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Veijo MeisaloDepartment of Applied Sciences of Education
An Introduction to the Concepts of Interest and Motivation
IPUC TFPC Torun 200729274-IC-2-2005-1-AT-ERASMUS-IPUC-19
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Structure of the presentation
1. Discussion of the problems of Physics and Chemistry
Education, general background
2. Definition and classification of motivation and interest,
how to motivate students…
3. Some surveys including international and Finnish
research outcomes: ROSE International
ROSE Finland
Eurobarometer 2005
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FROM
THEORY
TO
PRACTICE
FROM
PRACTICE
TO
THEORY
Unique teaching - learning situation in a classroom
Experimental
Constructivistic
self-piloting
Co-operative
Contextualised
Evaluation
level of development
Teacheras
researcher
Planningof
teaching
Professionally ThinkingTeacher
Theories
Learning theories- constructivism- contextualism- behaviorism- ...
Social interaction
Motivation
....
Models of teaching
Experimental- observation- classification- project- inquiry- ...
Information processing
Co-operative
....
Metaphors
Market model- MICT- Nature- workshop- ...
Professionally Thinking
Novice - Expert
....
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The problems of Physics and Chemistry Education as Discussed in International Conferences
Too few students learn the contents or skills on the level of the goals written in the science curricula.Too few students choose facultative courses in upper secondary schools or in higher education.
Physics is not interesting for students (especially girls), physics and schemistry are dull and difficult subjects.
Teaching follows too often the model of transmission of knowledge, the pedagogical approaches are not versatile.Student practical work, teacher demonstrations and other experimental work are performed mechanically without thinking the goals. There are too much contents – never enough time!Modern ICT use in science learning is minimal.
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Growing Ambivalence:The two faces of S&T
Compare Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde!
S&T in the service of the good; saving lives, improving material conditions, providing knowledge, pushing back ignorance and superstition, providing insight, wisdom and cultural values. But also: Providing tools for oppression and material and cultural domination, means for the exploitation of nature and weapons for mass destruction. As always …?
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FAMILY GOALS MODELS/STRATEGIES Experimental - acquisition of scientific knowledge
- development of different work or process related skills - understanding of the empirical nature of natural sciences - student’s attitudes and motivation to study science
Observation, Inquiry training, Concept Attainment, Exercises, Experiences and Investigations, Practical work, Teacher demonstrations, Class practicals, Small group activities etc.
Social Interaction To develop - social skills - communication
Cooperative Learning, Group Discus, Role Playing, Debate,
Information Processing/Cognitive
To develop - logical thinking processes - thoughtful citizens and critical thinking.
Learning by reading and writing, Advanced organizers, Mind Mapping, Memory Model
Creative problem solving
To develop - divergent thinking - creative skills - internal resources to see things in new/different ways
Problem Solving Brainstorming Overall mapping of problem situation
Classification of Models of Teaching by Joyce & Weil (on the basis of goals)
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The Emphasis of the Experimental Approach as Expressed in the Finnish Core Curricula
The Framework Curriculum of 1994 :
1. Experimental work may include laboratory work, demostrations and study visits
2. Experimental approach (action as well as narrative) is a pedagogical principle, where introduction to concepts, quantities,models, natural laws as well as making acquintance with applications is based on experimental information (emphasising concept formation).
The Finnish Core Curriculum of 2004 emphasises supporting with experimental activities
1. Learning of concepts
2. Learning of experimental skills
3. Understanding the experimental nature of sciences
4. (motivation)
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Student Interest
Interest in the subject under study determines what is learned
and how students learn (Krapp 2002). Individual and event-specific interest (cf. Krapp et al. 1992):
1. Individual interest is aroused gradually, it has an effect on
both individual knowledge and values and it is rather stable.
2. Event-specific interest can be aroused very fast
occasionally, it is emotional and may fade rapidly (Hidi
1990). There is a correlation between gender and interest:
e.g. boys are more interested in physics and technology than
girls.
