Verbal Interactions

8/13/2019 Verbal Interactions

1/449

VERBAL INTERACTIONS


2/449

Social interaction. Verbal

interaction

Interaction= an action/a process that occurs when

two (or more) things/phenomena influence eachother/one another

Etymologically - interactioninvolves mutual

meetings


3/449

These meetings are based on a system of rules

that allow individuals- to signal their presence

- to manage turns to speak

- to develop or end the interaction

* Interest in interaction is largely based on conversationalanalysis research from the mid 70s.


4/449

The issue of interaction gives rise to the term"individual"(person) (Goffman, 1973:19) because

it represents the meeting place of the individual withthe Other/others.

Interaction significance, as well as its forms, depend

on the statusand roleassumed by each individual(these elements determine the manner in whichothers are perceived and treated).


5/449

The process of role taking is at the basis of thesocialization process of the individual who occupies a"place" and "requires" explicitly or implicitly thathis/her dialogue partner occupy a symmetrical orcomplementary role, because only thus they canperform an exchange.

In interaction, individuals tend to coordinate theirefforts.


6/449

Interactionalso means a complex game of mutualexpectations in which subjects constitute theiridentity.

Its functions are:

- the construction of social identity and social reality

- the building of social relationships

- meaning construction


7/449

The interlocutors

- are transmitters of information

- engage in an activity based on joint efforts meant toachieve verbal and behavioral cooperation.

*Any type of behaviour becomes the messagethat must be decoded according to internaland external factors of the communicationsituation.


8/449

The activity of each individual is conceived,organized and carried out according to the presence

and the activity of the Other (called "you"i.e. asocially integrated individual) who must not andcannot be missing, because he/she is the one whoensures the dialogicnature of communication.


9/449

Thus, the speaker always takes into account thepresence of the other ("... any speech is addressed")

(Jacques, 1979:152). This leads to what can becalled "the challenge of the Other" that is,his/her commitment to the joint, permanentadjustment to the situation, relationships,

identification and clarification of meaning. The thematic interaction between the two ensures

the continuity of the dialogue.


10/449

Bange (1992:211) - through reciprocity(ofimages, expectations and motivation), the "Other" isacknowledged as an effective and active interlocutorand, according to a principle of risk-taking(underpinning any type of activity), he/she will bedrawn into an exchange of information, into a

dynamic and complex situational awareness of theissue, partner, self-knowledge and self-defining inrelation to those around him/her.


11/449

Each speaker

- is seeking to understand the other one

- expresses his/her degree of understanding

- interprets his/her partner`s activity

- demonstrates understanding explicitly or implicitly.

* In order to do this, he/she resorts to a widerange of semiotic codes (the verbal, nonverbaland paraverbal ones).


12/449

Any social interaction is characterized by severaldistinct features, among which

the desire of "meeting the Other" within a commonterritory, with the aim of sharing information aboutthe self and about the world in general

the desire to establish a connection/relationship

with each other, based on respect for mutual goals

* An ongoing action can be adjusted (or not) by the

verbal activity, that becomes a verbal interaction.


13/449

Verbal interactions = a set of interactions in whichparticipants have the opportunity to become

enunciators." (Vion, 1992:132) the verbal interaction is only a

subcategory/particular aspect of the socialinteraction

the term suggests the mutual determination andexplicit or implicit consent, an action exercised bythe speaker/locutor on the receiver/interlocutor, andthe other way round.


14/449

Kerbrat-Orecchioni stresses that

"all verbal interactions can be considered as a seriesof events that make up a" text "produced in adetermined context (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1992:29)"


15/449

participants have defined

interactional goals (even if they often showdivergent interests)

voluntary or involuntary signs of mutualrecognition

desire for cooperation and negotiation


16/449

negotiation of meanings

negotiation of interactional positions negotiation of the distance between

them during interaction.


17/449

The verbal or nonverbal feedback of the receiver

1. reveals his/her level of understanding oragreement, assesses, stimulates the exchange,

2. offers reward (encourages conversation partner) orpenalty (discourages further exchange or certaincommunicative movements, behaviours/attitudes).


18/449

Goodman (1992) - communication is a vehicle forinteraction.

The social interaction represents a permanentfeature of all societies. It presupposes

- a common territory

- desire of sharing information

- a sort of equilibrium between accomplishment of

personal needs and the other`s needs


19/449

According to Andr - Larochebouvy(1984:12) all the terms belonging to theverbal exchange paradigm can be included inthe generic term of interaction.

It refers to the meeting between two /moreindividuals, as well as the mutual recognitioncues they exchange; interaction is thus adynamic process.


20/449

Analysing a social interaction means taking

into consideration some important aspects,such as:


21/449

the speaker`s adjustment to his partner and

his level of understanding the participants` reciprocal activity of

evaluation

the use of discursive strategies


22/449

the use of both verbal and nonverbal cues

the existence of both consensus and conflictin interaction

the fact that consensus can be sometimesdissimulated in order that communication be

possible


23/449

According to McQuail (1999), we have to make thedistinction between social interaction, in general,

and communicative interaction, as a particularaspect of the first.

The social interaction = a framework and support for

the verbal interaction;it offers the individual thepossibility of handling the diverse semiotic systemswith a certain intentionality, in various contexts.


24/449

Interaction can be of several types:

- made up of gestures only- made up of gestures and words

- made up of words only


25/449

The fact that communication is a circular

process makes it possible that each message(individual`s action /behaviour) act as astimulus upon the receiver and makes himreact; his answer becomes a new stimulus

for the speaker.


26/449

Any individual playing the role of the speaker

(locutor) or receiver (interlocutor), sets intomotion various activities/actions; he becomesproducer and, at the same time, interpreterof the exchanged messages.

This means that each individual influencesthe others he comes into contact with and, inhis turn, is influenced by them.


27/449

The interaction

- is based on the joint activity of the individuals (thatis co-ordination of actions);

- it cannot be reduced to the action one individualexercises upon the other one;

- it is a mutual agreement

* This co-ordination/co-operation allows theindividuals to play their social roles and setinto motion images, through their behaviour.


28/449

During the interaction, participants occupycertain positions; their reciprocalpositioning is to be noticed (Bonta, 2004 b: 20 )atthe level of

- the locutor`s self-involvement activity

- the tone the locutor uses- the individual`s attitude and whole behaviour


29/449

- degree of taking into account theinterlocutor`s words

- the nature of the listening cues

- the use of positioning markers


30/449

Typology of verbal interactions

In Andr-Larochebouvy`s conception, interactionmay be: with two participants, with more

participants, non-reciprocal or mutual. For the lasttwo types she provides the following classification(Andr-Larochebouvy : 14):


31/449

Non-reciprocal

a) exclusively nonverbal (revolver shot)b) gestural and verbal (order, speech, worship

service that is not followed by a response orreaction)

c) only verbal (recorded speech, or phoneorders that receive no answer)


32/449

Mutual

a) exclusively nonverbal (exchange of blinking/gestures)

b) gestural and verbal (dialogue, interview, meeting;conversation: highly or partially ritualized greetings

c) only verbal (telephone conversation)


33/449

According to Robert Vion (1992), a typology ofinteractions must have in view several criteria:


