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VEHICLE ENGINEERING NEWS

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Vehicle Engineering News – September 2014 © Ricardo plc 2014

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RICARDO INFORMATION SERVICES

VEHICLE ENGINEERING NEWS

SEPTEMBER 2014

A monthly bulletin

dedicated to individual vehicle studies

vehicle engineering features and components,

engineering processes, and the vehicle industry



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Notes Vehicle Engineering News is a monthly newsletter, published by the Ricardo Information Services Department. It summarizes the published literature on specific vehicles of all types, features of vehicle engineering, vehicle components and dynamics, and vehicle testing and other processes. Items included in this publication are based on literature received by the Ricardo Library in July. Entries may contain additional information on products covered in earlier editions. Copies of the source documents may be obtained by quoting the Library reference, which appears in bold at the bottom of each article. An additional charge is made for this service. Other products offered by Ricardo Information Services include: Powerlink - An online database containing over 250,000 abstracts of engine and vehicle literature EMLEG - Worldwide exhaust emissions legislation summaries online

New Engine News Contents - summaries of main technical features of new engines of all types and applications

Fuels & Lubricants News Contents - Developments in fuel and lubricants technology as applied in engines and vehicles

Control & Electronics News Contents - control, electrical and electronic engineering. Practical applications and research & technology

Transmissions News Contents - New and modified transmissions, and driveline technology

Components News Contents - Internal combustion engine components, materials, research and design.

Alternative Powertrain News Contents – Fuel cell, hybrid and electric powertrains as well as alternative combustion systems

Fuel Economy News Contents - Fuel economy improvement, weight reduction, practical examples of vehicle applications

Gas Engine News Contents - Natural gas, LPG and biogas technologies and applications. Published quarterly.

Contact details - Roland Christopher, Information Manager, Ricardo UK Ltd Tel. +44 (0) 1273 794230, email: [email protected].

Ricardo has used reasonable endeavours to ensure that the information supplied in this service is correct. However, no responsibility or liability can be accepted for any errors or omissions. Entries in this publication do not imply endorsement of any product or service by Ricardo

mailto:[email protected]



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Contents ARTICLES BY VEHICLE ...................................................................................................... 6

CONCEPT AND PROTOTYPE VEHICLES .................................................................... 6

BUSES ........................................................................................................................... 7

CARS AND SUVS .......................................................................................................... 8

Mercedes-Benz ............................................................................................................. 8

BMW ............................................................................................................................ 8

CONSTRUCTION VEHICLES ........................................................................................ 9

ELECTRIC VEHICLES ..................................................................................................10

Toyota ..........................................................................................................................10

Volkswagen ..................................................................................................................10

HYBRID VEHICLES ......................................................................................................12

RACE CARS .................................................................................................................13

RANGE EXTENDERS ...................................................................................................14

AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES..........................................................................................15

ARTICLES BY ENGINEERING FEATURE ..........................................................................16

AERODYNAMICS .........................................................................................................16

COSTS ..........................................................................................................................19

EMISSIONS ..................................................................................................................20

FAULTS ........................................................................................................................23

FUEL ECONOMY ..........................................................................................................24

FUELS ..........................................................................................................................28

HANDLING ...................................................................................................................29

HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE ..................................................................................30

LANE KEEPING AND CHANGING ...............................................................................31

MATERIALS .................................................................................................................32

NVH ...........................................................................................................................35

PERFORMANCE ..........................................................................................................36

ROLL ...........................................................................................................................37

STABILITY ....................................................................................................................38

VEHICLE DYNAMICS ...................................................................................................39

WEIGHT ........................................................................................................................41

ARTICLES BY VEHICLE COMPONENT .............................................................................42

BODIES ........................................................................................................................42

BRAKES .......................................................................................................................43

CHASSIS ......................................................................................................................45

DAMPERS ....................................................................................................................46

DRIVERS AIDS .............................................................................................................48

ELECTRICS AND ELECTRONICS ...............................................................................50

Architectures ...............................................................................................................50

Batteries .......................................................................................................................51



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Battery chargers ..........................................................................................................52

Electric power generation ...........................................................................................53

Electric power management systems ........................................................................54

Power electronics ........................................................................................................54

Energy storage systems .............................................................................................55

KERS ...........................................................................................................................56

Motors ..........................................................................................................................56

Networks ......................................................................................................................57

Relays ...........................................................................................................................58

Safety ...........................................................................................................................58

Semiconductors/transistors .......................................................................................59

Sensors ........................................................................................................................59

Starter generators .......................................................................................................59

Testing .........................................................................................................................60

HEAT EXCHANGERS...................................................................................................61

HVAC ...........................................................................................................................62

STEERING ....................................................................................................................63

STOP-START SYSTEMS ..............................................................................................66

SUSPENSIONS.............................................................................................................68

Shock absorbers .........................................................................................................70

TYRES ..........................................................................................................................71

ARTICLES BY ENGINEERING ACTIVITY ...........................................................................73

COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING ............................................................................73

Simulation and modelling ...........................................................................................73

Software .......................................................................................................................74

Virtual engineering ......................................................................................................75

CONTROL ENGINEERING ...........................................................................................76

Chassis ........................................................................................................................77

Cruise control ..............................................................................................................78

Speed ...........................................................................................................................78

Traction ........................................................................................................................79

Yawing ..........................................................................................................................79

DEVELOPMENT ...........................................................................................................81

DIAGNOSTICS AND CONDITION MONITORING ........................................................82

EFFICIENCY .................................................................................................................83

END OF LIFE MEASURES ...........................................................................................84

ENERGY MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................85

LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................87

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT, ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON ........................89

SAFETY ENGINEERING ..............................................................................................90

THERMAL MANAGEMENT ..........................................................................................91

WASTE HEAT AND ENERGY RECOVERY .................................................................93



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MARKETING .......................................................................................................................94

ROADMAPS ........................................................................................................................95

LITERATURE ......................................................................................................................96



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ARTICLES BY VEHICLE

CONCEPT AND PROTOTYPE VEHICLES SCHAEFFLER DEMONSTRATOR VEHICLES: CONCEPT VEHICLES FOR SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY - BOTH TODAY AND TOMORROW Schaeffler An overview of Schaeffler concept vehicles including the CO2ncept-10% car, Schaeffler Hybrid, ACTIVeDRIVE concept car with eDifferential. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_35_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 6pp.)



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BUSES

A BUSINESS ANALYSIS OF OLEV APPLICATIONS FOR BUS RAPID TRANSIT KAIST This paper provides a business analysis of the application of on-line electric vehicle (OLEV) to bus rapid transit (BRT), comparing it with three other vehicle types: compressed natural gas (CNG), diesel, and battery-electric. It first develops a model to estimate the total cost of ownership for a nine-year span for each of the vehicle types under different scenarios of cruising speed, station frequency, and vehicle headway. These results indicate that OLEV becomes more attractive the more “BRT-like” the system becomes: smaller vehicle headways, lower station frequency, and higher speeds. In many cases the analysis shows that OLEV is the most cost-effective alternative. This work then combines these quantitative results with more qualitative concerns and external factors to perform a strengths, weaknesses opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis to consider external and qualitative concerns, especially pertaining to system location and uncertain future costs and technology capabilities. It concludes that installing OLEV for the proposed BRT route in the new Sejong City area is an attractive option, blending good system characteristics with government and institutional support, and it should act as a necessary stepping-stone to larger scale deployment. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-018.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 12pp.) IRIZAR UNVEILS IRIZAR I2E ALL-ELECTRIC CITY BUS Irizar The Irizar Group announced its entry into the city bus market last month with the launch of its first fully integral all-electric low floor city bus, the Irizar i2e in San Sebastian, northern Spain. The vehicle is a three-door fully flat floor all-electric two axle city bus. The Irizar i2e has been designed to offer a range between 200 and 250 km between 14 and 16 hours in dense city and intercity traffic conditions, with an average speed of 17 km/h on a single charge. Irizar states it can be fully recharged in five hours using a standard 125A plug-in charging station. The vehicle's driveline uses conventional ZF independent front and rear drive axles with a Siemens electric motor. The motor is powered using a mix of roof-mounted Sodium Nickel batteries (nominal voltage of 600V/650V and total capacity of 376 kWh) and super condensers/capacitors (125V). Covers - energy storage management system, pre-climate control, Eco Assist system. See Doc.145979 (Truck & Bus Builder, Aug 2014, p15.)



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CARS AND SUVS

ROAD TEST: MERCEDES-BENZ C-CLASS Mercedes-Benz Road test of the Mercedes-Benz C Class C220 Bluetec AMG Line diesel passenger car covering acceleration, aerodynamics, boot, brakes, dimensions, engine, fuel consumption, handling, interior, performance, power, price, ride, rivals, safety, steering, suspension, torque, 7-speed automatic transmission, turbocharging, turning circle, tyres, visibility, wheels. See Doc.145928 (Autocar, 23 Jul 2014, pp58-65.) DRIVEN: MINI COOPER BMW BMW-built hatch reaches its third generation. Turbocharged three-cylinder engine in mid-range Cooper delivers 134 bhp and 0-62 mph in just 7.9 sec. Underneath its familiar-yet-slightly-different form, this Mini has switched to an all-new platform, one that will also underpin the lower cars of the BMW range when they switch to front-wheel drive. And excepting the top-sped Cooper S, the rest of the Mini range - both petrol and diesel - are the first recipients of the new three-cylinder engines that have been spun off BMW's modular powerplant architecture. All the engines share the same bore centres, and most are designed around a common 500cc displacement cylinder, giving the Cooper 1.5 litres of swept capacity and, with the help of a turbocharger, a sprightly 134 bhp. The basic Mini One gets a scaled-down 1.2-litre version of the same engine, and the Cooper S sticks with a turbocharged four, albeit not the 1.6-litre unit of the outgoing Mini, but the new 2.0-litre engine that we've already seen in the 20i, 25i and 28i versions of the BMW 1-, 3- and 5-series. Covers - speed, interior, suspension, ride, performance, electric power steering, six-speed torque-converter automatic transmission, weight. See Doc.145950 (Evo, Apr 2014, pp24-26.)