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How to Motivate Students?There are surveys and case studies on how interested students are in1. sciences and science subjects as well as the themes
under study, 2. In the contexts where science is met,3. In pedagogical approaches (Hoffman, 2002; Osborne
2003)4. In the relevance (e.g. further studies, working life).
Arousing interest is one of the goals in the Finnish Core Curriculum 2004!
There are also numerous textbooks giving practical advice for
teachers, e.g. Davis, 2002, Tools for Teaching Jossey-Bass: San Francisco
Ten basic approaches to motivating students
IPUC TFPC Torun 2007
Veijo Meisalo
Department of Applied Sciences of Education
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Ten basic approaches to motivating students
1. Fastening attention 2. Social motivation 3. Curiosity and usability as sources of motivation 4. Need for scaffolding 5. Optimal goals 6. Immediate feedback is the most efficient 7. Rewards and punishment motivate 8. Avoid excessive stress and anxiety 9. Behaviour models motivate striving towards
professional objectives 10. Value discussion motivates for the appreciation of
values
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1. Fastening attention
At the first stage of the teaching and learning situation the
teacher will first draw the students' attention to her/himself
Then moves it to the objectives of the beginning studies.
One can use as a starting point in the fastening of the
attention the normal routines and usages embedded in
the working culture of the educational institution
concerned at simplest for example by slight raising of her/his
voice. Short videoclips or demonstrations are tried and
found methods to fasten attention to the essentials.
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2. Social motivation
It should be pointed to the students what is expected from
them. An attempt should be made to create active learning
communities and an atmosphere of positive solidarity to
efficient studying among the students. Team working skills should be developed to promote
mutual support. The expectations of professional communities to lifelong
learning and self-development should be discussed. The willingness of young pupils to do something just for
pleasing the teacher should not be cultivated excessively.
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3. Curiosity and usability as sources of motivation
Courses or study periods should be systematically started
by co-operative planning where students have a say. Advance organisers are used to show the interesting
matters to be expected. There are always novel inventions and new branches in
science and technology – teachers can use Internet
resources etc. to keep abreast of the development. Human curiosity is a generally comprehensive principle but
particularly long-range work needs also other sources of
motivation. Students need to know, where the topics they are supposed
to learn, can be utilised later. Conceived usability depends on the context where the topic
is studied
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4. Need for scaffolding
The achievement motivation, a desire to succeed, is the
general principle most prominently visible in ST studies. This need is natural on everybody and possibilities
must be found for the saturating of it in spite of the
students' different ability and performance profiles. Guide students in the Proximal Zone of Development
Provide scaffolding when needed through tutoring etc.
Students must be given information about possible
successful study paths and vocational development. The significance of studies for career development is
shown also generally.
It also is good to bring up the possibilities of
technology in the positive control of the environment.
Theoretical studies and applications must be in balance at
all stages of studying.
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5. Optimal goals
A student is often very strongly indeed motivated by
success in the reaching of a certain goal – the stronger
the more challenging the task in question has been.
Correspondingly, a failure weakens motivation.
Therefore, attention must be paid to setting of objectives
to a proper level.
The targets must not be set too high, hopeless to reach.
The idea of optimal goals/objectives also includes the
fact that they should not be set too low. A task that has no challenge by itself is reduced to a
routine.
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6. Immediate feedback is the most efficient
Students must be first given feedback immediately after
the performance as clearly as possible and from many
sides. This principle is universally applicable in spite of the
criticism which has been directed to behaviourism. However, one must take into consideration that in
the performances which touch a student's
personality, feedback must be softened especially in
tender moments, using for example the “+++ and
how" method. Students are directed gradually to estimate their
performance level also independently and to
correct the mistakes by themselves. Not only the teacher but also fellow students etc. can and
should give feedback.
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7. Rewards and punishment motivate Stick and carrot are classical tools of motivation.