34/449

symmetry vs. asymmetry

1. symmetrical interaction- individuals tend to adopt similar behaviour

- differences of any kind are minimized

-

individuals show respect, and empathy witheach other


35/449

2. asymmetrical interaction

- individuals tend to maximize the differencesbetween them (or to create differences);they are situated on two different positions(one is on a high position and the other one

is on a low position- the types of behaviour are different, but

adapted to each other)


36/449

cooperation vs. competition

- there are interactions based on

1. cooperation(e.g. the conversation)

2. competition(e.g. the dispute, the interview),

though all interactions are characterized by anequilibrium between the two


37/449

the nature of results/ends

- some linguists consider that almost all interactionshave specific ends;

- conversation is the only interaction that ischaracterized by an internal end, its function beingthat of affirmation and confirmation of social

relationships between/among individuals;


38/449

the formal vs. informal character

The formal/informal character of the exchange is givenby

- the number of participants

-

the nature of the interactive framework- the manner of opening/ending the exchange

- the nature of the listening cues


39/449

Elements of interactions

a) the context

Armengaud (1993:60-62) distinguishes:1) factualcontextincluding the interlocutors`

identity, the physical setting, the time and place ofthe communication

2) situational/pragmatic that stresses the factthat the situation is admitted socially, having asense to all the members belonging to the samecommunity


40/449

3) interactional contextmakes referenceto the chaining of the speech acts in adiscursive sequence

4)pre-suppositionalcontextincluding theinterlocutors` beliefs, intentions and

expectations


41/449

b)participants /interlocutors

According to Andr-Larochebouvy (1984:93),

participants are of four types:

by rightthe participant to interaction to whomone can address even though he does not want to

(the members of the family and the peoplebelonging to the immediate environment)


42/449

legitimate - a work colleague, a friend, arelative to whom one can address if the firstone wants to


43/449

authorizedthe one we address to in a certainsituation in which the social status or the roles are

very well defined

unlikely /improbablethe unknown participant,who, due to the situation, may remain as such.


44/449

Participants to interaction have got a triple perspective:

1. self-knowledgethrough

the analysis of their own actions and states indifferent moments of interaction and in differentsituations

the image offered by the others and made knownthrough their feedback


45/449

2. self-disclosure

of the somatic self (their physical appearanceand physical condition)

of their image (wishes, interests, attitudes,qualities, drawbacks)


46/449

3. negotiation-of-self(a process through whichparticipants answer to the images about

themselves and about the others).


47/449

Goffman distinguishes an important categoryamong receivers: the recipient/receiverby rightconsidered by the speakeras themain partner in interaction (a recognitionmarked by terms of address and other

indices of nonverbal proxemics: body postureand positioning, gaze direction, etc.)


48/449

He goes further and distinguishes between

a) the direct recipient(privileged)b) indirect(unprivileged)whose presence

is identified in the conversation with threeand more than three participants


49/449

The novelty brought by Goffman is the audience =those individuals participating in the conversation,

without interfering; they are mere spectators(bystanders). The speaker is (or not) aware by theirpresence. He distinguishes between two categoriesof bystanders.


50/449

The first category he includes the so-called

overhearers/en surplus"-people we notice

whenever we are in a public place (theater,restaurant, store)


51/449

In the second category Goffman includesthe so-called "eavesdroppers/pieurs";they are individuals who have theopportunity to capture a conversation inwhich the message is not addressed to them


52/449

They are "witnesses" to the respectiveinteraction, analysed by Andr-Larochebouvy.

Corroborating her conclusions with ours, we

can say that:


53/449

- witnesses may belong to various categories:

they are interlocutors "by right" or "legitimate"(parents who speak in the presence of their children,two friends talking at a party in the presence ofothers)

"authorized" interlocutors (a shop-assistant in astore who witnesses a conversation betweenmembers of families who are shopping);


54/449

- witnesses to a dyadic conversations, by their merepresence, can bring changes of various types:


55/449

a) at the level of the the subject underdiscussion:

- review of key issues- avoidance of proper names of third parties which

are discussed

- avoiding too personal questions or even

abandoning the subject, if it could endanger insome way or another one of speakers`s face

- approaching a subject with a more neutralcharacter


56/449

b) at the level of the behavioral attitudes(in the case of an argument between twospeakers, interspersed with gestures andaccompanied by characteristic para- verbalelements: high tone, increased speech rate -

which also might discredit those involved inthe conversational exchange);


57/449

c) at the level of discourse type (comparethe conversation between two physicians in aprivate situation, and between the samespeakers, in the presence of their patients).


58/449

witnesses who belong to the category of unlikelyones, have a small influence upon the speech and

even the topic, as long as they remainunknown/unnoticed by the participants, but they canintervene, interrupting the flow of conversation;

- witnesses to a triadic interaction play the same rolesas those of a dyadic one.


59/449

At the level of the participants we can talkabout several aspects:

1) their positioning

can explain the dynamics of the relationshipscreated between participants


60/449

- can be noticed easily, due to a large displayof elements such as the verbal and nonverbalactivity of implication and self-implicationinto interaction:


61/449

2) modalities ofentering and leaving the game(affectionately, politely, neutrally or aggressively);

3) modalities of managingthe strategic steps ininteraction (this means resort to strategies andtechniques of argumentation, negotiation,persuasion, managing conflict, detecting lies, ironyor manipulation etc.) (Bonta, 2004 a);


62/449

4) modalities of transmitting information andestablishing relationships(all along the interaction

participants observe unwritten rules and take partinto different types of rituals; these are meant toestablish relationships between them and, at thesame time, they help the structural organization of

the discursive activity);5) control over the discursive activity and over silence.


63/449

Interactionist theories

Psychological and psychiatric approaches

The psychological and psychiatric School in Palo Alto

(main representatives, Watzlawick, Beavin andJackson) = a therapeutic approach that transfers tocasual communication the results of the studies onmarital relationships dysfunction and the problems of

schizophrenic children. Research has led to theconclusion that these dysfunctions are due to therelational system in which individuals act.


64/449

Individuals engaged in interactions achieve(through their behaviour) an exchange ofenergy and information both betweenthemselves and between themselves and theenvironment.


65/449

They are constantly engaged in an activitybased on a tacit understanding, on a verbalagreement for cooperation through whichthey manage to discover themselves/to getself-knowledge and to establish the position

towards others, recognized as activespeakers.


66/449

They established the axioms of communication

it is impossible not to communicate;

communication is inevitable (not only our wordscommunicate; it is also our appearance, posture,clothes, hair style, gestures, the way we talk, wewalk, or even our silence that conveys informationabout us/our feelings, attitudes);


67/449

communication is to be noticed at twolevels: informational and relational(during our communication we do nottransmit only information; we also establishdifferent types of relationships, that can help

us interpret the first level)


68/449


69/449

the informational componentis conveyedin a digital way, while the relational one, inan analogical way;


70/449

communication has an irreversiblecharacter; once the message transmitted, it

cannot be taken back and it has effects uponthe other person- it influences us in one wayor another, even if we are aware about thisor not; we can sweeten it a little if

necessary, we can re-formulate some of itsparts, modify it, but its effect cannot beeliminated completely;


71/449

communication is a permanent processof adjustment and negotiationbetween/among individuals; they adjust theirverbal or nonverbal behaviour to each otherand at the same time, have the possibility of

negotiating:


72/449

the positions they occupy

the relationships established

the self-images

meanings


73/449

Adjustment depends on

how well individuals involved in thecommunication process know each other

their sex

their age

the cultural belonging


74/449

communication establishes symmetrical orcomplementary transactionsbetween

participants symmetrical transactions- the answers are similar

to the stimuli,

complementary transactions - the answers and the

stimuli are of different types


75/449

communication is a continuous process,based on a permanent conditioning

between/among the messages transmitted


76/449

Conditioning manifests itself at two levels:

between/among messages belonging to oneindividual during the interactional history(Goffman)

between/among messages belonging to thetwo participants to communication


77/449

Ethnosociological ApproachesIn sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective

according to which human interaction is at the basisof such social processes as cooperation,negotiationor conflict.