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CONSTRUCTION VEHICLES

CHINESE CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS‘ COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT WITH DRIVELINE SUPPLIERS Liugong Content: Global CE Overview Chinese CE Manufacturers’ Market and Product Strategy LiuGong’s Focus and Targets Cooperation between Liugong and ZF Present and Future Driveline Technology Development Demand - Machine request on driveline technology: energy saving, comfortable, reliable, low use cost and low service cost - For energy saving: good matching with engine, hydraulic and brake system, etc, for effective response; distributing and using the engine power efficiently. - For comfort: focus on starting, stopping and shifting performance; shifting convenience, vibration and noise. - High reliability: low use cost and low service cost to improve customers' satisfaction. Present driveline technology needs to focus on: - Low speed driveline technology - Powertrain matching technology - Driveline control technology Future development needs to focus on: - CVT - Hybrid - Large driveline technology on above 10T wheel loader. See vCD 216 4p_Guang an.pdf (VDI Congress - Drivetrain for Vehicles 2014, Friedrichshafen, Jun 2014, 34pp.)



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ELECTRIC VEHICLES

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE SYSTEM FOR CITY COMMUTER VEHICLE Toyota Recently, automakers have launched various types of electric vehicles (EVs) to help reduce global CO2 emissions and reduce dependency on fossil fuel energy. Because the lithium ion batteries that are currently under development are restricted by energy density, the physical size and mass of the battery must be significantly increased to extend the cruising range of the EV. Furthermore, dedicated charging infrastructure is required to charge the battery in a short time. At SAE in 2012, Toyota Motor Corporation proposed a concept that described the EV as suitable mainly for short distance transportation now and in the near future. Later in the same year, Toyota launched a new EV that embodies this concept in the American and Japanese markets. This new EV is light-weight and has a compact body size, and its battery capacity is designed to sufficiently cover distances travelled in daily life. Charging is assumed to take place mainly at home. To maximize the performance of the lithium ion battery, the condition of each battery cell is directly monitored on a constant basis, and each cell is reliably protected. Moreover, the key controls as well as the on-board charger and other main components (such as the motor and inverter) are based on advanced technology developed for hybrid vehicles (HVs). As a result, a highly reliable system was developed with an extremely high level of electricity consumption efficiency. This paper describes this EV system that has been developed for use in urban areas. See SAE 2013-01-1447 (2013, 6pp.) DELIVER - AN INNOVATIVE VEHICLE CONCEPT FOR INCREASED ENERGY AND TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY RWTH Aachen University DELIVER aims to develop an Electric Light Commercial Vehicle (ELCV) with a significant increase of energy efficiency compared to conventional vehicles in the market. The possibility to integrate electric motors into the wheel opens up new freedom in design. DELIVER is to produce and physically showcase design research results that allow for full exploitation of this new freedom. To achieve this key objective, the project develops a design concept for ELCVs with in-wheel motors, which enables at least the same high level of intrinsic safety as known from current conventional vehicles at minimal weight, maximised energy efficiency and optimised ergonomics and loading space. The program culminates in a driving concept validation vehicle. The DELIVER approach includes different steps: the basis for the study is set in a market and technology forecast to understand future demands and limitations. According to this the requirements for LCVs are specified. The second step comprises the concept definition and exploration. Several base concepts are defined and investigated. The most promising concept is picked by the team and developed further detailed to a stage that allows for prototyping. In parallel the virtual concept is assessed continuously to support the design phase. The assessment and validation of the physical demonstrator vehicle completes the investigations. The work resulted in a futuristic ELCV concept that is purposely designed from scratch. Covers - ergonomics, energy efficiency. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-004.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) VOLKSWAGEN E-GOLF Volkswagen The seventh-generation Golf was conceived from the outset to accept a range of alternative powertrains, from compressed natural gas to plug-in hybrids, battery electric and hydrogen fuel cell. The vehicle architecture it was designed around - the MQB - had to ensure that every one of these variants could be built on the same line as any other Golf. Covers - range, 24.2 kWh air-cooled battery, Li-ion batteries, power electronics, price, performance, acceleration, driver-selectable regenerative braking control. See Doc.145977 (Automotive Engineer, Jun 2014, pp16-17 & 19.)



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ELVA PROJECT – INNOVATIVE APPROACHES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE DESIGN Applus+ IDIADA and Institute for Automotive Engineering (IKA) The main objective of the ELVA project was to explore the new broad possibilities that the use of electric powertrain provide to the designers, delivering new and innovative electric vehicle architectures that are not an adaptation from another vehicle while at the same time providing best practices and evidence based design guidelines. To achieve this, the researchers would consider the design to be presented in the year 2020, hence adding some technological developments that today might not yet be available. The project was developed by following a series of sequential steps for design, which included customer surveys and technological overviews. The design of the three vehicles was obtained from an open contest, where designers were already able to exploit the new design freedoms. The next step was to bring these designs into the development phase, where several development loops were made in order to achieve the desired results according to all the restraints applied, were they from size, weight, availability of the technology or even brand requirements. This work was carried out interactively by the OEMs leading each concept and the support partners, experts in each of the three great subgroups created: Powertrain, Body and Chassis. All the work was documented and presented as guidelines for future designers. The results of the project are three very interesting electric vehicle concepts that were designed from the ground up, but applying different design rules and constraints from those of regular vehicles. The new vehicles provide important inputs for design. All the experience obtained was documented and presented as a set of guidelines for future designers. The results were also used to create a Design Support Tool, which aims at guiding designers and engineers with the experience obtained. The limitations for this project were basically time and budget. All the work had to be completed in less than 3 years, and the budget limited the number of design loops and the size of the prototypes that were made. Apart from that, the study would have only limits in the available or expected technologies for the year 2020. From this, the rest of the project was open to look for innovative and creative EV architectures. The paper includes the design of three completely new electric vehicle architectures that were designed considering customer and market needs for 2020, technological advancements and different freedoms in design that are provided by the use of electric powertrain, while also delivering useful best practices and guidelines for consulting. The project designs were able to show the benefits of designing electric vehicles without adapting from another vehicle, while at the same time uncovering issues that need to be addressed from the beginning of the project to avoid unnecessary work and expense. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-032.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.)



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HYBRID VEHICLES

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCHAEFFLER HYBRID MODULE Schaeffler Hybrid vehicles permitting one to two kilometres driving using electric power – so called full hybrids – are primarily found in upscale vehicle segments at present. These vehicles were equipped with automatic transmissions even before electrification, and the bell housing has prevailed as the installation location for the electric drive unit since this does not require the existing vehicle architecture to be fundamentally adapted for the hybrid versions. A module consisting of an automated disconnect clutch and an electric motor is incorporated between the internal combustion engine and the transmission. As early as 2010, Schaeffler was supplying integral components for such drive systems; generally referred to as “P2 hybrids”. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate what stage of development Schaeffler has attained to date. The next step planned is to make use of the high fidelity control of an electric motor incorporated in the powertrain in order to cancel out undesired torsional vibrations from the internal combustion engine. Finally, we will show that the chosen hybrid module design is also suitable for use with a 48-volt on-board electric system in combination with a manual transmission. Covers – active vibration damping, 48-volt hybrid model, combination with a manual transmission, 48-volt PSM electric motor, operation strategy with a manual transmission. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_29_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 7pp.)



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RACE CARS

AUDI R18 E-TRON QUATTRO: THE CASE FOR THE DEFENCE Audi Audi entered the 2014 WEC campaign on the back of a period of dominance, but this year brings both new rules and competitors. Surprisingly, the team has chosen not to go aggressively after more pace and power, but has kept to its formula of a single Energy Recovery System allied to a turbo diesel engine. Describes the Audi R18 e-tron Le Mans race car covering 4.0-litre V6 turbodiesel direct injection engine, fuel flow rate, energy recovery system, electric flywheel, suspension, brakes, aerodynamics, weight, safety. See Doc.145975 (Race Tech, Jun 2014, pp42-44, 46, 48 & 50-51.) NISSAN ZEOD RC Nissan The first all-electric lap of Le Mans is the ambitious objective of a project Nissan hopes will help propel it to eventual victory with an LMP1 car. The ZEOD could be described as a range extended electric vehicle, although the relative energy capacities of its 143 MJ batteries and 50-litre fuel tank mean the opposite is perhaps true. Nissan is aiming to run the first 11 or 12 laps of each stint on internal combustion power, before switching manually to EV mode. If the ZEOD is a success the electrical side of the project alone will be a significant milestone, but in fact the rest of the car - and in particular the combustion engine - breaks a lot of new ground too. All up, it weighs around 700 kg. That's light by any EV standards, but when you consider that the 120 kg battery pack accounts for virtually all of the weight gain over the 570 kg DeltaWing, it really throws things into perspective. Also onboard are two electric motors, controllers for each, battery management electronics, additional drivetrain components and a significantly more complex cooling system, for starters. The 1.5-litre turbocharged three-cylinder DIG-T R engine weighs only 40 kg; measuring just 500mm tall x 400mm long x 200mm wide, it's also comfortably small enough to fit into the cabin luggage allowance of most major airlines. Even with its exhaust system and the single turbocharger in place, the engine weighs a mere 46 kg. Covers - weight reduction, driver-controlled DRS system, charging through regenerative braking, "bizarre" starting procedure, cooling system. See Doc.145976 (Race Tech, Jul 2014, pp28-30, 32 & 34.)