Rewards strengthen desired behaviour. Punishment either weakens the inclination to that behaviour
or causes experiencing of the whole situation unpleasant
and leads to avoiding such situations or the punisher(s). The basic solution is to utilise the principles of continuous
formative evaluation and to give encouragement whenever
students improve their performance compared to the earlier
performances.
Lead students to realise that e.g. to operate a finished self-
designed experimental setup and to be able to analyse data is
as such an encouraging reward.
Punishments are used carefully in specific situations only.
The Stick Method produces stress and anxiety: see below!
Be very specific when giving negative feedback.
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8. Avoid excessive stress and anxiety There are many examples of stress and anxiety leading to
burnout, or other negative phenomena in the modern
information society: excessive motivation means stress! The result can be a change of the whole personality
and manifested problems as disturbances of all
behaviour. Harmful effects can come in sight very
dramatically, indeed. Students must get an opportunity to relax before
demanding tasks, especially before creative problem
solving, ideation etc. Possibility of having certain privacy
in learning environments is important for avoiding stress. Possible stress effects must be taken into consideration
when giving prizes and punishments. Experiencing
success has usually big significance for avoiding
mounting of stress.
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9. Behaviour models motivate striving towards professional objectives
The teacher her/himself always functions as a behaviour
model. Be enthusiastic about what you teach! Students must be given an opportunity to get a versatile
picture of pioneers and current significant researchers
and developers of science and technology. The perseverance of both the operation of a model and
steady self-confidence must be brought out, but also
simultaneously the importance of working as a member of
a team. Good behaviour, social skills and empathy are often
important even professionally!
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10. Value discussion motivates for the appreciation of values
Moral and ethical problems will rise forth in many ways in
the applications and studying environments of science
and technology.
It is important that these problems are jointly discussed
and an attempt is made to find solutions to them.
The application of the methods of the creative problem
solving in this area is recommended.
Teachers and the whole educational system have to
follow high moral and ethical principles!
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Definition of Motivation
Motivation is an organised entity of psychological functions, which guide and control goal-oriented actions. These include
Personal goals: affective, cognitive, empowering, social, integrative, … Emotional arousal: pleasure, joy, enjoyment; satisfaction, pride, stress, fear; shame
Personal beliefs:expectations of success and failure; belief in the manageability and controllability of things; belief in one’s own abilities.
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Motivation and Learning
Learning and accomplishment are not based solely on cognitive factors, but interests and beliefs on own abilities and possibilities of reaching the goals (”I do not cope physics!”) influence learning
Goals of the learner influence her performance and they
can be classified according to goal theories e.g. as
follows:
1. Goals oriented towards task performance or self-
assertion
2. Goals oriented towards social expectations
3. Goals of learning, accomplishing or avoiding tasks
as supporting one’s ego
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Student with task orientation has performing the task as a goal and feels failing the task as a challenge
Student Orientation and Goals Influence Studies and Learning
TEACHER
STUDENT TASK
Student with social orientation has as her goal interaction with her teacher or fellow students: she does not take personal responsibility of performing the task and tries to find out what her teacher expects of her and seeks the acceptance of her teacher and fellow students.
STUDENT
Student defending her ego feels reducing feelings of fear as an important goal and refuses to perform a task to avoid failing
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1. Task-Oriented Student
Task-oriented studenthas as her goal performing the task or solving the problemfinds failing a task as a challengewants to perform the tasks to ultimate successis not easily disturbed by distractors
TEACHER
STUDENT TASK
Task-oriented student is interested in the task and focuses on performing it.
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2. Socially Oriented Student
Student with social-dependence orientationhas as her goal maintaining interaction with her teacher or her fellow studentsdoes not take responsibility of performing the tasktries to find out, what her teacher expects and what pleases the teacherseeks for acceptance and help more than she actually needscan not act autonomously
TEACHER
STUDENT TASK
For a socially oriented student experiences of pleasing and being accepted are important, likewise acting as her teacher expects - taking no responsibility.
