanicsof spelling. Indeed, it wou ld be mo re than a thousand years before true spelling ca me tothe Midd le Kingdom.China never advanced t o a system of authentic spelling for on e of its own Siniticlanguages until the arrival of the Jesuit missionaries Matteo icci (1552-1 610 and NicolasTrigault (1577-1628) introduced the Latin alphabet and applied it to Mandarin andultimately to other topolects. Even now, the concept of spelling out words has n ot won ullacceptance in China where we stil l encounter such monstrosities as Huanyingwai-bindaojiuquanlaiguangwng and We1 com e for eign guests for tour ism in Jiu quan. It isclear that the square shape a nd syllabic nature of the tetragraphs Vhngkuaizi T )still exercise a powerful hold over the Chinese mind. Th e awkward system of fanqie ispart of the sam e legacy.

The two sinographs hanzi 8 ) that constitute the w ord fanqie may b e literallyrendered as reverse cutting. I used to call this method cut-and-splice pseudospelling orquasispelling. Fanqie cannot be considered as genuine spelling because it does notconsistently employ a single symbol (i.e., letter) to designate the sam e sound (phonem e) orcombination of sounds (phonemes). Fo r example, the f inal -ung of a word may berepresented in fanqie spellings by dong ,gong /L; ,hong =,ong ,hongi* , and so forth. Although the fanqie system is quite cum bersome and confusing, i t

A*constitutes a tremendous advance over the old native system of duruo I o r duru: 0 ( read as ) which leaves the reader absolutely helpless if he does not know thepronunciation of the graph which is being used to annotate that of the graph in question.Admittedly, the fanqie system is subject to the same criticism, but fanqie annotators whowere sympathetic to their readers tended to restrict themselves t o a relatively sm all group ofwell-known sinographs. Furtherm ore, the read as method partakes of n o ana lysiswhatsoever a nd hence is of n o value in advancing phonological studies.

Th e word fanqie is somewhat peculiar. Upon first encounter, it is impossible togain an intuitive sense of what this term may mean. Even when told thatfanqie is a type ofspelling, those who are unschooled in this method have no idea how it works. As w e haveseen above, it is easy enough to figure out what the tw o individual sinographs that are usedto write the word mean ( reverse cutting ) , but that is of li t t le help in gaining anunderstanding of th e ma nner in which it functions, viz., to join the initial of on epresumably familiar syllabic graph with the final of another presumably familiar syllabicgraph so as to spell out a third targeted syllabic graph that is presumably un f a m i l f a nd


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Sino Platonic Papers 4 October, 1992

thus requires phonetic annotation. The rules of C hinese word formation and the semanticsof the two constituent sinographs used to write fanqie, then, cannot adequately explain theorigins of the word. Perhaps there is some other credible explanation.

There exists in Sanskr it the term v a~ a-b hed a-v idh iwhich signifies a method ofspelling or letter division. Th e three compo nents of the expression literally mean letter-cutting-rules. It is curious that bhed a corresponds exactly to g ie a nd that v a 9 o t onlysounds likefan but that it has interesting semantic resonances w ith it.

In Buddhist Hybrid Chinese, Sanslait words formed from the root of varpa,namely r( to cover, screen, veil, conceal, hide, s m u n d , obstruct ) may be translatedb y fi ( to cover; to overturn; backwards and forwards; to reply; to repeat; to return; toalternate ). In the latter five senses ,fu is used as a substitute for@ which is asynonym for fan Thu s w e find that there are striking areas of semantic overlapbetw een v a m and fan. I propose that it is possible that Chinese m onks and sch olars whobecame acquainted with the notion of spelling through vaya-bheda-vidhi may have beeninspired by it to invent fanqie. This would be another example of the many ingeniousadaptations and modifications of Indian intellectual products by Chinese, particularlyduring the medieval period.

Vaya-bheda-vidhi is also supposed to be th nam e of a treatise on spelling,9 butafter expending much effort, I have been unable to locate a copy in America, Europe, orIndia. Nor ha ve I been ab le to ma ke any substantial headway in dating the origin of thetechnique of vaq a-b hed a-vid hi in India. Finally, I have not succeeded in finding anySanskrit text (Buddhist or otherwise) in which the term va rpz-bh eda occurs and which ha sbeen translated in to Chinese s o that we might che ck whether it was rendered by fanqie.Nonetheless, the semantic and phonetic affinities between fan and varpa, plus the exactparallel between qi and bheda, hold out the intriguing possibility that va ry -b h ed a mayhave been the sourc e of fangiie.