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RANGE EXTENDERS

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A RANGE EXTENDER ELECTRIC VEHICLE DEMONSTRATOR Mahle Powertrain This paper, which is the fourth of a series, presents the REEV demonstrator vehicle developed by Mahle Powertrain, which features a specifically designed range extender unit. The previous papers describe the specification setting, detailed design and the development of the range extender engine. A current production gasoline fuelled compact-class car was used as a donor vehicle and converted into a range-extended electric vehicle (REEV). The all-electric driveline specification has been developed to meet the performance criteria set for the demonstrator, matching the acceleration and maximum speed capabilities of the conventional donor vehicle. Also, a target electric only range has enabled the battery pack capacity to be specified. The resulting vehicle is intended to reflect likely, near to market, steps to further the wider adoption of electric vehicles in the compact-class passenger car segment. This paper presents details of the REEV vehicle developed and the Range Extender system integration. Additionally, the operating strategy for the engine is described and results showing the measured fuel efficiency of the vehicle are presented. See SAE 2013-01-1469 (2013, 8pp.) ELECTRIC DRIVING WITHOUT RANGE ANXIETY: SCHAEFFLER´S RANGE-EXTENDER TRANSMISSION Schaeffler Schaeffler’s range-extender concept is based on adding a special transmission to an existing internal combustion engine to produce a full hybrid. A simple automatic spur gear transmission and an electric motor are used instead of a conventional automatic or double clutch transmission. The typical range of driving conditions for an electric vehicle can be completely covered at low system costs. A powertrain architecture with a direct mechanical linkage of the internal combustion engine improves the efficiency balance of a vehicle over long distances. In addition, Schaeffler’s range-extender transmission allows automobile manufacturers to implement a modular drive strategy without carrying out fundamental changes to the vehicle architecture. Covers – operating conditions, generator mode, vehicle launch and reverse driving, hybrid city driving, hybrid drive at moderate speeds, accelerating to high speeds, driving at high speed, operating strategy, simulation. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_28_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 7pp.)



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AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES

ENHANCING MOBILITY USING INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES AND HIGHLY FLEXIBLE AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES DFKI GmbH The combination of automobiles and typical robotic technologies such as high computational power, advanced exteroceptive sensors, and complex control algorithms can lead to a new kind of mobility. Features like extended manoeuvrability, autonomous driving systems, and new safety features become imaginable. To create the best combination of both fields, a new design philosophy is required. At DFKI, we have developed two generations of innovative concept cars (EO smart connecting car 1 and 2) with the intention to build the bridge between robotics and cars. The development of key parts like suspension, drivetrain, electrical steering, and braking system is more interconnected than in conventional vehicles. In this paper, we describe the development process of EO smart connecting car 2 - a highly innovative and fully functional robotic electric vehicle XE "electric vehicle" with double Ackermann steering, the ability to turn on the spot, go sideways, drive diagonally, change ride height, and shrink by adjusting the position of its rear axle and tilting the cabin as well as docking at charging stations and extension modules. Detailed information of the utilisation of Rapid Control Prototyping, and optimisation strategies will be given as well as the design constraints for these technologies. Finally, the conclusion section will cover problems and challenges that had to be overcome and future work that will follow. Covers - Artificial Intelligence, Drive-by-Wire, Hardware in the Loop, Software in the Loop, real-time control. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp49-58 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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ARTICLES BY ENGINEERING FEATURE

AERODYNAMICS MAKING THE BEST OUT OF AERODYNAMICS: PLATOONS Applus IDIADA In a near future, platooning could become one of the most accessible strategies to help reduce the consumption of fuel and the emissions of toxic gases in the atmosphere, while also adding safety to the users and generating a better traffic flow. Nowadays, the auto industry and the governments are facing enormous challenges to reduce the amount of pollution in the atmosphere, to decrease the dependency on fossil fuels to generate energy and to increase safety on the highways. Several approaches are made, such as bio-fuels, hybrid and electric vehicles, engine downsizing and new modes of transportation that are more versatile and environmentally friendly. The down side is that most of this efforts are costly and require time and expense to be put to work. Platooning is an alternative option to minimize the impact to the environment profiting from the aerodynamic effects that occur naturally around a moving vehicle. The technology is available and can become production ready by the year 2020. This has been evidenced by the project SARTRE (Safe Road Trains for the Environment), from the 7th European Framework Program. SARTRE is a collaborative project of 7 companies from 4 different countries that set out to develop a platooning system using off the shelf technology and requiring no modification to the road infrastructure. To validate the previously mentioned benefits and to promote the adoption of this technology, the project partners developed a fully functional platoon prototype of 5 vehicles (2 trucks, 3 cars) and assessed its performance. Applus+ IDIADA, formerly the Instituto de Investigacion Aplicada del Automovil (Applied Automotive Research Institute) was the partner in charge of performing the fuel consumption evaluation and the system validation. For the fuel consumption evaluation, two approaches were considered. First, an aerodynamic simulation to know the approximate reduction in aerodynamic coefficients and forces and then a set of track tests to evaluate the real fuel consumption and to validate the virtual data. The outcome was a reduction in the fuel consumption for all the vehicles. To complement the results, some workshops were carried out with the relevant stakeholders, in order to obtain a set of proposals and requirements in technology state of the art and legislation changes required to adopt platooning on tomorrow's roads. See SAE 2013-01-0767 (2013, 6pp.) COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS COMPARING AERODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE OF SIMPLIFIED SEDAN, WAGON AND SUV AUTOMOBILE CONFIGURATIONS Macquarie University and University of New South Wales Aerodynamic drag is a significant factor in the fuel efficiency of automobiles and alternative configurations, such as; sedans, wagons, and Sport Utility Vehicles (SUV) for example, are all expected to have significantly different aerodynamic characteristics. This study utilises a Detached-Eddy Simulation to model the wake structure of the three previously mentioned vehicle configurations. The results indicate that an SUV and wagon can have approximately 30% and 15% more drag respectively than that of a comparable sedan and that the increase in drag can be attributed to the separation point from the roof of the vehicle due to the rear windscreen geometry. This has a significant impact on the formation of the C-pillar vortices and consequently the downwash and unsteadiness experienced in the wake of the vehicles. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-039.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) FLOW AROUND ROTATING WHEELS AND ITS INTERACTION WITH VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS – CFD VS WIND TUNNEL TESTS Lodz University of Technology and PSA Peugeot Citroen In terms of fuel consumption, the car performance can be understood as one of the qualities attained by a vehicle: extending the maximum distance driven, increasing the maximum travel



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velocity, decreasing fuel consumption and reducing the greenhouse gas emissions, all on an equal amount of gasoline as compared to the baseline performance measure. One of the ways to achieve the above can be through a reduction of an automobile drag. Reducing aerodynamic drag, in turn, means a reduction of a drag coefficient parameter. This must be preceded by a thorough understanding of physical phenomena of air flow around the vehicle, including upper volume, underbody, accessories, vehicle's aerodynamic circuits (powertrain, brakes, ventilation), and wheels. In the presented study the investigation of the aerodynamic influence of the rotating wheels on the carbody has been considered as an important aspect of lowering vehicle’s aerodynamic drag. A simplified one quarter model of a real car was used for the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)-based wind tunnel tests performed by PSA Peugeot Citroen in Magny Cours, France, in order to investigate the role of wheels in overall vehicle drag. Alongside, CFD simulations of air flow using ANSYS CFX software were conducted to enable formulation of wider conclusions on how the shape of tyres influences the car drag. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-068.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 11pp.) DETACHED EDDY SIMULATION OF THE CORNERING AERODYNAMICS OF THE AHMED REFERENCE MODEL University of New South Wales and Macquarie University Modern vehicles are capable of travelling through tight corners at speeds where aerodynamic forces become significant. An investigation has been conducted to determine the effect of the cornering condition on the aerodynamics of a simple bluff-body. A comparison study of the Ahmed reference model travelling in a straight line and through a constant radius corner has been conducted. A commercial solver ANSYS Fluent 14.5 was utilised to perform Detached-Eddy simulations (DES) of both conditions. Simulations were validated against straight-line experimental data. The flow conditions through a corner were found to result in significant changes to the structure of the time-averaged near wake. The dominant longitudinal vortices were affected in size, strength and trajectory when compared to the straight line case. An increase in the drag coefficient was found to result for the body when cornering. Results demonstrate the inappropriateness of aerodynamic development purely in the straight line condition for vehicles regularly travelling in the cornering condition. Covers – CFD. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-012.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) IMPROVING HEAVY DUTY AERODYNAMICS VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Air drag has been acknowledged to have a significant importance in energy use of a heavy truck. However, the construction of the vehicles has not traditionally been very streamlined and has focused first and foremost on maximizing the available cargo space. Even though aerodynamics has been considered in the design of new tractors, the combination of a truck and a trailer does not fulfil the requirements of low aerodynamic drag. The heavy vehicles have not changed considerably, even if the effect of aerodynamics is common knowledge. Optimising the cargo space, limited measurement, availability and extra costs of spoilers and other aerodynamic components are reasons for this conservativeness. With its aerodynamic demonstration vehicle VTT implemented aerodynamically beneficial solutions to contemporary truck and trailer construction used in Finland and Sweden to demonstrate the potential of drag reduction on fuel consumption while operating mostly within the limits of current legislation for maximum dimensions of the vehicle combinations. Different configurations of advanced aerodynamic truck and trailer designs were initially studied with wind tunnel testing using scale models. The scale model testing doesn’t represent actual performance of a full scaled vehicle, but provides valuable information about the quantity of possible improvements. To demonstrate the actual effect of the add-on aerodynamic improvements, the full-size truck-trailer combination was tested on-road using coast-down methodology of VTT with road topology and wind speed corrections. The results of these coast-down measurements were used to determine the road load models for chassis dynamometer measurements. Finally the energy