78/449

1.The Ethnography ofcommunication/of speaking- (Dell

Hymes and Gumperz)

- offers a valuable set of techniques that allowsfor research that links linguistic forms to

cultural practices and gives rise to threeimportant issues:


79/449

the communicative competence

code variation

the entire corpus of rules that support thefunctioning of interaction in society


80/449

Ethnography of communication manifestsinterest in the sociolinguistics of

interpersonal relationships, which allows for

a dynamic analysis of verbal exchanges

the mechanisms that govern them

the interaction rituals


81/449

Dell Hymes offered us the SpeakingModel

Settings

physical circumstances time place the psychological frame in which the speech event is

performed


82/449

Participants the speaker

the listener/audience/message addressee

other participants to the communicative event


83/449

Ends both goals

outcomes of the communicative event


84/449

Acts

the content of the message

the speech acts involved: requests,commands, complaints, greetings, etc.)


85/449

Key

the tone or manner of uttering a speech act:seriously, playfully, etc.


86/449

Instrumentalities

the channel of communication

the codes

the forms

the styles of speech

the language varieties


87/449

Norms

rules that guide the interaction and theinterpretation of messages


88/449

Genres

the type of activity in which participants areinvolved: conversation, discussion, debate,interview etc.


89/449

Developing the concept of communicativecompetence, Dell Hymes insists on

all the activities the individual carries out whenhe/she is involved in a verbal exchange

the manner in which he/she masters the techniquesthat enable him/her to achieve a successful

communication with those around.


90/449

Dell Hymes understands thatcommunicative competenceis not only

based on the knowledge of grammar, butalso on the knowledge of appropriate socialconventions. These may explain what is said,how it said to whom and in what context(s).


91/449

In other words, Dell Hymes insists on theappropriateness of language use in a

certain social contextthat ensuresinteraction between/among participants.


92/449

He also stresses the role of the contextin whichcommunication takes place and explores how

language is used in the context.


93/449

Two approaches are set into motion:

etic - refers to an external observation(the observer explores the communicativeactivity/the speech events used by

participants to interaction)


94/449

emic is based on internal observation (takes intoaccount the way in which participants make sense of

and understand these events and interactions assuch).


95/449

Ethnographers insist on the value of the emicapproach as it is the key to the observer`s

understanding of why certain speech events getsignificance among the individuals belonging to acertain community.


96/449


97/449

for him, the context

1. is not something given in advance

2. it is something that defines itself in thecourse of the interaction (the idea will betaken up by Goffman)

3. it is based on inferential practices in linewith the conventions that speakers share(or not).


98/449

He is also interested in code variations,which he differentiates according to two

factors:1. the situation (situational code-

switching)

2. the individual - who is apt to choose thecode (conversational code-switching).


99/449

2. Ethnomethodology

representatives: Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson

is a sociological perspective founded by theAmerican sociologist H. Garfinkel in the early '60s(Studies in Ethnomethodology,1967)

its starting point is the symbolic interactionism


100/449

- it tries to explain how individuals in the interactionprocess can build the illusion of the social order,

mutually agreed upon, even if they do notunderstand each other and have different views in agiven stage of interaction, within a limited period oftime


101/449

- It differs from other sociological schools of thoughtdue to the perspective through which it looked upon

and interpreted the social order

* if, for example, functionalism and the symbolicinteractionism consider that social life is essentially

put in order, for ethnomethodology, the social orderis an illusion


102/449

individuals manage to produce meaning through acomplex psychological process;

the order is produced in the mind of individuals (thesocial actors) who are forced to order and organizeinto a coherent system the set of impressions andexperiences with which they are confronted in

everyday life


103/449

each individual communicates these opinions toothers and at the same time, he receives information

from them; this thing becomes possible only in theprocess of interaction


104/449

Therefore, ethnomethodologists are interested in

- "the often unanalyzed rules that guide the structure

of our interactions with others." (Goodman,1992:133)

- the processesthat individuals have at theirdisposal and through which they construct reality

and society as a whole, because social reality is theirown creation/product and the social order exists onlywhen individuals agree upon it.


105/449

In interaction, each utterance is an activityof aparticular type of the locutor, who expects the

interlocutor to decode the conveyed message and tocooperate, voluntarily, in the process of meaning

construction.


106/449

Cooperationand reciprocityare, therefore, twoconditions for the development of this process.

Cooperative activity appears as a process ofnegotiation: "Negotiating means agreeing on howthe activity will be done and on its significance. Anyactivity that must be coordinated must benegotiated. (Bange: 1992:29)


107/449

Ethnomethodology gives great importance toretrospective interpretation(the individual's pastbehaviour re-interpreted and re-evaluated, takinginto account the parameters of the present moment)


108/449

Present experience is given a new dimension, andthe events that were previously ignored due to theirminor significance stand at the basis ofinterpretation


109/449

3. Symbolic interactionism

(1920-1930) = an American sociological school of

thought focused on determining the role thatcommunication plays in building and maintainingsociety.

The concept was coined by Herbert Blumer, former

Mead`s student


110/449

Blumer believed that

human beings and their activities can be better

understood if put into relation with the environmentin which they live


111/449

there exists a dynamic interaction between humanbeings and their environment: human beings act

towards things around them, taking into account themeanings that these things display

meaning is, therefore, a direct result of individual

interaction with everyone around him.


112/449

According to symbolic interactionists, communicationis at the basis of society development and

maintenance

It is through communication that the individualbecomes a member of it


113/449

Communication occurs through the creation ofsignificant symbols following a process of

interpretation that individuals resort to, permanently.

The key concepts with which this school of thoughtoperates are: interaction, symbols,

interpretationand self-concept


114/449

The interaction = a fundamental processof social life of all human activities; it

determines individual`s behaviour andbecomes the only place within whichmeaning is produced.


115/449

The social interaction turns the individual intoan active agent of his own development. It is

produced by means of symbols,i.e."created in an arbitrary way (through words,gestures, objects, visual images) that acquiremeaning through socialconsensus."(Goodman, 1992:55)


116/449

The individual becomes a keen observer of thesurrounding world, interprets it and then makes

decisions The individual selects, checks, assesses and re-

evaluates meanings and even transforms/changethem, if necessary


117/449

The concept of Self(Mead, 1934) is the key conceptof the interactionist theories. Using this concept,interactionists focus on the problem of identity andon the subjective aspects of social life.