Notes1. Fo r bibliographical references t o scholarly studies on fanqie, see Paul Fu-mien Yanged., Chinese Linguistics: A Selected an d Classified Bibliog raphy (H ong Kong: TheChinese University of H ong Kong , 1974), pp. 7 -78b (entries 1179-1198 ;Paul Fu-mienYang d. Chinese Lexicology and Lexicography: A Selected and Classif ed Bibliography(Hong Kong: Th e Chin ese University Press, 198 5), pp. 235a-236b (entries 3287-3313);


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Victor H. Mair, A Hypothesis Concerning the Origin of the Term bnqic ( Countertomy )

Beijing Tushuguan [Peking Library] t a f p , ed., Minguo Shiqi Zong Shurnu [AComprehemive Caralog o f Books rom he Republican Period] a 8 a (19 111949), Yuyan Wenzi Fence [Volume on Language and Script] tg 2 5 f (Beijing:Shumu Wenxian Chubanshe, 1986), pp. 35b-36a (entries 424-427). S. Robert Ramsey'slucid, non-technical account of fanqie in his 7 he Languages of China (Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1987), pp. 120ff., gives due recognition to Indian influence on thissystem.

P2 Dongzhai Ji Shi [Notes on Affairs rom he Eastern Studio] %f z (BaibuCongshu [Collectanea of a Hundred Divisions] r & edition),1 a3. For a demonstration of the Indian origins of prosodic defects in Chinese poetry, seeVictor H. Mair and Tsu-Lin Mei, The Sanskrit Origins of Recent Style Prosody, HarvardJournal of Asiatic Studies 51 2 (December, 199I), 375-470.

4 d4 ZhiUla i Shulu Jieti [Annotations or the C d o g of the Studio of Uprightness] &I9 @(~uoxue iben Congshu [Basic Sinological Series] a 8 @ edition),ch. 3, p. 87.5. Xin Jiaozheng Mengxi Bitan [N ewly Collated Dream Brook Sketches] r 25 ,ed. Hu Daojing a & P (Peking: Zhonghua Shuju, 1957), ch. 14 (Yiwen[Literary Arts] B), p. 152.6. More literally this may be rendered as tomic rhyme studies.7. Xin Jiaotheng Mengxi Bitan ch. 15 (Literary Arts B), p. 158.8. Taisho Tr ipita h 25 (1509).408b;Korean Tripipkiz, 4 (549).867c.9.Monier Monier-Williams,ed., A Sanskrit-English Dictionary p. 924c.


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Sino Platonic apers 4 October, 1992)

(Engl.) lndustrialCooperative+(Man rin) q i g g q k w - (Engl.slang)gungho[Movement] ( lit.) "Light lndustry Cooperative" layal; nthusiastic"

(abbrev.) lndusm (abbrev.) gmg4u"work together"

(Archaic Chinese)*miw&-g'c - ( J a p a n e s 8 ) b u ~ k u t (Mand.) wmxw"w rit lng and learning" calque for 1ierature" 1 ierature"

(Arch. Ch.)*mt&o-xws, (Jap.) bunks, (Mand.) w e m"c iv il transformation calque for "culture" "culture"

.I (Arch. Ch.)% TI *m~wih-mj& (Jap.) bunmei (Mand.) wflmihg

"patterned brightness" calque for "c iv i1 zatlon" "civilization"(Arch. Ch.)

3 *m_fwo-p w@ (Jap.) bunpa (Nand.) wenfa"civi l rules" calque for "grammar" "gram mar(Arch. Ch.)

/7) $f *piwdn-S?M\ - (Jap.) b u W i --a (Mand.) fmxi"spl it apart" calque for "snalysls" "analysis"(Ancient Ch.

3 mtuat-lf/ (Jap.) dutsuri (Mand.) wuli"principle o f things" calque for "physics" "physics"(Arch. Ch.);$f ~wm-pQdt - Jap.) snpisu (Mand.) qianbi"lead wr iti ng instrument" transcription-calque for "[graphite] pencil

"[graphite] pencil"


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VictorH Mair EastAsian Round-TripWonls

(Arch. Ch.) - Mand.) m u uexpat ate calque for oration; lecture; address speech

(Anc. Ch.pluog--is (Jap.) fbhi -+ (Mand.) mito make veiled cr it ic ism calque for satire sat i re

(Arch. Ch.)*gW- iap (Jap. ) @u&i ---+ (Mend.) x&ischolar c;alque for B.A. B.A.