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consumption of the demonstration vehicle with different add-on kits was measured on chassis dynamometer in laboratory environment. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-017.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) A NOVEL APPROACH OF AERODYNAMIC OPTIMIZATION ON LONG- DISTANCE TRANSPORTATION TRUCKS Graz University of Technology Today’s design of tractor-trailers is significantly influenced by legislative boundary conditions regarding the overall vehicle dimensions. This fact in combination with the target of high transportation efficiency leads to brick-shaped vehicle outer geometries. Thus, investigations of aerodynamic optimisation of commercial vehicle trailers are predominantly restricted to detail measures. This publication treats the aerodynamic optimisation by application of general modifications at the outer contour of tractor-trailers with the target of a drag resistance reduction and thus a potential reduction of fuel consumption. Main objective of this study was to increase the transportation efficiency of commercial vehicles within present legislative boundaries. The research work is based on a generic, virtual 3D-CAD semi-trailer truck, which represents the characteristics of market-typical vehicles and serves as a basis for several modifications. In an aerodynamics study all geometrical modifications at the virtual reference vehicle are investigated and assessed by 3D-computational fluid dynamics simulations (CFD). The fuel consumptions of the aerodynamic optimized tractor-trailer versions were calculated in longitudinal vehicle dynamics simulations. Considering the goal of conformity with actual legislative boundaries and the simultaneous objective to increase the transportation efficiency of the vehicle arrangement, a novel solution was designed, which enables an application of aerodynamic optimised shapes at existing trailer body structures. As a result of the present work, different aerodynamic optimisation measures are assessed and evaluated in comparison with a reference vehicle under consideration of the transportation volume. The research work demonstrates the big potential of aerodynamic optimisation by application of general measures at the trailer outer contour under compliance with legislative boundary conditions. To prevent losses of payload space, a new approach has been developed to support high transportation efficiency. This approach enables a reduction of aerodynamic drag and the provision of required transportation volume at the same time by implementation of a variable outer shape of the trailer rear end. Considering the large number of journeys with reduced or without payload, this leads to the cognition, that the overall transportation efficiency can be increased significantly by application of a variable trailer body. Covers - CO2 emissions. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-025.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.)



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COSTS

A FINANCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF DIESEL-HYDRAULIC HYBRID-DRIVE SYSTEM IN URBAN WASTE COLLECTION Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro This paper discusses the efficiency and feasibility of diesel-hydraulic hybrid-drive technology applied to urban waste collection trucks, regarding a financial and environmental focus. The analysis is based on uniform monthly costs cash flow of the diesel-hydraulic hybrid-drive system implementation, considering its elements, such as equipment and maintenance cost, and also taking under consideration the range of efficiency identified on the literature review and endorsed data collect in a field test. It was found that for the efficiencies of 15% and 25%, the implementation of the suggested technology are favourable for waste collection trucks with 2 and 3 axes, from 6 to 19 m³ capacity, which are found in the Municipal Urban Cleaning Company (COMLURB) fleet of 223 vehicles. Better figures leads to 120190 litres of diesel saved each month which means US$ 123796.29 and 330.66 t of CO2. If high carbon benefit price of U$ 5500/t is introduced the improvement in monetary economy reaches 14.26% (US$ 17656.60). These benefits are better distributed by vehicle type than by fleet size and 80.56% of then are related to the fleet of 15-19 m³ capacity waste collection as far as they represent 79.37% of the entire fleet. See Doc.145936 (Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Aug 2014, Vol. 31, pp100-109.) REVIEW OF ELECTRIC BUS ENERGY SUPPLYING MODES AND TYPICAL CASE COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF IN CHINA Tsinghua University and China Automotive Energy Research Centre (CAERC) China has attached much importance to the public transportation electrification, and invested much into electric vehicle technologies R&D. The mass penetration of pure electric bus faced many barriers in the world due to high traction capacity installed. A lot of operating strategies of electric bus were adopted in China demonstration cities, such as normal charging with higher battery installed capacity to extend All Electric Range (AER), fast charging with lower AER, battery swapping with medium battery capacity. Targeting to evaluating the effectiveness the different strategies and cost-benefit from life cycle view, the analysis models of Hefei city were proposed. Based on the condition of Hefei city and real time data of all-electric vehicle technologies in China, the economic-technology of all electric bus under different scenarios was evaluated. The trade-off battery capacity installed values are obtained and the potential of the Hefei battery leasing mode is evaluated. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-091.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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EMISSIONS

FILTRATION AND SEPARATION FOR ZERO-EMISSION VEHICLES Mann+Hummel Vehicle powertrain technologies for transportation will see a dramatic change in the future. To limit climate change, Zero Emission Vehicles will be necessary to lower Greenhouse gas emissions like CO2. To become independent from limited fossil fuels, alternative fuels like hydrogen will play an important role especially for interurban and long-distance travelling. These cars will run on Low-Temperature PEM fuel cells. To improve their durability, they have to be protected from contamination. Recent examples are the Cathode Air Filter and the Ion Exchange Filter. Cathode Air Filters separate particles and noxious gases that would poison the fuel cell catalyst from cathode air. Ion Exchange Filters are designed to keep conductivity of fuel cell cooling liquid low to avoid shorts. The presentation gives information about megatrends and upcoming alternative powertrain technologies, the function of fuel cells, and how to protect them from contamination. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-094.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 5pp.) IMPACT OF FAME ON THE PERFORMANCE OF THREE EURO 4 LIGHT-DUTY DIESEL VEHICLES PART 1: FUEL CONSUMPTION AND REGULATED EMISSIONS CONCAWE and Aristotle University of Thessaloniki By 2020, EU legislation will require that 10% of the total transport fuel energy demand is met by the use of renewable energy, primarily by blending bio-components. Although many types of blending components for diesel fuels are being considered to achieve this requirement, Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) are the most likely to be used in significant volumes over the coming decade. FAME products have been used in Europe for many years, both as blends and as neat fuels, in certain niche markets. One unanswered question concerning FAME/diesel fuel blends is the effect of FAME on fuel consumption. Since FAME has a slightly lower energy content compared to hydrocarbon-only fuels, a higher volumetric fuel consumption is expected unless the vehicle is able to compensate in some way for the energy loss associated with the bio-component in diesel fuel. To answer this question, Concawe completed a vehicle study in which four diesel fuel blends with FAME (as Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME)) were tested in three Euro 4 light-duty passenger cars, each equipped with different after-treatment technologies. The FAME contents of these fuels varied from 0% to 50% v/v in order to accentuate the effect of FAME on the energy content of the blended diesel fuels. The programme was statistically designed to give a robust and repeatable testing schedule so that fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions data could be reliably collected over regulatory and transient driving cycles. The vehicle study was conducted for Concawe by the Laboratory for Applied Thermodynamics of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Fuel consumption data for all three vehicles over all driving cycles show that the volumetric fuel consumption increases in direct proportion with increasing FAME content and the decreasing volumetric lower heating value (energy content) of the FAME/diesel fuel blends. There was no detectable change in the energy efficiency of the vehicles on different fuel blends and they were not able to compensate for the lower energy content of the FAME/diesel blends through improved performance. Increasing the FAME content also reduced the PM but increased the NOx, HC, and CO emissions. The overall impact of FAME on tailpipe emissions was small when compared to the variations in emissions seen for different driving cycles and for different vehicles over the same driving cycle. No significant difference in emissions performance was observed for the two types of Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) aftertreatment systems that were tested in these vehicles. It is expected that these results will be of importance to those interested in the impact of FAME in diesel fuel on Well-to-Wheels fuel consumption and on tailpipe emissions from modern light-duty passenger cars. See Electronic Document 7015 (Brussels, Belgium; CONCAWE, May 2014, Report No. 6/14, 97pp, 29 refs.)