118/449


119/449

At the same time, he places his conversationpartner in a role corresponding to that taken by

himself.


120/449

The Self = an interplay between

1. me(the bearer of social order, values and norms,of the others` attitudes, and who has control overthe ego, leading to our own behaviour) and

2. I(the bearer of new and creative elements,specific to the individual as a unique person). It

thus appears and grows continuously as a directresult of social experience.


121/449

The individual becomes an active subject ofhis own development while the selfbecomes

a social product


122/449

This draws the conclusion that the symbolicinteractionism focuses on how the self develops and

how social order is created constantly.

The idea that society consists of organized andstructured interaction of individuals made symbolic

interactionism study face-to-face interactions.


123/449

4. Dramaturgy/dramaturgical perspective

represented by Goffman - (La mise en scene la vie

quotidienne,1973, Les Rites d'interaction,1974, Thepresentation of Self in Everyday Life, 1959)

stems from symbolic interactionism

Goffman is particularly concerned with everyday life

interactions


124/449

For Goffman, the interaction= a place of mutualpositioning, of construction and development of

social self from a double perspective: as image andas actor. This allows the individual to claim a certainidentity, but at the same time, to assign an identityto the conversation partner.


125/449

Goffman`s conception, according to which everydayinteraction can be interpreted in terms of a theatrical

perspective (as a show/performance in front ofothers and shaped by the latter) allows for the useof domain-specific concepts, such as: stage, actor,role, figuration/face-work.


126/449

The concepts of dramaturgy, role andperformance hint at the individual`s

communicative behaviour.


127/449

Goffman attaches particular importance to theconcepts of

stage(the social frame of interaction)

appearance -capable of providinginformation on the status of the actor

(formal/ informal)


128/449

props- including clothes, or various otherobjects belonging to the actor (house, car,

etc.) and providing evidence on the socialstatus, gender, age or job

manner(the actor`s own behaviour).


129/449

According to Goffman (1973:35) the individualperforms the role,which becomes the basic unit ofthe socializing process.

the role must be performed in a convincing manner.

roles are performed according to rituals.


130/449

Goffman - the interaction functions according torules and develops through a series of exchanges

that are synonymous to ritual units.


131/449

In interaction, the individual manifests his "patternof conduct" (a complex set of verbal and nonverbalacts through which he expresses views regarding his

own person, the situation and the other participants)and develops his/her identity/persona. [1]

[1] Greek = "the mask we wear"- a term that reflects our conception of self: whatwe try to sustain about ourselves, the self that we believe we have, the selfthat we project and which the others perceive.


132/449

The image the individual displays becomes his/herface,(a whole set of elements which he/shevalues builds toward those with whom they come in

the interaction), which tends continually to defend it,since " face "is always an" object "of threateningacts of conversation.


133/449

In order to defend, the individual resorts to"figuration"/face-work.

Face-work is the one which explains variouslinguistic phenomena, such as the use ofpreliminaries, justifications, excuses, implied,entailments, speech acts.


134/449

Social actors establish relationships that areimportant for conducting an exchange.

Any communicative behaviour generates meaningswithin the already created meanings.


135/449

Goffman enriches the aim of socialinteraction analysis with the concept of

sensitivity. This is done by a concern toanalyze an important element of socialinteraction, namely the presentation ofself.


136/449

5. Social exchange theory its origins are in economics and behavioral

psychology this theory is based on the idea that the interaction

can be understood as a social exchange, the actionsof individuals being motivated by benefits and costs.

Its framework was established by George Hamans(Social Behaviour,1961).


137/449

During episodic encounters and lastingrelationships, individuals motivate their

actions through their preferences

the short-term or long-term goals they

establish for their interactions the many ways they can accomplish them


138/449

The benefits they can get during or after theinteraction (they receive identity,

appreciation, affection, mutualagreement) enhance their actions, whilethey avoid or are acting prudently whenthese actions might involve high costs

(waste of time and energy,loss/damage brought to personalimage).


139/449

They expect, generally speaking, that the benefitsthey could get should roughly be equal to the costs

at stake. Obtaining approval/agreement in the social

interaction is, metaphorically speaking, what moneyis in the economic exchange.


140/449

Interactions go on when participants recognize thepossibility of obtaining a benefit; whenever the cost

appears to be higher than the benefit, individualstend to "flee the stage" of interaction.


141/449

A sustained social relationship implies a balance ofprofits and costs.

Exchange relations are also relations of power. Inchoosing their behaviour, individuals resort toreasoning based precisely on the assessment ofcosts and benefits involved.


142/449

Interaction, from A to Z

interactionist approaches a term that refers to the symbolic interactionism and

the trends derived from it. the basic idea they start from is that individuals have

an active role in producing the social order, helpingto define the situation they are involved in and theinteraction depends on the relationship betweenthem

interactionist approaches are concerned with"discourse updated in concrete situations ofcommunication" (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1996:16)


143/449

adjustment/interactional accommodation

is a basic feature of language manifested in oral

communication. it refers to the permanent concern of the

participants` positioning (according to predictiveand interpretative reasoning), with a clearly defined

strategic objective. it is an adjustment to circumstances, by choosing

the best strategy for action in a certain situation..


144/449

This is the type of activity that can beidentified at level of

communication/interaction openingsequences, of turn-taking, of choice oftopics, the style used and of linguistic andnonlinguistic behaviours.


145/449

The entire activity of this type aims at setting thecommunication framework, accomplishment of

individual goals, establishing, developing andmaintaining interpersonal relationships, eliminatingconfusion in decoding, as well as at agreeing onmeanings


146/449

Interactional completeness the principle that explains "global agreement that is

meant to close discussion. (Baylon, Mignot,

2000:215)" the principle obliges participants to interaction to

satisfy the conversational rituals in order to reachthe end of the negotiation.


147/449

it is performed when the current speaker reachesthe transition relevance place and his manner of

action is somewhat predictable for his interlocutor,due to various types of skills that the latterpossesses.


148/449

Interactional competence

a set of skills available to participants in interaction

and which help them to cope with differentsituations in interaction; interactional competence

a set of abilities that participants to conversationhave and that help them face interactional

situations conversational competence includes both a

sociolinguistic competence and a strategic one.


149/449

it is viewed as

a) the ability to understandthe social context in whichcommunication takes place, after having taken intoconsideration the social status and the role of theinterlocutor, his attitude, the shared information,the communicative purpose and the degree offormality.

b) the ability to handlea set of verbal or nonverbalstrategies in order to initiate, maintain, finish andredirect the conversation in different circumstances.


150/449

Interactional constraintsthoseconstraints that, along with the structuraland chaining ones, explain the change incircumstances for the entire conversationalstructure;


151/449

interactional game

any conversation becomes an interactional game, at

the level of which certain other important games areidentified:


152/449

the game of the participants

takes place simultaneously or alternatively;

- each of the participants to the social interactionbecomes a player who, during the development ofthe interaction gets the quality of a strategic playeras he/she proves the abilities of putting into practicethe language resources, of anticipating reception of

his/her messages and of building a discourseadapted to partner and situation


153/449

the game of the code(s)once in the social interaction, the individual tries to

make himself/herself understood by the other(s)- this is why he/she resorts to a large display of signs

(verbal, nonverabal and paraverbal) endowed withsignificance


154/449

Interactional history

a term described by Goffman as a set of interactions

to which the individual took part or assisted, andwhich give an account of the interlocutors` strategiccompetence, during the interaction.