STUDENT
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3. Student Defending Her Ego
Student defending her egofinds reducing fearful feelings as an important goalrefuses tasks to avoid failing experiencesmay justify failing beforehand (headache…)may have physical symptoms when stressed
TEACHER
STUDENT TASK
Student defending her ego tries to protect herself from experiences of failing.
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According to the Motivation Theory by Deci & Ryan:
Psychological needs influence motivation: 1) need of feeling competent, 2) need of autonomy, 3) curiosity, and4) need to belong in a group.
There is a continuum of inner - outer motivation inner, self-determined motivation, ( interest) integrated control control through identification internalised control externally controlled behaviour
Although students primarily produce their own motivation, it can be enhanced and learned.
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Outer towards Inner Motivation
Teacher behaviour:
listening to students - even outside lessons should not copy her memos on the blackboard allows students time to reflect both alone and in groups does not give direct answers to student questions avoids saying ”you have to”, ”you must”, ... is not critical but constructive and emphatic (uses the 3+ and how approach, …)
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External Factors Having Effect on Motivation
Ego, self-belief, ...Socialisation and gender identity (social environment influences attitudes and interests)
Parents, relatives, ..Peers (sisters, pals, …)Media, movies, …Hobbies, …
Experiences, especially at early age, in kindergarten and on lower gradesPhysics is masculine, many boys study physics , …The problem is too many generalisations - the phenomenon of motivation is complex!
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How to Observe Motivational Factors when Teaching?
Be conscious of the differences in student motivationIdentify interests and how to influence them Support learning goals and utilise performance goals in controlled mannerAvoid stress and feelings of failure, find optimal goal levelsSupport the beliefs of student capabilityCreate Flow experiences which bring pleasureSupport observations of student progress, give immediate positive feedbackMove from the norms of social acceptance towards task orientationAnalyse the reasons for failure – support strategic approaches, unravel self-defensive orientation
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Pupils’ Attitudes to Science and Technology.
Summary
The positive side: They accept the importance of S&T for society S&T will improve life S&T will make work more interesting S&T has more advantages than dangers Young people love modern ICT:
They are great consumers!
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Pupils’ views, the dark side
They dislike S&T at school, S&T is difficult and boring etc.
They are interested in ’real science’ – but less in ’school
science’ (a ’living fossil’?)
The curriculum is overloaded with ‘correct answers’ – no room
for creativity, fantasy etc.
They are very hesitant to study S&T and to work with S&T
They often have a negative perception of scientists as persons
(no good role models?)
Evidence to follow…
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”My opinions about science and technology”
16 itemsFrom 1 = Disagree to 4 = Agree (2,5 is ’neutral’)
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ROSE Update
Schreiner & Sjøberg, 2006, Science education and young
people identity construction – two mutually incompatible
projects? In Science education and youths identity
construction. University of Oslo
www.ils.uio.no/english/rose
36
Background of the Finnish Survey
The international
ROSE (The Relevance of Science Education)
study
Stratified sampling, weighted by the size of the school:
- 75 comprehensive schools, mean value 65 students /
school yielding 4954 students
81 % of the schools (3699 students) returned the
questionnaires
- 49 upper secondary schools, 2nd graders
89 % returned the questionnaires yielding 2661 students,
of whom 1110 had chosen et least two elective courses in
physics
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Why you chose/ did not choose elective courses in physics?
Physics makes largest gender differences in beliefs,
then chemistry and smallest differences for biology.
Formulation of the items: Evaluate the influence of the
following reasons….
24 items surveying the reasons for not choosing
elective courses in physics or dropping out. 20 items surveying the reasons for choosing
elective courses in physics
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female, n = 1569
male, n = 1213
Num
ber
of s
tude
nts
0 = compulsory courses only
Choosing elective courses in physics
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Why not choosing physics?