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IMPACT OF FAME ON THE PERFORMANCE OF THREE EURO 4 LIGHT-DUTY DIESEL VEHICLES PART 2: UNREGULATED EMISSIONS CONCAWE and Aristotle University of Thessaloniki In 2009, EU legislation mandated that 10% renewable energy must be used in road transportation by 2020, primarily through the use of bio-blending components. For diesel fuel blending, Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAMEs) manufactured from different natural oils are the most likely to be used in significant volumes over this time period. FAME products have been used in Europe for many years, both as blends and as neat fuels in some niche markets. Concawe has completed a vehicle study in which one hydrocarbon-only diesel fuel and three blends of this fuel with FAME (from a single batch of Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME)) were tested in three Euro 4 light-duty passenger cars. All vehicles used exhaust gas recirculation and were equipped with some type of diesel oxidation catalyst. One vehicle did not have a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) while the other two vehicles were equipped with DPFs that were regenerated using two different approaches. The FAME contents of the test fuels varied from 0% to 50% v/v in order to accentuate the effect of RME on the energy content of the blended fuels and on the emissions from the vehicles. The study was statistically designed and completed using a robust and repeatable testing schedule during which fuel consumption and emissions data were collected over different regulatory and transient driving cycles. These cycles included the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), the ARTEMIS cycle, and two constant speed conditions. The effect of RME on fuel consumption was reviewed in Part 1 of this study. In addition to the gaseous tailpipe emissions, particulate matter (PM) and particle number (PN) emissions were measured using the Particle Measurement Programme (PMP) regulatory procedure. Total PM, total PN, and solid PN emissions were measured as a function of RME content. In addition, the PM samples were chemically analyzed for their soluble organic fraction, the fuel and lube contributions to this organic fraction, ionic species (nitrates and sulphates), and elemental carbon (by difference). Several carbonyl compounds were also collected from the tailpipe exhaust and characterised. See Electronic Document 7014 (Brussels, Belgium; CONCAWE, May 2014, Report No. 7/14, 56pp, 39 refs.) ENGINE, TRANSMISSION AND DAMPER SYSTEMS FOR DOWNSPEEDING, DOWNSIZING, AND CYLINDER DEACTIVATION Schaeffler Besides hybridizing the powertrain, which is especially advantageous in city traffic, efforts must be made to improve the efficiency of conventional powertrains in order to reduce traffic-based CO2 emissions. This will first require measures to directly reduce friction losses in internal combustion engines, transmissions, and chassis systems, such as the use of friction-optimised bearing supports and seals as well as coatings to lower the friction coefficient. Furthermore, slippage losses in startup elements need to be reduced. Hydrodynamic torque converters with lock-up clutches are a notable example of this, as they can be engaged even at very low engine speeds by means of optimised damper systems. Double clutch systems with reduced passive clutch drag torque losses of wet or – even better – dry running design are important contributions as well. The aim of this paper is also to report on improvements to the system as a whole, in which changes on the transmission side lead to an efficiency increase in the internal combustion engine. Examples of this include transmissions with an increased spread of gear ratios, resulting in lower engine speeds even at higher travel speeds. Optimised damper systems serve to further reduce and/or insulate torsional vibration excitation introduced into the entire powertrain by cyclical combustion in the engine and facilitate downspeeding of drive systems in order to reduce fuel consumption. At the same time, advanced damper systems permit the design of downsizing systems that reduce engine friction with a lower number of cylinders and substantially increased torsional vibration excitation without having strong NVH issues in the entire powertrain. Finally, a rolling cylinder deactivation system is introduced that enables engines with three cylinders to run effectively on 1.5 cylinders (“RCD 1.5”). The measures taken on the engine and transmission system side to prevent



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excessive torsional vibrations along the entire powertrain are described in detail. Covers - planetary automatic transmissions, CVT, hydrodynamic torque converters, double clutch systems and their actuators, new electrically operated hydrostatic clutch actuator (HCA), centrifugal pendulum-type absorber. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_02_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 9pp.) EVALUATION OF THE CONSTANT VOLUME SAMPLER ON PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE COLD START EMISSION TESTING University of California, Irvine Previous study shows that the constant volume sampler incorrectly measures some of the exhaust gas when testing a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle in the cold start condition when comparing the CO2 results from constant volume sampler and fuel flow meter. The main reason is likely associated with the exhaust left in the vehicle tailpipe and constant volume sampler sampling line. Other factors, such as fuel line expansion and water condensation in the exhaust system, are also considered to have contributions. This article evaluates these issues quantitatively by testing a Toyota Prius hybrid electric vehicle on the industry standard constant volume sampler system combined with both a fuel flow meter measurement and an electronic control unit record for fuel consumption. Cold start test cycles and test cycles with a system pre-purge event show that the constant volume sampler has a significant delay in measuring the exhaust, and the estimated exhaust losses for the test car are 15g CO2. Tests with a purge event at the end of the driving cycle show that there are approximately 7g of CO2 trapped in the exhaust system and the constant volume sampler sampling line, and the possible reasons for the discrepancy of the above two points (15 and 7g) are evaluated. The expansion and air bubble influence the fuel flow meter, and the impact of water condensation on CO2 and CO appears to be negligible. See Doc.145966 (International Journal of Engine Research, Sep 2014, pp706-718.) SULEV EMISSIONS FOR PC DIESEL? – AN INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR LOWEST EMISSIONS AVL List and University of Technology, Graz Due to the inherent high efficiency, the Diesel engine plays an important role in the European market. In specific segments, the diesel sales volumes are also increasing in the US market; combining fun to drive and excellent torque with highest efficiency. In order to stay in the market on a long term basis, solutions for SULEV emission achievement have to be developed while at the same time focusing on attractive fuel consumption. In this paper, different aftertreatment systems are evaluated with respect to their capability to achieve the envisaged emission targets and respective efforts needed to assure acceptable warm-up characteristics. Starting up with short term solutions focusing on ULEV50 emission target we also compared two different aftertreatment concepts for SULEV fulfilment. With an eye towards best possible fuel efficiency, operating strategies are also varied in addition to the hardware specification. In the end the chosen system including combustion concept, air- and EGR system and aftertreatment was set up on the test bed. A proper raw emission level combined with a sophisticated operating strategy for the aftertreatment system was calibrated in order to optimise lowest tailpipe emissions with excellent fuel consumption. Besides super low emission performance, such a complex system is also challenging from monitoring perspective. To address this issue, relevant requirements are evaluated in view of the chosen system. Finally the findings of this concept study are summarised and an outlook on the next necessary steps will be given. Covers - Urea SCR, oxidation catalyst (DOC), Diesel particulate filter, electrically heated catalyst (ECAT), effects of catalyst aging, On-Board Diagnostics (OBD). See vCD 222 02_Weissbaeck_AVL.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, 9pp.)



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FAULTS

STEERING-BASED FAULT-TOLERANT CONTROL FOR THE BRAKING FAILURES OF AN INDEPENDENT DRIVING ELECTRIC VEHICLE Chongqing University and City University of Hong Kong This paper focuses on the safety and stability of a four-wheel independent driving electric vehicle under various braking failure conditions. The power of this four-wheel independent driving electric vehicle is generated from four in-wheel motors using by-wire technology. A dynamic coupling vehicle model with the function of four-wheel driving and four-wheel steering, which includes a flexible suspension system, is established. Subsequently, by combining the change in the non-linear tyre forces at each corner, a quantitative analysis of the transient dynamic behaviours is conducted for different braking failure cases. The control authorities for front steering and rear steering are presented for the special electric vehicle model. Based on functional redundancy of corrective yaw moment generation, three steering control strategies are proposed for fault tolerance in braking failure cases, which include control of the front steering, control of the rear steering and control of the integrated front and rear steering. The controllers of the steering system are designed on the basis of the integral sliding-mode method and a simplified reference model with four-wheel steering. Finally, the effect of the steering control strategies for different braking failure cases are compared with numerical simulations. The result suggests that braking failure could be effectively controlled by using the functional redundancy of the steering system. However, not all steering corrective techniques are available; some even cause performance deterioration for the special condition, and an appropriate control strategy is recommended for different failure cases. See Doc.145907 (IMechE Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Aug 2014, Vol. 228, No. 9, pp1017-1033, 28 refs.)



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FUEL ECONOMY FUEL ECONOMY ANALYSIS OF CONVENTIONAL AND HYBRID HEAVY VEHICLE COMBINATIONS OVER REAL-WORLD OPERATING ROUTES Aalto University This research evaluates the fuel economy of conventional and hybrid heavy vehicle combinations. The evaluation takes into account four heavy vehicle combinations with different total weights and three parallel hybrid configurations, which were developed for the tractor powertrain. The simulation models of conventional diesel powered and parallel hybrid vehicle combinations were developed in the Autonomie vehicle simulation software. Simulations were carried out in real-world operating routes that had been measured from popular truck routes in southern Finland. According to the simulations results, for one ton of additional weight to the total weight of the vehicle combination, the fuel consumption increases by 0.65–0.95 l/100 km depending on the operating route. The payload specific fuel consumption decreases on average 17% when total combination weight increases from 40 t to 60 t. The decrease is 23% when going from 40 t to 76 t and 28% when going from 40 t to 90 t. According to the simulation results, the fuel economy of a heavy vehicle combination can be improved by up to 6% by hybridization. The simulation results also indicate that the hybridisation is more beneficial in operating routes which have more hill climbing. See Doc.145936 (Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Aug 2014, Vol. 31, pp70–84, 45 refs.) SERIES HYBRID POWERTRAIN SIMULATION AND HARDWARE-IN-THE-LOOP APPLICATION FOR A LIGHT-DUTY NONTACTICAL VEHICLE Wayne State University and Chrysler This paper investigates the potential improvement in the fuel economy of a prototype-built nontactical series hybrid cargo van. A baseline conventional vehicle is first modelled and validated. The current series hybrid van equipped with a lead–acid battery pack and an ac induction traction motor is then modelled and simulated in two driving cycles. A vehicle equipped with a nickel-metal hydride battery pack and a vehicle with a lithium-ion battery pack, together with an optimal hybrid powertrain control strategy, are simulated for further improvement in the fuel economy. The simulation results indicate improvements in the fuel economy of 39.6% and 43.6% for the vehicle with a nickel-metal hydride battery pack and the vehicle with a lithium-ion battery pack respectively. A hardware-in-the-loop application for motor-in-the-loop testing is also conducted to evaluate a permanent-magnet traction motor which is designed to replace the current induction motor. This study provides a design guideline and battery pack sizing for series hybrid powertrains in light-duty nontactical vehicles. See Doc.145912 (IMechE Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Aug 2014, Vol. 228, No. 9, pp1003-1016, 29 refs.) EFFECTS OF DRIVER ACCELERATION BEHAVIOR ON FUEL CONSUMPTION OF CITY BUSES Tianjin University Approximately 50% energy is consumed during the acceleration of a city bus. Fuel consumption during acceleration is significantly affected by driving behaviour. In this study, 13 characteristic parameters were selected to describe driving style based on analysis of how driving influences fuel consumption during acceleration. The 100000 km real-world vehicle running data of six drivers on three city buses in a particular bus line in Tianjin, China were sampled using a vehicle-on-line data logger. Based on the selected characteristic parameters and collected driving data, an evaluation model of the fuel consumption level of a driver was established by adopting the method of decision tree C4.5. For two-level classification, the model has over 85% prediction accuracy. The model also has the advantages of having a few training samples and strong generalisation. As an example of the model application, the fuel-saving potential of a driver under optimal operations was analysed. Thus, the model can be used to train and evaluate drivers employed by bus companies. See SAE 2014-01-0389 (2014, 7pp.)