- according to Fr. Jacques, the interactional historyrepresents a set of presuppositions that are aconsequence of the previous conversations.


155/449

Interaction management

- refers to the ability to control the communicator

demonstrates interaction "to the satisfaction ofpartners;

- makes reference to the ability the speaker proves inorder to control the interaction to partners`satisfaction.


156/449

- we have in view the management of self images/ofimpressions and of the strategies that operate at

the level of participants(encoding, decoding,interpretative, turn-taking, active listening,politeness strategies, conflict solving and face-workstrategies)


157/449

the level of form(opening, maintaining and closinginteraction/conversation strategies) and at the levelof content (introduction of topics, correlation oftopics, argumentative strategies and persuasivestrategies).


158/449

Interactional negotiations

- explicit or implicit set of activities conducted amongthe participants in interaction, aiming to clarify theirpositions, behaviors and meanings

- can be run in a peaceful manner or conflict,depending on the status and role of participants, thepower / their authority and individual objectives

pursued-


159/449

- they can be performed in a cooperative or conflictualmanner, according to the participants` role, their

power/authority, as well as the objectives they havein mind


160/449

Rules / rules of interaction- rules that guideinteractions characterized, supporting their operationin a given society


161/449

Rituals of interaction- as opposed to communityrituals, they are repetitive behaviors, habits andpatterns linked with habits and socio-culturalmodels.

They were much analysed by Goffman [6], who talksabout access,confirmationand remedial rituals.


162/449

The access rituals

include greetings and farewells;

their more or less elaborate character depends onthe frequency individuals see each other and on the

relationship between them.


163/449

The rituals of confirmation

are meant to support and help the development ofthe social relationships

they include greetings, congratulations, complimentsor thanks

the fact that such rituals are meant to prove respectand appreciation for the other, makes them be also

identified in invitations, apologies and evenavoidance (understood in the sense of not disturbingthe other one or causing him any harm)


164/449

The remedial rituals

appear any time an incident may spoil a relationship;

their role is that of diminishing the offensive result ofthe incident

they take the form of apologies.

DISCLOSURE OF SELF IN INTERACTION


165/449

Webster`s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary ofthe English Language [1] - the SELFis a person orthing referred to with respect; a person`s nature,character

[1] Webster`s Encyclopedic Unbridged Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage, New revisited Edition (1994), Dilithium Press Ltd


166/449

in philosophy, it sends to the ego, that whichknows, remembers, desires, suffers, as contrasted tothat known, remembered.


167/449

1. Freud`s id, ego, superego

the term ego sends us to the theory developed by

Freud, who operates with concepts such as: id, egoand superego.

Freud identified the three levels of thehuman mind:

the conscious levelincludes anything that isthought, perceived or understood;


168/449

the pre-conscious levelincludes the thoughtsand memories which can be easily recalled andbrought back to the conscious level;


169/449

the unconscious levelthe place where allindividual past experience (wishes, urges, memories,thoughts) can be found


170/449

Freud - the human mind is in a permanent conflictwith itself, a thing that gives birth to anxiety andunhappiness.

His investigation into these internal conflicts madehim draw the conclusion that the mind can bedivided into three internal conflicting tendencies: theid; the ego and the superego.


171/449

Their interaction results into a permanent flow,movement of items from one level to another.


172/449

The id

the most primitive motivational force

governed by the pleasure principle hisdemands should be satisfied at once, no

matter the circumstances or the effects


173/449

Theego is ruled by the reality principle;

it mediates the relationship between the idand thereality around, very often suppressing the id`sdemands until the appropriate moment

often uses defence mechanisms meant to help its

activity and, at the same time, meant to ensure theindividual`s stability and sanity


174/449

Once the ego is shaped, the individual becomes a

SELF(the individual becomes aware of values, of

needs and his actions).


175/449

The superego tells the ego what is right or wrong, moral,

acceptable, or realistic

it represents the individual`s steps towards theideal, towards achieving the perfect goals required

by society.


176/449

Whenever the individual does something wrong,unacceptable, the superego resorts to self-criticism

whenever the individual does something good, whichdeserves appreciation, the superego experiencespride and self-satisfaction


177/449

2. W. James`s perspective on the Self

The American psychologist, William James[1],identified two main aspects of the SELF:

the SELFas a knower, (called theIor thepureego) it is the active source of behaviour, theactivity of consciousness, that can be directedtowards everything, including oneself

[1] apud Schellenberg, J.A. (1993): Exploring Social Behaviour.Investigations in Social Psychology,Allyn & Bacon, Massachussetts, p.18


178/449

the SELFas known (called theme,or theempirical ego) it is the passive object ofbehaviour; it becomes active because we can noticewhat the individual may say about himself, as wellas the way he says it; it can be divided into:


179/449

a) the material me(the body, clothes or otherpossessions);

b) the social me(the reflected appraisals of the othersaround; it is based on an inborn tendency of getting

ourselves noticed favourably by those around);

c) the spiritual me(our reflections on our own

psychological processes).


180/449

Thus, the SELF becomes the result of

me(the bearer of the social order, of values and

norms; it ensures control over the I, determining ourown behaviour) and

the I(carrier of the elements proper to the uniqueindividual).


181/449

3. Cooley`s looking-glass Self

Charles Cooley[1] introduced the metaphor of thelooking glass SELF.

the SELF represents a creative reconstruction of themeanings of our own actions, using the perspectivesoffered by the others around us

Its main characteristic = being social (as it emerges

through the interaction with the others)[1] ibidem, pp. 20-21


182/449

As we see our face, figure and dress in the glassand are interested in them because they are ours,and pleased or otherwise with them according as

they do or do not answer to what we should likethem to be; so in imagination we perceive insomebody else`s mind some thought of ourappearance, manners, aims, deeds, character,friends and so on and are variously affected by it.


183/449

4. Mead`s theory The concept of SELF = the key concept of

interactionism. According to Mead, theIand themeare

alternating phases of every action that involves theSELF.


184/449

TheIcan be seen whenever we actspontaneously, while themeis the society withinourselves.

He found in the individual (the me), the self who isthe product of socialization;

the I is the producer of the social and one of theactors of the process of socialization


185/449

6) R.Vion`s conception

Starting from Mead`s conception, R. Vion[1]distinguishes between

the subject`s social face, the self, - the imagethat proves the way in which the others aroundshow us how well we perform the roles in society;

[1] Vion, R. (1992): La communication verbale. Analyse des interactions,Hachette, Paris


186/449

the subject as an actor(the I), able to modifythe situational/contextual data;

the personality the way of integrating thedifferent elementary selves that constitute the me


187/449

The social SELF

develops only during the social experience, as adirect consequence of the fact that any individualhas the possibility, desire and duty that, throughspeech, to observe his own actions from the others`perspective; he has the possibility of taking over therole of The Other, permanently reflecting upon his

own person/SELF from the other one`s perspective


188/449

the concept is not an inborn one

it is developed only through social interaction ineveryday life

it develops as a function of three sets ofvariables[1]:

[1] Barker, L. (1987): Communications,4th ed, Prentice-Hall, Inc, New Jersey


189/449

our past experience(whose main role is to shapethe way we feel about ourselves and about theothers)

the reference groupwith which we identify

the rolesthat we play in our lives


190/449

The SELFdevelops through a series of stages :

processes of biological development and adjustment,

role-taking in different social situations reflection upon the personal development

reactions and reflection upon the others` actions

and judgements


191/449

The self-imageand the self-esteemmake up theentire SELF(the SELF-CONCEPT), which we try topresent/disclose in different situations and different

relationships with those around us

It is continuously shaped by ourselves, and theothers around us (family, friends, fellows, strangers).