Reason (1 = min, 5 = max) mean No future relevance 3,3I am no good in physics 3,3Physics is too technical 2,3”Media”, teachers, coucellors 1,9family, friends 1,3
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Gender differences
No statistically significant differences:- physics is technical- physics is important and interesting - future relevance- positive influence of family and friends- positive influence of media, teachers, councellorsStatistically significant difference in: - physics is not useful in my future life (f) - I am no good in physics (f)/ I can physics (m) - family and frends have negative attitudes (f) - negative attitude of teacher etc. (f)
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Context survey, comprehensive schools
Are there differences in male and female students’
interests in physics studied in different contexts ? Similar survey on chemistry contexts Items of the type: how interested you are in studying
the following things?
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Context sum variables
Six contexts, e.g. in mechanics:
1. Idealised situations (force and movement)
2. Society (traffic safety)
3. Technical applications (bridge construction, support
strength and forces)
4. Human beings and body, (muscular forces)
5. Experiments and investigations, (investigating force
phenomena)
6. Technological construction (planning and
constructing a toy or a structure)
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Ideal contextN
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s
female
male
Difference of means moderate
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Society
Communication satellites etc. Traffic safety (starting, braking, ...) How to save energy and avoid misuse? Musical instruments and how they produce different
sounds How to use and keep in shape everyday electrical
appliances? How electricity has influenced the development of our
society? Medical use of X-rays, ultrasound etc.
45
Social contextN
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s
femal
e
male
Difference of means moderate
46
Context technical applicationsN
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s
female
male
Difference of means large
47
Human context
Muscular strain and forces in sports Hearth, blood pressure and circulation, control of body
temperature Effects of solarium and sunlight on skin Electrical shock / electrical muscular phenomena Effect of ionising radiation on human body
48
Human contextN
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s
female
male
No significant difference of means
49
Context of experiments and investigationsN
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s
female
male
Difference of means small
50
Context of technological constructionN
umbe
r of
stu
dent
s
female
male
Difference of means small
51
Pedagogical approaches in physics and chemistry teaching
How physics and chemistry is taught now (evaluated by
teachers and students) How they would like these subjects to be taught Items were of the type:
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Versatile pedagogical approachesMajor changes wished to the present situation: 1) more industrial visits etc., 2) teacher-led discussions, 3) small-group activities (practical work, concept maps)female students wish more drawing of concept maps, doing practical work in small groups and following teacher teachingTeacher has to remember that- there are different kinds of students in the classroom (no cloned medians)- there are different types of goals (knowledge, skills, …) – there is a need for various pedagogical approaches
53
Europeans, Science and Technology
Eurobarometer 55.2 (2001)
(one of many surveys)
New 2003: Including 13 potential member states
S&T related interest and knowledge Values, science, technology Responsibilities and accountability of scientists New, revised study 2005 available at
europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/index_en.htm Hodge (2006) What Europeans really think (and know) about
science and technology. Science in School 3, 71-77
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Assignment
Students in Torun had an assignment to analyse as
groupwork their own good and bad experiences as to
motivation in science studies.
Students worked in five groups and the discussion was
most lively.
Students had altogether far more positive than negative
experiences.
Some features were presented positively by one group
and respective opposite feature as negative by another.
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Motivating features experienced by students
Student participation/social perspective
Possibility to do one’s own way
Making experiments
Variation of teaching methods, use of available
technology
Doing something useful, having connection to everyday
life experiences
56
Negative features experienced by students
Too difficult or too easy
No appreciation/free speech/activation of students
Too long and complicated texts
57
On interpreting the above lists
We have to remember, that the students attending the IP
course were not randomly selected, but they were a
group of rather special internationally active science
student teachers!
58
Copyright
These slides have been propared in the context of
research and development projects at the Centre of
Mathematics and Science Education Research at the
Department of Applied Sciences of Education, University
of Helsinki. There have been extensive co-operation and
support programmes with National Board of Education
(Finland), City of Helsinki and Federation of Finnish
Electrical and Electronics Industry etc. The use of this
material for non-commercial purposes is allowed, but
commercial use in any form including versions in any
other language must be agreed in writing with the
Research Centre.
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