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MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMAL DESIGN OF PARALLEL PLUG-IN HYBRID POWERTRAIN CONFIGURATIONS WITH RESPECT TO FUEL CONSUMPTION AND DRIVING PERFORMANCE IAV and University of Rostock In the past decade, various Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles have been demonstrated which offer the potential of a significant reduction in fuel consumption and emission. However, this capability strongly depends on the sizing of the components, driver's usage profile and the quality of the energy management. These challenges require new optimisation procedures for a systematical exploration of the design space with the objective of an optimal powertrain configuration. A novel optimisation strategy based on a multi-objective problem formulation is proposed. The optimisation procedure consists of a multi-objective genetic algorithm for determining the best design parameters with respect to fuel consumption and driving performance. The approach is combined with an analytical optimal control problem to find the optimal continuous and discrete control trajectories for the energy management. See SAE 2014-01-1158 (2014, 17pp, 27 refs.) EFFORTS TO ESTABLISH MALAYSIAN URBAN DRIVE-CYCLE FOR FUEL ECONOMY ANALYSIS Proton, Imperial College London and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Emissions from motor vehicles are known to be the major contributor of air pollution. Pollutants that are commonly concerned and regulated for petrol engines are Hydrocarbons, Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides and Particulate Matter. One of the most important factor that vary these pollutants is the engine operating condition such as cold start, low engine loads and high engine loads which are found during actual driving. In actual driving conditions, particularly in urban areas, vehicles regularly travel at idle, low or medium speeds which signify the engine part load operations. Thus urban driving carries a crucial weight on the overall vehicle fuel economy. Understanding the implications of urban driving conditions on fuel economy will allow for strategic application of key technologies such as cylinder deactivation in the efforts towards better efficiency. This paper presents the measurement and analysis of engine condition during Malaysian actual urban driving in an attempt to formulate representable fuel consumption data. The measurements were conducted through multiple on-road urban driving with an instrumented 1.6-litre car. Data was collected using the “chase” technique. Driving conditions were recorded over different routes within the selected urban areas, with considerations on the level of population, density and traffic congestion. The on-road driving was performed to measure vehicle speed, engine speed, accelerator pedal traces, engine torque and fuel consumption. The fact that high traffic congestion in urban area dictates the vehicle movements and the engine running conditions were analysed by clustering the variables. The analyses show that idling and cyclic speed ranging up to 25 km/h were the most frequent conditions captured in the Malaysian urban driving. Using the cluster analysis, 10 important conditions were identified in developing a framework for the Malaysian actual urban driving conditions, towards representable fuel economy analysis. See SAE 2014-01-1159 (2014, 14pp.) MODEL FOR THE VEHICLE RESISTANCE DEPLOYMENT GAC Engineering A mathematical model of the vehicle resistance has been developed to support the target setting of fuel economy and its deployment as well as to support the related problem solving activity. Having as input the coast-down test data of several weight states, the model can accurately break down the vehicle resistance. The resistance model has 3 components of the resistance and inside them it has 7 variation coefficients. Each component of resistance has its calculation model. By using each calculation model we can get the variation coefficients by solving differential equations having as boundary conditions the coast down test data of several weight states, so we get firstly the calculation model for every components resistance and then the vehicle resistance model. But there are still some limitations for this study now, coast-down test results deviation should not be too large, otherwise the solving result of variation coefficient of the model is not accurate.



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Therefore, we need to take care the condition of experiment, such as weather factors, test site effect, the vehicle state, is the same during all tests, Besides, at the time being, the model does not consider yet the influence of drive shaft layout angle variation in different weight states . The vehicle resistance model has proved to be accurate and relatively easy to manage, besides it requires only tests that are already normally done for fuel economy and related performance. In GAC has proved to be effective and now it is part of our development process. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-097.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) COUPLING STUDY OF FUEL CONSUMPTION AND LIGHTWEIGHT OBJECTIVE OF SUV CARS CITIC Metal Co, Chery Automotive Co, Society of Automotive Engineers of China (China Automotive Lightweight Alliance), East China University of Science and Technology and Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineracao (CBMM) Automotive lightweight is an important research subject for carmakers, however, there’s a question that how to define the objective of car mass and body mass in the early development stage of the new model? Several effect factors of fuel consumption of passenger cars are defined in this paper, and the fuels of passenger cars are consumed mainly by overcoming the resistances, internal frictions and heat loss of engines, and transmission loss. By the coupling study of fuel consumption and relational effect factors, an acceptable regression empirical equation was gained based on about 811 SUV sample data, and the integrated fuel consumption per hundred kilometres could be expressed by the sum of 3 power functions of kerb mass, vehicle dimensions and power per litre. In order to reach the lightweight objectives, the realization methods of reducing mass were presented by application of Niobium (Nb)-containing high strength steel. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-038.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) OFFICE MEMORANDUM - CONSTITUTION OF STEERING COMMITTEE FOR MONITORING PROGRESS OF FUEL ECONOMY NORMS FOR HEAVY DUTY VEHICLES Government of India In view of the growing dependence of the country on import of crude oil and the fact that the highest consumption of diesel is by commercial vehicles, i.e. 26.75%, followed by 10.75% by buses/STUs, it has been felt imperative by the Government to define fuel economy norms for heavy-duty vehicles (trucks and buses) in India. In order to address the above issues, it has been decided that Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) and Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) will jointly formulate time bound action plan to develop fuel economy norms for heavy-duty vehicles in consultation with other stakeholders. See Electronic Document 7021 (New Delhi, India; Government of India - Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, 1 Jul 2014, No. P-45011/1/204-CC, 3pp.) INCREASED CONSUMPTION IN OVERSATURATED CITY TRAFFIC BASED ON EMPIRICAL VEHICLE DATA Daimler, IT-Designers GmbH and Universitat Duisburg Essen Congestion of urban roads causes extra travel time as well as additional fuel consumption. We present an approach to determine this additional fuel consumption on the basis of empirical vehicle data. We study probe vehicle data provided by TomTom to find the various traffic patterns of urban congestion. We use simulations of these urban traffic patterns based on a stochastic Kerner-Klenov model as input for an empirical fuel consumption matrix compiled from empirical CAN bus signals from vehicles. Our results confirm that in certain congested city traffic patterns vehicles consume more than twice as much fuel as in free city traffic. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp71-79 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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NORTH AMERICAN FUEL-EFFICIENT MOBILITY: US CAFE DEMONSTRATOR Schaeffler Global fuel economy standards are driving a push for energy-saving technology. At the same time, the consumer cannot afford large price increases for the vehicle. Therefore, high value technology is needed, especially in markets such as North America, where fuel prices are low. For example, a consumer who trades in a car meeting the 2020 CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) standard for a car which meets the 2025 standard, will only save $80 per year in fuel costs. The technology required to make that jump currently costs several thousand dollars, which means the consumer cannot recover his investment. Friction reduction offers a relatively high value in fuel saving but often raises the question: what is the best combination of friction reduction technologies? Against this background, Schaeffler set out to build a demonstration vehicle which would: - Demonstrate by measurement an effective combination of friction reduction technologies - Provide a platform to experience new technologies developed for the North American market - Improve and verify Schaeffler system simulation and calibration tools - Provide 5 years of progress against the US CAFE standard at < $ 40/% fuel saved This vehicle is based on the Ford Escape AWD, model year 2013, which utilises a 2.0-litre engine and 6-speed 6F35 automatic transmission. Covers - simulations, software, software development, SIL simulations, transmission-driven accessories, TDA mechanical architecture, battery and motor calculations. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_32_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 6pp.)



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FUELS

TRANSPORTATION AND FUELS: LOOKING AHEAD AT HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES Volvo Looking back on developments in heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) technology over the past 20-25 years, one could rightly describe them as a ‘total makeover’. The improvements are particularly obvious for exhaust emissions but also for fuel consumption, durability and safety, where progress has been substantial. Improvements in diesel fuel quality have also been an important enabler for making these steps in engine technology possible. The parallel development of engine technology and fuel quality will have to continue into the future, not only in Europe and other developed countries but also, and perhaps even more importantly, in the developing countries around the world. For commercial transportation activities in general — and for heavy duty vehicles in particular — fuel efficiency has always been a key criterion. Even before CO2 emissions became a global concern, customer demands and the competition between vehicle manufacturers have kept fuel consumption at lowest possible levels for each type of application. Therefore, and without any specific regulatory requirements, the HDV industry has been able to significantly lower average fuel consumption over the years. As already noted, it is important that market fuel quality goes hand in hand with the emissions regulatory steps. This link became mandatory when EATS were introduced by Euro IV. Thanks to the well-established EN590 standard and legal fuel requirements, EU diesel fuel quality is reasonably well under control today. The main quality items that still need to be worked on in CEN are related to: - Fuel stability (mainly FAME-related): for biodiesel blending components, HVO (hydrotreated vegetable oils) are preferred due to their good combustion and handling properties. - Cold flow performance and fuel filterability: today’s methods and limits are not enough to ensure good cold operability, and efforts are ongoing in CEN to establish better tests. - Injector deposits: modern common rail systems are more sensitive to internal diesel-injector deposits (often abbreviated to ‘IDID’). Covers - fuel economy labelling requirement. See Electronic Document 7017 (Concawe Review, Spring 2014, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp13-16.)