192/449

My SELF

represents in fact just who I am

it is my personality, my individual identity, displayedin everyday life (based on different socialinteractions)


193/449

The concepts of face and territory

The concept of Self is to be identified in

Goffman`s conception about interaction. Goffman(La mise en scne de la vie quotidienne(1973) ; Lesrites d`interaction(1974) operates with the concepts

of FACEand TERRITORY.


194/449

FACE = the range of positive images (we refer tothe self-image) which the individual tends to build upabout himself/herself toward the others or toward

himself/herself


195/449

In any social interaction there is the risk that theindividual(s)lose their face(s)as these aretargets of severalattacks(mockery, irony,

orders, complaints etc.)


196/449

Each individual tries to protect his face (out of astrong desire of face-want), as he does not wantto lose it


197/449

That is why he resorts to different techniques andstrategies that may help him preserve both his faceand the face of his communication partner.

These strategies help him convince, persuade,change the other`s behaviour, without hurting thelatter`s feelings, for example, or without himselfappearing as an authoritarian or rude person.

This complex strategic activity is called by Goffmanfacework.


198/449

As for the TERRITORY, Goffman identifies:

bodily territory(the individual`s body);

the individual`s possessions(everything theindividual has and calls My: Myhouse/car/wife);

the spatial territory(individual`s place; that

space in which he moves and acts);


199/449

the temporal territory(the period of time inwhich the individual talks uninterruptedly)

the info stock territory(individual`s secrets,hidden thoughts, actions or feelings).


200/449

Presentation/Disclosure of SELF

Each given interaction forces individuals

disclose (willingly or unwillingly) their SELF,or part of it. The SELF becomes a range offeatures that characterize individuals in thatgiven situation/interaction.


201/449

The presentation/disclosure of SELF = a goodstrategy for sharing information with the peoplearound; includes the direct (explicit) or indirect

(implicit) display of:


202/449

the material SELF: physical traits (face and bodyfeatures); physical conditions (health, skills) andpossessions;


203/449

the personal SELF: image of self (the way inwhich individuals see themselves) and self-esteem(the value attached to all the constituent elements

of the self-image). The personal self includes: feelings, emotions,

desires, tastes, interests, aptitudes, qualities,drawbacks, moral and ethical values, ideology,beliefs, as well as relationships with the others.


204/449

family and social SELF: the self in interaction withthe members of family and with other people ingeneral;

the impersonal SELF: the range of characteristicsthat are similar to those of other persons.


205/449

There are various reasons for disclosure:

to come to know ourselves better;

to initiate, develop or maintain relationships withthe others; generally speaking, to facilitaterelationships (it is important that disclosure shouldbe reciprocal; reciprocity increases intimacy);

to clarify ideas (disclosure shows the exact attitudeof the person towards opinions already expressed,as well as the degree of involvement);


206/449

to change the image others have of us (it is thecase in which we are not satisfied with that image);

to stir the others disclose, too (the idea is thatdisclosure requires and triggers reciprocity);

to make us feel better by bringing feelings into theopen, where, generally speaking, they are handledmore successfully


207/449

Presentation/disclosure variesaccording to a set ofparameters:

the context of communication

the number of participants to the verbal interaction, the type of relationships with the other(s)

the objectives individuals have in mind when theycommunicate (certain objectives require more

disclosure than others)


208/449

trust (the trust individuals have in their ideas andabilities, as well as the degree of trust they have inthe others around)

the degree of self-esteem easiness with which individuals communicate withthe others in a variety of contexts

the importance given to the feedback received as aresult of disclosure


209/449

the appropriate time (physical, psychological) fordisclosure

degree of awareness of how sharing works indifferent situations and in front of different persons

the topic of discussion (very intimate problems aredifficult to disclose)

age and sex (it is known that girls are very close totheir mothers, for example, and disclosure isinfluenced by the relationship between them)


210/449

Steve Duck[1]

whenever people wish to disclose themselves, theystrategically prepare for the manipulation of the

context, so that the listener`s answers becomerather predictable

[1] Duck, S. (2000): Relaiile interpersonale. A gndi, a simi, a interaciona, Polirom, Iai, p. 175.


211/449

the best way to reach a disclosure of private feelingsand thoughts (topics) is by first feeling thesituation, by mentioning the topic jokingly, in order

to capture the listener`s general reaction. If it is afavourable one, then disclosure may go on; if not,risks should not be taken.


212/449


213/449

Although the presentation of SELF varies accordingto these factors, some aspects of the self arerepeated in many situations and relationships. At the

same time, the self-concept is a dynamic one. Thismeans, in fact, lots of aspects to be considered:


214/449

the individual`s self is continually shaped by thosearound, with whom he comes into contact (ideas,feelings, attitudes develop/change permanently; he

compares his SELF and the others` SELVES) the self-image may change, according to individual`s

behaviour and those who see and judge it


215/449

as the self-image changes, it depends on theindividual if it changes to the better, or not;

the self-respect also changes, according to successor failure in the personal or social life, and accordingto the feedback received from the others; anychange of the self-respect brings about a change ofthe self-image


216/449

Stewart[1] considers that we can talk about differenttypes of SELF that are disclosed whenever twopeople are in social interaction:

MY MErepresents the view I have of myself; theway in which I see myself. It can be verbally ornonverbally disclosed:


217/449

Examples

I`ll do everything you say= I am obedient; I

want to preserve the relationship with the other onethe way it is;= I consider the other

person being on a higher position than me, and I actaccordingly.

[1] Stewart, J.(1988):Together Communicating Interpersonally, Random House, New York, pp.104-106


218/449

Do what I say!= I see myself asauthority/power, the one who knows what to do orwhat to say; I willingly or unwillingly place the otherone on a lower position, of the one who has toobserve rules or orders, so that relationship could bethe same.


219/449

I`ll tell you my secret= I see myself as aperson who shows trust in the partner ofcommunication, maybe as a person who might needa piece of advice.

Dear Mary,(the beginning of a letter) = Idefine myself as close to the person I am writing to.

Dear Sir,(the beginning of an official letter)= I define myself as distant from the person I amwriting to.


220/449

MY YOUrepresents the view I have of the otherperson; this can also be verbally or nonverballydisclosed:

Examples:

Good morning, madam/Mrs. Brown/ Mr.White!= I consider the other person as deservingrespect


221/449

standing very close to someone, allowing the otherone to touch us, confessing to him = I consider theother one as being trustworthy


222/449

turning the back or the head, interrupting the otherone very frequently while he/she is speaking = Iconsider the other`s speech not important;


223/449

giving orders to the other one, mocking at him,answering him ironically or sarcastically = I considerhim/her a person who does not deserve respect.