(Anc. Ch.) - (Mand.) yMuskil ls and techniques calque fo r art wt

(Arch. Ch.)*ngiek iwt 7 (Jap.) gMm - (Mend.) y/i'uedecide after discussion calque or resolution pass a resolution

(Arch. Ch.)a f *glu-t7t2r t (Jap.) gutat (Mend.) julipossess in general calque fo r concrete concrete

(Arch. Ch.)tf # *@-diagn . (Jap.) hakm(or Mussnh --+ (Mend.) &hierudite scholar calque fo r Ph.D. Ph.D.

(Anc. Ch.)5 P -qM ___ (Jap.) haten (Mand.) &w?;Wt

protect a dangerous/crucial calque fo r insurance insurance; safe; sureplace I


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Sino-Platonic Papers, 34 October, 1992

Arch. Ch.)J& * ~ j ~ k i &

enfeoff4

(Anc. Ch.);s & p,iwtwg-m~& __.side; direction

(Arch. Ch. )5 4F *p~&-[iwat --3

orders; rules(Arch. Ch.)

5 & *pJ @- dk -regulations; standards

Arch. Ch.)f% *p&-@Ky __3protect; secureAm. Ch.)B& @tF/ p]a-&y& 2C

reveal feelings

Anc. Ch.)& $ p+*u-qhy +external Image

(Jap.) h tm (Mand.) fm7mcalque for feudal feudal

(Jap.) h%m (Mmd. 1'8ngmi8flcalque for aspect s p e c t

(Jap.) m i t m (Mand.) ucalque for law lw

(Jap.) M ? Z i - (Mand.) i icalque fo r form; formula model

Jap.) hsW - (Mand.) 6calque fo r guaranteen guarantee

(Jap.) h@jO - (Mand.) biim &gcalque or expressim expression

(Jap.) h w - - (Mand.) biblwidngcalque fo r representation idea ( in psychology)

1

(Anc. Ch.* 0 t mjiwer ~ (Jap.) imi - (Mand.) yiwei, I delight calque for meaning; sense meaning; significance;

signification; significance impli cation


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Victor H. Mair, EastAsian Round-Trip Words

(Anc. Ch.)6 a7 'i-iaun Jap.) jt VU - Mend.) ZI@W

"deriving from self" calque for "freedom ; berty" "freedom; lib ert y"Anc. Ch.)

4 6 8 iu-siwn Jap.) j m - (Mand.) r / l u s ~place where one is staying" calque for "residence; domicile" "residence; dom i c i eu

(Arch. Ch.)*k&ker (Jap.) kutzei (Mand.) k m y i

mIcu?aton calque for "accounts; finance" " m u n t i n g "(Anc. Ch.)

. Wki-k'ap\ --t (Jap.) k ~ i k y ' -2 (Mand.) j il"differences i n rank" calque fo r "[social] class" "class"

(Anc. Ch.)13 kJi- Jap.) kutZ - Mand.)

"re-establish; re-enact" calque fo r "reorganize" "reconstruct; re for m"Arch. Ch.79 *W~k-m+& -7 (Jap.) katzlmei - (Mand.) gmiw

"to remw e the [heavenly] calque for "revolutionn "revolution"mandate"

(Medieval Ch.)33% h m - k @ - Jap.) XmkH (Mand. ) huanj~hg"surrounding area" calque for "environment" "environment"Anc. (3.1%f @ k'&& -7 (Jap.) kat8i (Mand.) k m m

"schedule" "course: cu rr iculum" ' a a ~ r s e ;urr culurn


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Victor H Mair, East sian Round-TripWords

(Anc. Ch.t pj kjwg-f& t (Jap.)k?&ku 4 (Mand.) gu?

regu lar calque fo r rule; regulation rule; regulation(Anc. Ch.)

h k & p ~ l (Jap.) k.7i (Mand.) k8nwjupr igh t argument calque for protest protest

(Anc. Ch.$# k & q * @ ( J a p . ) k . i .s (Mend.) j w

gistof discourse calque for lecture [mimeographedorprinted] teachingmaterials; lecture notes