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HANDLING

TESTING EFFECT OF THE TYRE ON LATERAL HANDLING BEHAVIOR University of Oulu Purpose of the diploma thesis was to find out methods to analyse the effect of the different tyre variation on lateral handling. To gain repeatable results and increasing the quality of measurement objective methods was used. The tests and signal processing were done according to the standards: two closed loop tests constant radius (ISO 4138) and obstacle avoidance (ISO 3888-2) and one open loop test step steer (ISO 7401). The test vehicle was equipped with motion pack (DGPS, gyro and accelerometers), steering robot, combined brake and accelerator robot. The robots were programmed so that the test vehicle performed manoeuvres according to the test requirements. The test area was large dry tarmac track. Two sets of tyres with minor differences were used. For evaluating constant radius test self-steering gradient, vehicle sideslip angle gradient, and characteristic velocity parameters were established. For analysing obstacle avoidance vehicle’s axle position were calculated, quadratic cost of steering work and route deviation. The step steer response was evaluated by lateral acceleration and yaw velocity response times, over shoot value of yaw velocity and lateral acceleration, and steady-state yaw velocity response gain. Signals were filtered with 5 Hz low-pass Butterworth filter. Each measurement was repeated three times. The measured data was averaged or curve fitting tool was used. For each curve error limits were announced. Chosen methods were able to point out minor differences between tested tyres. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-077.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) SENSITIVITY STUDY OF “GRIP” RELATIVE TO SUSPENSION SPRING AND DAMPER CHARACTERISTICS Coventry University In search for improved handling performance, road vehicle manufacturers and racing teams favour the solution of a stiffer suspension setup for improved handling dynamics and minimising lap times. This is often at the expense of ride and tyre performance when vehicle body control is prioritised. However, what is the influence of the damper coefficient? Does it vary widely over a variety of spring stiffness? How does the suspension setup affect the mean friction coefficient (i.e. “grip”) available from the tyre? This paper will investigate such questions and consider the difference of the mean vertical loading compared to the static loading (i.e. “grip loss”). A two degree of freedom (2DOF) ride model in Excel has been constructed to simulate the bounce motion of the sprung and unsprung mass of a road vehicle including the tyre contact with the road. The road profiles analysed include a step-up and a step-down input functions. A sensitivity study has been performed concentrating on varying the natural frequency and critical damping of the system. On the basis of this sensitivity analysis, the response of a non-linear damping coefficient has been studied in order to obtain the optimal solution to maximize the tyre’s grip potential. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-105.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE

PREDICTIVE OPTIMIZATION OF THE OPERATING STRATEGY IN FUTURE VOLKSWAGEN VEHICLES Volkswagen and TU-Braunschweig This publication introduces a method for optimisation of plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) operating strategies. Due to its structure, the algorithm presented can be applied to various powertrain dimensions and concepts. Besides reducing CO2 emission it also increases the overall distance travelled using the electric drive, thereby increasing the driver’s electric driving experience. This is illustrated using simulation as well as real world measurement data. A special feature of the system currently being developed is its driver interface. During optimisation by the operating strategy it can assist the driver in adapting his driving behaviour, thus increasing potential for reduced CO2 emission and cost of operation. Covers - Human Machine Interaction (HMI). See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp133-142 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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LANE KEEPING AND CHANGING

REAL TIME OPTIMIZATION PATH PLANNING STRATEGY FOR AN AUTONOMOUS ELECTRIC VEHICLE WITH OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg This paper describes the general hierarchical concept of the real time autonomous driving and shows simulation results and also experiment results applied to the 4WD electric buggy vehicle. Based on a nonlinear single track model which describes the vehicle's driving dynamics, a path planning strategy is developed. A method for optimal control of nonlinear ODE is used to generate reference control values which are steering angle and driving forces that allow leading the vehicle alongside a calculated lane, which is optimal for different objectives, such as energy consumption, run time, safety or comfort characteristics. Also various constraints like width of the street or maximal lateral and longitudinal accelerations are taken into account. In this research work autonomous driving is based on a strict mathematic formulation and not rules based, which allows taking decision on undefined situation such as sudden change on road like a moving or fix obstacle. By applying the optimal control solution to the vehicle, due to the disturbances, such as friction or side wind or unknown parameters and uncertainly in the model, the vehicle’s behaviour does not match perfectly with the solution of the optimisation. This is why, a path control level, in the form of lateral-longitudinal controller, is added to generate additional steering angle and driving force to compensate the error between reference and actual position of the vehicle. The operability of the system is shown and proved on simulation and some real driving experiments. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-028.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.)



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MATERIALS

THE ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION PRESENTS: 2015 DUCKER WORLDWIDE AUTOMAKER SURVEY - AUTOMAKERS DRIVING FORWARD WITH ALUMINUM Novelis North America and Kaiser Aluminum Discussion Outline - Aluminium Growth: 2015-2025 - Emerging Aluminium Growth - Component Analysis Chart shows - 2015 Total Aluminium Content by component Graphs show - aluminium content change by vehicle segment, aluminium penetration for closures and complete bodies, North American light vehicle gross aluminium sheet (mm pounds), aluminium use by component/system (millions of pounds), light vehicle aluminium content - key components/systems, castings and extrusions continued growth. What's next? - Aluminium builds a better car and truck; and its value proposition is fast-growing. - Due to its performance, efficiency, sustainability, safety and durability advantages, auto aluminium is at an all-time high and this survey of confirms its use is expected to increase exponentially by 2025. - We are still in a multi-material world, but a single material will no longer dominate. - High-volume aluminium bodied vehicles are headed to showrooms in the near term, and that bodes well for consumers, the auto industry and the environment. See Electronic Document 6998 (Aluminum Association, Jul 2014, 28pp.) FRICTION PERFORMANCE OF ECO-FRIENDLY CU-FREE BRAKE MATERIALS WITH GEOPOLYMER MATRIXES Southern Illinois University at Carbondale Besides elimination of copper, the eco-friendly brake materials are developed using geopolymer matrix and natural fibres to replace phenolic resin and synthetic fibres, respectively. The objectives are to diminish i) the amount of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) being released from the brake materials when subjected to temperatures higher than 300°C; and ii) release the potentially hazardous wear debris particles to the environment. Brake materials were fabricated in university and tested using SAE J2430 test procedure and full scale automotive brake dynamometer (Dyno). Dyno test results indicate that the average friction level of the eco-friendly Cu-free materials was only slightly lower when compared to the baseline material containing Cu. All tested materials have passed the Brake Effectiveness Evaluation Procedure (BEEP). The Dyno results show that all tested materials were resistant to thermal fade and the friction level slightly increased with the increased speed in the second effectiveness test. However, the wear rate of the Cu-free materials, as well as the corresponding disc wear, was higher than the wear of Cu-containing baseline material. A thorough SEM/EDX and XRD analyses revealed that the detected friction and wear performance can be ascribed to developed friction layer on surfaces of pad and disc. See SAE 2013-01-2026 (2013, 9pp.) A NONLINEAR VISCOELASTIC CONSTITUTIVE MODEL FOR DYNAMIC BEHAVIORS OF RUBBER Toyota Transient analyses of vibration phenomena in engine and suspension require high accuracy calculations of load and displacement in rubber parts of such systems. For those calculations, FE analyses are implemented with using constitutive models which are developed by commercial software. However, there are few of constitutive models which can perform all mechanical dynamic behaviours of rubber such as pre-strain dependency, frequency dependency and amplitude dependency when the material subjected to tensile or harmonic vibration loadings. In this paper, a nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive model is developed to be capable of capturing such behaviours



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observed experimentally under different loading conditions. The proposed constitutive model is an extension of the finite linear viscoelastic model in which based on viscous property of non-Newtonian fluid, the relaxation times of its viscoelastic networks are described as power functions of strain rate to improve prediction results of amplitude dependency (Payne effect) in rubber material. A calculation algorithm with using complex step derivative approximation method to improve convergence of calculation and a determination method of material parameters based on experiments such as relaxation test, constant strain rate test, and harmonic vibration test are introduced for the model to make finite element implementation possible. A very good agreement of prediction results from FE analyses in comparison with experimental data of a rubber material (e.g. the average of the differences of dynamic modulus results between calculations and experiments in material level and component level are less than 10%, 20%, respectively) shows the capability of the model to perform dynamic behaviours of rubber material in wide range of dynamic loading conditions (e.g. in frequency range of 0 Hz to several hundred Hz). See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-006.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) LIGHTWEIGHT STRATEGY FOR THERMAL SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY Valeo The European regulations for automotive pollution levels are getting progressively more restrictive. By mid 2014, the objective is to reach 130g of CO2/km, and by 2020 the polluting emissions should not exceed 95g CO2/km. Therefore, the automotive industry must innovate to find technical solutions that meet these requirements. One of the technical solutions proposed is to limit polluting emissions by downsizing the weight of plastic parts in the current systems. Without reducing our technical requirements, this paper presents the evaluation of a technical solution for lightweight with our current plastic materials through the addition of chemical foaming agents. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-008.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARISON OF MATERIALS FOR LIGHTWEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE COMPONENTS BY APPLYING THE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY Magneti Marelli Magneti Marelli has always been sensitive to the environmental sustainability in the new solutions or systems development, adopting, as principle, the “Green Engagement”, that is devoting more and more resources and energies to environmentally-friendly innovation. For this reason, in 2012 some automotive components have been selected to perform environmental evaluations using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology; the general objective is to reduce the whole environmental impacts of vehicles during each steps of the life cycle. In a lightweight perspective, a relevant component is the suspension arm. A comparison was done among a current solution (stamped sheet metal high resistance steel, welded and painted), and a few alternatives: an aluminium solution (forged and machined primary aluminium alloy) and a new generation composite material arm (hybrid aluminium and thermoplastic material reinforced with 60% of short glass fibres). The inventory data have been processed with the GaBi 6 software, and the results have been aggregated in the main Environmental Impact Categories as recognised by the International Organizations such as UNEP and SETAC (Global Warming Potential, Acidification Potential, Eutrophication Potential). CRF supported Magneti Marelli in the application of the LCA methodology based on ISO 14040 series. This paper deals with the LCA activity and the environmental impact results on different solutions of light-weighted suspension arm focusing the attention on the main environmental indicators, Global Warming Potential and Primary Energy Demand from renewable and non- renewable resources. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-043.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) AUTOMOTIVE COMPOSITE DESIGN PROCESS BMW Increasing amounts of composite materials are used in automotive applications. Current design processes in the automotive industry are not readily applicable to composite design. Composite