224/449

MY YOUR MErepresents the view of the way theother person sees me; this can be noticed if takinginto consideration both verbal and nonverbal

markers:


225/449

Examples:

avoiding eye-contact with me, avoiding to come tooclose to me, avoiding to have an open discussion

(avoids confession) = the person he does notconsider me interesting, deserving attention ortrustworthy;


226/449

if the other person interrupts me or seems to be

impatient while I am speaking = I am not saying

interesting, relevant things and that he considers me

boring or even dull.


227/449

According to Mark Knapp, the appropriate andeffective disclosure ranges on a continuum or slidingscale between less open- less personal to more

open- more personal. A good instrument that improves awareness of

SELF and disclosure is the Johari Window (calledafter the names of Joseph Luft and Harrington

Ingham):


228/449

OPEN

includes the aspects known by the Self and by theothers, too

it includes the things we are aware of and at thesame time we are willing to disclose and share withthe others (our name, sex, age, appearance, evenfeelings and ideas)

the more we open/enlarge this window pane, themore effective communication becomes;


229/449

BLIND includes the aspects the other people know about

us but we are not aware of/or ignore(attitudes/behaviour in different situations,behavioural habits, skills or personalqualities/drawbacks)

we can find out more things about us if, and only if,the discussion partner wants to disclose them to us;our learning them can make us happy or, on the

contrary, we can become angry (if we learn aboutunpleasant things) and even deny them


230/449

HIDDEN

includes the aspects we know about ourselves(secrets, feelings, hopes) but we do not want the

others know about them

this square of the window enlarges only if we arewilling to share some of these aspects


231/449

UNKNOWN

includes the aspects that neither we nor the othersare aware of (for example, a different type of

behaviour disclosed only in a certain situation, ordifferent feelings brought in the open in a specialsituation).


232/449

The concept of SELF is closely connected to theconcept of role.In everyday social life we all playdifferent roles, within certain boundaries imposed by

the role expectations.

INTERACTIONAL CODES


233/449

The verbal code

The information within the message is encoded andtransmitted through words that can be analysed atthree distinct levels: phonetic, lexical and morpho-syntactic. Words have forms and meanings. Theircomplete meaning should include both the

denotations and connotations they have.


234/449

Kerbrat-Orecchioni[1] considers that the verbal codehas three main properties :

reflexivity(the sender of the message is its

receiver at the same time); symmetry(the verbal message asks for an

answer, generally; it implies the fact that the answershould be offered by using the same code);


235/449

transitivity(if a sender X transmits someinformation to a receiver Y, the latter has thepossibility of transmitting it to Z, without making the

proof of the validity of information).

[1] Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C (1990): Les interactions verbales, vol. I,

Armand Colin Paris


236/449

Generally speaking, questions ensure fluency tocommunication. They can be of several types:

exploration over the situation or topic of

communication: What do you know about?; Doyou know ?; Haven`t you heard about?;Haven`t you found out/learned that?

analysis

identification: Which are the reasons/proofs?

comparison: What do you think about?

classification/evaluation: Which is the best?


237/449

synthesis

planning: What are you going to do first?

demonstration: How do you prove that?

re-organization: What else could you say about?

evaluation:


238/449

a) interpretation: How do you consider that?

b) justification: Why have you got so late?

c) criticism: Why didn`t you like?


239/449

a) self-criticism: Do you know what mistake youmade?

b) hypothetical: What could happen if.?


240/449

Participants to the created interaction producevarious speech acts. According to Searle [1] theycould be of several types:

a) assertives(assert something; draw a conclusion,evaluate, represent, report a state of facts; they areof the type: assertion, information);

b) directives (help the locutor determine theinterlocutor to do something; they are of the type:request, demand, order, question, a piece of advice,

recommendation);

[1] Searle, J. (1971): Les actes de langage, Herman, Paris


241/449

c) promisives(constrain the locutor to do something infuture; they are of the type: offer, oath, promise);

d) expressives(contribute to the expression of mentalstates of the locutor; are represented by excuses,thanks, congratulations, confessions);

e) declarativesare of the type of declarationorcondemnation.


242/449

The negotiationthat develops between theparticipants to any social interaction is revealed bysome processes that can be identified during thecommunication activity:

repetitions (show the individual`s sensitiveness); re-formulations of statements, questions, promises,

etc. ; corrections (stress the oral character of

communication ; show the individual`s spontaneity); overlaps (indicate wrong turn-taking or rush from

the part of the one who produces them);


243/449

hesitations (show that the individual cannot choosethe correct linguistic form or he delays the message,as a strategy he uses that respective moment);

pauses (voluntarily or involuntarily made); silence (especially for strategic reasons);

interruptions (express impatience, lack of interest,lack of respect or rush in expressing thoughts);


244/449

elliptical sentences (as a mark of individual`semotions);

use of implicit utterances (combined with explicit

ones, the latter category easier to decode andunderstand);

parenthetical constructions (interrupt for seconds thecommunication flux, being an expression of sheer

sensitiveness)


245/449

The nonverbal code

The nonverbal system has the capacity of becomingitself a code of semiotic communication. Throughgestures, movements, mimics, posture, individualsexpress and communicate lots of things.

The nonverbal code system has as its maincharacteristics:


246/449

analogy (it is continuous, forming a range);

iconicity (the nonverbal signs resemble the thingsthat are symbolized);

universal meaning ;

simultaneous transmission (several nonverbalmessages can be sent at once;

spontaneity.


247/449

Kineticsrepresents the activity of the body (bodylanguage). It was studied for the first time byBirdwhistell R. (Kinesics in Context, 1970).


248/449

According to Birdwhistell, gestureshave a doublefunction:

a) they are grammatical markers (they are like verbal

elements that belong to specific grammar classes;b) they are markers for pronouns or for verbs, for

example) and accent markers (strictly connectedwith the intonation used).


249/449

At the same time, gestures

have a social value (are markers of the social statusand the role the individual plays);

they express feelings, show belonging to a group,give force to the act and help development ofrelationships

they also express psychological values (joy, pain) or

moral values (it is good/bad)


250/449

Ekman and Friesen[1] analyse:

emblemsmovements that have a precise meaningand are functionally equivalent to words; generally,

they are learned through imitation and usedthroughout one`s life: (the index finger to the lips,for silence or the same finger to the temple, forsuicide);

[1] apud Rovena-Frumuani, D. (1999): Semiotic, societate, cultur,

Institutul European, Iai, pp.188-189


251/449

illustratorsmovements that depict verbalmessages; they are used together with words andallow the receiver to understand the verbal message

in a better and easier way, as they add emphasis,depict spatial relationships, or point to objects (thegesture of pointing to somebody while shouting hisname; the gesture made to show the size or shapeof an object, while talking about it)


252/449

adaptorsmovements that originally were used toexpress physical needs and have been adapted toserve other needs, too (facilitate release of bodily

tension) regulators movements used to ensure control/

coordinate interaction between people (representedby nods - for consent, raised eyebrows- forexpressing doubt, uncertainty)


253/449

affect displaysmovements that express emotions;they are a sort of presentation of feelings andemotions, having transcultural identic meaning; they

involve facial expressions, trembling hands, angrystares


254/449

We suggest a typology ofbodily expressions(using Goffman`s terminology)[1], considering it fitfor analysing gestures, mimics and bodily attitudes.