(Anc. Ch.)& k m t . J0p.) ko-/ - (Mand.) uyi

sentiments of an old [fri end ] calque for intention intentionally

(Arch. Ch.) fT f l *kL@-fSidr . Jap.) k&i - (Mand) jimy'ito receive wit h etiquette calque for essociation;social association; social inter-and gifts intercourseu course; communicationAnc. Ch.)kw-i @ -- (Jap.) &ah5 (Mand) j ~ h & ebe associated wi th calque for negotiation negotiate'

(Anc. Ch.)$&& k j u - & ~ - (Jap.) kEiroEiro ( M a d ) pmake calque fo r struc ture struc ture(Arch. Ch.*k&-dr2 Jap.) ~@IZU 7 (Mand.) j i 9 uteach nd re ar calque fo r education education

10


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(Arch. Ch.)$$ -P k&-4% * (Jap.) kwju -- (Nand.) j?mhuu"instruct(or)" calque fo r "profassor" "profassor"

(Arch. Ch.*5~ * g l u w g 4 d - (Jap.1 k W _j3 (Mand.)"amlit ion [government]" cslque fo r "republic" "republican"

(Anc. Ch.)bfi / -dlwn - (Jap.) fa (Mand.) I m ng"gratitude for [another's] to il " calque fo r "labor" "labor"4 (Arch. Ch./ .F $ * / j i g a & - (Jap.) r H a i (Mand.) lin@uui

C"fathom calque fo r "comprehend; understand" "comprehend; graspu

Arch. Ch.).& /211~~ * &-l?& - (Jap.) fw-k~ (Mand.) / / ~ ~ f i g"flow [ to a distance] I calque fo r 'popular" "popular"(Anc. Ch.)J t :i&@- ui - (Jap.) s j (Mand.) zkwphi

"government measures" calque for "government ;politics" "pol 1 ics"

Anc. Ch.)% @ pi9 (Jap.) &&'a t > (Nand.) shehui"festal gathering around calque fo r "society" "society"

communal altar

(Anc. Ch.)il f ts$n-dla -3 (Jap.) shinpo . (Mand.) jinbu

"go forward [continuously] calque fo r "progress" "progress"


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Victor H. Mair, EastAsian Round-TripWords

(Arch. Ch.% fl * n - ~ u n g (Jap.) tin-@ ?. (Mand.) x i n +

use with t rust calque for cred it credit(Anc. Ch.)2 33 the2?- (Jap.) s ot 4 (Mand.) zh~Mi

maintain [w it h effor t] calque fo r support support

Anc. Ch.). , s i - s i q (Jap.) is end s i x q

bradabout calque for thought thought(Arch. Ch.)?' drfiw-+w - (Jap.) I Mand.) 2 fmself-sou calque fo r nature natureAnc. Ch.

; giu-& (Jap.) + (Mand.) sh anknack; trl ck calque or means; measure means; measureAnc. Ch.)& t , k w (Jap.) SI Dk@ - 7 (Mand.) tmg7mdoctrine of a sect; teachings calque for religion re1 gion

of a clan

(Arc. Ch.)*&u-&i& - Jap.) Mi (Mand.) nuxhead of the mat calque for chairman chair man(Anc. Ch.A& t u- dk ( J a p . ) M u -- Mend.) A icook [an off icial position] calque for staple food staple food


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Sino Platonic Papers 4 October,1992)

(Anc. Ch.)d2~-ky@ _congenial

(Arch. Ch.)*giruan- fu, -'move4'(Med. Ch.)ti-sumplan beforehand

(Arch. Ch.)*@*k, kBrigade Commander

(Arch. Ch.)- *qwar-iit 7 only

Arch.Ch.)

name of a dynasty

(Jsp.) t i (Mend.) toujcalque for speculation speculator opportunistic

(Jap.) u M 2 (Mand.) y l /n&++calque for [social or politic al] movement

movement

( J ~ P . ) (Hand) y U S mcalque for budget budget

(Jap.) )@ ti Mmd.) youjicalque for guer 18 guer1 l u

(Jap.) yu su ( land. ) we/yfcalque for uniqu e unique; sole

( S anskr i t ) Oh -5' (Mand.) ZhimChina China


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Victor H. Mair - Two Papers on Sinolinguistics