We are trying to expand the area of investigation(more than Goffman did), mentioning that theproblem cannot be treated without taking intoconsideration the paraverbal communication, too.So, we identify:

[1] Goffman, E. (1973): La mise en scne de la vie quotidienne, vol.II, Les Editions deMinuit, Paris, pp.132-135


255/449

a) bodily expressions meant to initiatecontact/interaction

of orientation (positioning towards the other one,

through the position of the head, the direction ofthe look and through minimizing distance);

of recognition (the waving hand; the smile; thehug; handshaking).


256/449

b) bodi ly expression s m eant to i l lustrate the

contact/ interact ion

gestures meant to express precaution [1](show the

interlocutor that the locutor`s intention may bewrongly interpreted in that specific situation);

discursive bodily expressions (underline the

verbal context):

[1] Goffman, E.(1973): op.cit., pp.133-134


257/449

act independently from the verbal context (the Vsign indicating victory)

amplify/accentuate the spoken words (gestures

such as shrugs, nods or blinks) illustrate, clarify or repeat the significance of the

verbal expression (all the ideographs, kinetographsor deictic gestures as they appear in Ekman`s

terminology), the smile, the volume of voice, as wellas the accent


258/449

contradict the verbal expression (the intonation thatenhances an ironical answer; avoidance of the eyecontact or nervous movement of arms and legs,

although desire for cooperation was verbally madeclear a little bit before)

modify the verbal expression (smiling while turningdown somebody`s invitation)


259/449

substitute the verbal expression (the situation inwhich the locutor does not find his words or delaysanswering a question; it is also the case of gestures

that substitute words in conditions of noise or whenspeaking or hearing is impossible or rather difficult)


260/449

c) strategic bodily expressions(clearly show thatthe individual is trying to adapt his entire nonverbalbehaviour to that of the interlocutor`s; they also

show his desire of cooperation or lack of interest intheir activity):

maximizing distance (half-closed eyes; stepsforewards; shaking of the head that shows

disagreement)


261/449


262/449

Eye contacthas a very important role in initiating/establishing interaction and in maintainingcommunication.

avoidance of eye contact can be a sign of formality,nervousness, lack of respect, but also, a sign ofshyness or slyness

eye contact is increased when interlocutors knoweach other very well, when the relationship between

them is a symmetrical one, or when the topic is ofcommon interest


263/449

The whole face and its expressionscan tell a lotabout individuals and their problems during

communication, but generally, cultural rules andsocietal pressures often inhibit spontaneous facialexpressions.[1]Ekman P. and W.V. Friesen studiedfacial nonverbal communication and reached

interesting conclusions.[1] Barker, L. (1987):Communications, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc.,New Jersey, p. 71


264/449

First of all, these expressions are extremely complex;despite their complexity, they can be easily decodedby those belonging to the same culture. Then, theyconsidered that face can be divided into three areas(eye-brows and forehead; eyes-nose; mouth-chin-jaws) and each of them conveys multiple emotions,which, in their turn, can be congruent or incongruentwith the emotions expressed by another area.. So,

while the forehead and eyes may show anger, themouth can show sadness.


265/449

Personal appearanceusually determines people`sfirst impression about the others. Fortunately, peoplehave the possibility of manipulating their physical

appearance (especially the colour and size of thehair, the colour and the quality of clothes) so thatthey could be perceived as attractive and interesting,

rather than unattractive and uninteresting.


266/449

Touchingalso plays a definite role in interpersonalcommunication. It indicates positive feelings (peoplegreet, offer help, express affection) or negative

feelings (touch becomes a sign of anger,nervousness, envy or irritation). Generally,individuals touch more easily and more often thosepeople they like, appreciate or feel close to.


267/449

Proxemicsrepresents the study of how individualsorganize and manage the distance existingbetween/among them in the everyday social

interactions. The spatial relationship establishedbetween the individual and the people or the objectsaround him communicates a lot. Proxemics isconnected to culture and social rules.


268/449

Hall established four spatial zones of interpersonalcommunication:

a) intimate distance(contact to 18 inches) it is the distance that can be identified between two

intimate friends, close pairs, parents and children; it is the distance of lovemaking, caressing, hugging,

kissing, protecting, but also of fighting communication through words is not always

necessary, or the only possibility; touch, smells andbody temperature communicate feelings andattitudes.


269/449

If someone unwanted or strangers enter this zone,the reaction is immediate and can take differentforms: steps backwards, use of other nonverbal

strategies to maximize distance (avoiding eyecontact, turning the back; folding arms), or eventhreats


270/449

b) personal distance(11/2-4 feet)

this is the distance that is preferred by people ininterpersonal communication (in everyday social

interactions: dialogues, conversations) people have the possibility of greeting each other,

shaking hands and talking


271/449

c) social distance(4 to 12 feet)

In contrast with the personal distance, this type ispreferred by people attending social gatherings,

people meeting for the first time or thoseconducting business

it is especially the distance of formal relationships,of the people occupying a high or a low position,given by the social roles played

eye contact becomes a key word for such type ofinterpersonal distance


272/449

d) public distance(12 to 25 feet)

generally speaking, this is the distance of theconcert, the conference, or public speeches

an important role is given to gestures and voice(its pitch, rate, rhythm)


273/449

The paraverbal code

Voice belongs to the category of paraverbal cues(belonging to paralinguistics). It has got some

important dimensions: rate(how fast or slow onespeaks); pitch(how high or low one speaks on amusical scale); rhythm(use of pauses that createrhythm in speech); tone(how sad/happy/ amused/excited/angry the voice sounds); volume(how loud

or soft one speaks) and quality(refers to the textureof the voice: husky, melodious, creaky).


274/449

The way in which all these are manipulated by theindividual makes communication effective, as theyexpress feelings, help attitude change and facilitate

communication


275/449

Silence.An effective communication depends to alarge extent- on silence, because, as manyresearchers have proved, it can speak more thanwords.

In fact we can identify several types of silence, eachof them having its own significance andconsequences. The most detailed classification wasoffered by Myers, G. & Myers T. M[1]:

[1] Myers, G.&Myers, T.M.(1990): Les bases de communication humaine,Chenelire/mcgraw-Hill, Montral


276/449

the silence of the person who is angry, frustratedand nervous;

the silence of the person who is fascinated by thethings around him;

the silence brought about by boredom; it is anegative re-evaluation of the situation/of what ishappening; can imply an attitude of superiority thatwill offence the others;

the silence brought about by the fact that the

person does not know what else to say ; the silence that appears whenever one thinks about

what he is going to say;


277/449

the silence that signals the fact that the person didnot understand what he was told (the silenceinduced by confusion);

the silence signifying moments of reflection,respect, contemplation;

the silence called dogmatic signifies that thespeaker has nothing else to add to what has already

been said;


278/449

the silence of those in love, who do not needwords to make themselves understood;

the silence induced by pain; the silence of stubbornness; of the person

who resorts to a very-well thought strategy;

Relationships in interaction


279/449

Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C. considers that relationshipsca

Documents

Verbal Interactions