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Design methods from the aerospace industry are problematic to employ in the automotive industry due to significantly different production volumes and development times. The development approach presented herein aims to solve this issue by taking into account production system specific considerations. This is illustrated with Manufacturing Variations (MV’s), which can affect mechanical performance of composite materials. Several composite vehicle sideframes containing specific MV’s were manufactured. A subset was then tested for their structural impact performance, while another subset was analysed for the MV’s within the components. The observed MV’s were then introduced into a simulation model and the results were compared to a base simulation without MV’s. The base simulation did not predict the test results accurately, while the simulation with MV’s gave excellent agreement with the experimental results. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-048.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) STRETCHING OPPORTUNITIES FOR MAGNESIUM DIE CAST COMPONENTS Brabant Alucast International Magnesium raises more and more interest in the car industry in the perspective to reach future CO2 emission requirements. For current inner applications, like instrument panels or seat frame structures, ductility requirements tend to increase. Magnesium is now also considered in the body structure area. For these reasons, Brabant has launched an innovation programme to improve the elongation of magnesium die cast parts. For High Pressure Die Casting large structural parts, properties can be described as per a composite structure. The skin is homogeneous all over the part showing a high ductility. The core structure has a high elongation close to the gate; however, as the distance from the gate increases, ductility tends to decrease and scatter increases. The definition of a conservative design elongation value goes through massive testing (locations and load cases). In this perspective, it has been chosen to focus on mechanisms that could either improve the average ductility or reduce the scatter. The three first tested factors are the influence of the key process parameters (through a design of experiment), the influence of “supporting techniques” to the die casting process and finally the use of grain refiners developed by the University of Brunel to minimize the pre-solidification mechanisms that can take place. All investigation is carried out on component tests and on real production conditions. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-057.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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NVH

DRIVER STYLE INFLUENCE IN THE VEHICLE ACOUSTIC EMISSIONS IN URBAN TRAFFIC Universidad Carlos III de Madrid and Centro de Acustica Aplicada y Evaluacion No Destructiva Traffic noise is one of the main sources of noise pollution in cities. Around an 80% of the city noise is produced by vehicles. One of the current technological challenges is to achieve a sustainable acoustic environment in constantly growing cities with a rising quantity of vehicles. Current legislation obliges to determine the noise level of a vehicle according to a test procedure shown in Directive 70/157/EEC. The maximum noise level allowed by de Directive has been declining gradually; however, this reduction has not affected the overall traffic noise. One of the reasons is that the approval test does not represent properly the real noise level emitted by a real car in real driving conditions. In this work, a sample of vehicles has been instrumented to obtain physical measurements of the variables that can influence on the noise emission level. Vehicle positions, vehicle speed, longitudinal accelerations and drive time have been analysed using a GPS sensor. Engine speed, engine load, throttle position and gear shift position have been studied through the vehicle CAN BUS and a battery of microphones has measured emitted noise in several points of the vehicle. A circuit that represents the usual circulation in a big city like Madrid has been defined and several vehicle models with great presence in existing fleet of cars have been selected. Several drivers have covered the circuit at different times of the day and previous parameters have been measured in each test in order to determine average values of behaviour. To conclude, previous data have been analysed and noise equivalent levels have been identified with different test configurations. With these average values, it has been possible to define the noise emissions produced by a vehicle in real driving conditions and to identify the noisier driving style. A noisy driver produces up to 9 dB (A) more on average than others. Depending on the engine type a vehicle can emit about 5 dB more of engine noise for the same driving style. There is no appreciable influence of the driver experience over the considered driving interest parameters. There is no influence of the driver sex over the considered driving interest parameters. Nowadays there are not studies about the influence on global acoustic contamination due to a vehicle as individual source neither about the influence of driving style. See vCD 212 F2014-NVH-002.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 11pp.)



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PERFORMANCE

DEVELOPING A UTILITY FACTOR FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES Argonne National Laboratory As new advanced-technology vehicles are becoming more mainstream, analysts are studying their potential impact on petroleum use, carbon emissions, and smog emissions. Determining the potential impacts of widespread adoption requires testing and careful analysis. PHEVs possess unique operational characteristics that require evaluation in terms of actual in-use driving habits. SAE J2841, “Utility Factor Definitions for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using 2001 US DOT National Household Travel Survey Data,” published by SAE in 2009 with a revision in 2010, is a guide to using DOT's National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) data to estimate the relative split between driving in charge-depleting (CD) mode and charge-sustaining (CS) mode for a particular PHEV with a given CD range. Without this method, direct comparisons of the merits of various vehicle designs (e.g. efficiency and battery size) cannot be made among PHEVs, or between PHEVs and other technologies. The dedicated battery electric vehicle (BEV) is now becoming a viable alternative to conventional vehicles and other advanced vehicles (like HEVs and PHEVs). However, a shortcoming persists in current comparisons between BEVs and other vehicles. The BEV cannot satisfy all individual driving needs and most likely will be used alongside other household vehicles (which use petroleum fuel). To properly assess impacts of widespread BEV adoption, a “BEV Utility Factor” will be necessary. Using the most current NHTS data with individual trip data, several charging and vehicle-use scenarios are presented to bookend the expected utility of electric drive capability at any given BEV range. This analysis reveals that a real-world 75-mile-range BEV with a safety reserve of 10 miles has virtually the same electric drive utility as a PHEV with a 38-mile electric-only (CD) range. See SAE 20103-01-1474 (2013, 7pp.)



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ROLL

THE TRANSVERSE DYNAMICS AND ROLLOVER OF HEAVY COMMERCIAL VEHICLE COMBINATIONS. TESTING AND ANALYSIS Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus Long combination vehicles are widely used in the USA, Canada and Australia. In Russia and Belarus engineers design such combinations as multilink trucks with active hybrid drives on the basis of saddle trucks. Driving with a small turn radius, lane change manoeuvres, raise of mass centre at loading increases rollover risk for multilink trucks. The aim of the paper is to improve safety of multilink trucks by means of improving their transverse dynamics and to increase the manoeuvre speed. Analysis of works on stability of trucks shows that most of works are associated with the development of dynamic stability control systems. However, the improved stability does not solve all the tasks related to the trucks rollover. The work combines simulation of the multilink truck motion, evaluation of its transverse dynamics in MSC.ADAMS and experimental studies of the multilink truck with the length of 47 m in the automotive proving ground. The techniques of virtual and physical tests are identical for every level. It allows to validate the virtual dynamic model at the initial stage of the study and further research of transverse dynamics is allowed to do with simulation in MSC.ADAMS. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-062.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.)



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STABILITY

INFLUENCE OF VEHICLE PARAMETERS ON DIRECTIONAL STABILITY DURING ELECTRIC POWERTRAIN FAULTS IN PASSENGER CARS KTH Vehicle Dynamics, Royal Institute of Technology Electric powertrain faults that could occur during normal driving can affect the dynamic behaviour of the vehicle and might result in significant course deviations. The severity depends both on the characteristics of the fault itself as well as on how sensitive the vehicle reacts to this type of fault. In this work, a sensitivity study is conducted on the effects of vehicle design parameters, such as geometries and tyre characteristics, and fault characteristics. The vehicle specifications are based on three different parameter sets representing a small city car, a medium-sized sedan and a large passenger car. The evaluation criteria cover the main motions of the vehicle, i.e. longitudinal velocity difference, lateral offset and side slip angle on the rear axle as indicator of the directional stability. A design of experiments approach is applied and the influence on the course deviation is analysed for each studied parameter separately and for all first order combinations. Vehicle parameters of high sensitivity have been found for each criterion. The mass factor is highly relevant for all three motions, while the additional factors wheel base, track width, yaw inertia and vehicle velocity are mainly influencing the lateral and the yaw motion. Changes in the tyre parameters are in general less significant than the vehicle parameters. Among the tyre parameters, the stiffness factor of the tyres on the rear axle has the major influence resulting in a reduction of the course deviation for a stiffer tyre. The fault amplitude is an important fault parameter, together with the fault starting gradient and number of wheels with fault. In this study, it was found that a larger vehicle representing a SUV is more sensitive to these types of faults. To conclude, the result of an electric powertrain fault can cause significant course deviations for all three vehicle types studied. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-049.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.)



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VEHICLE DYNAMICS

AN ABSTRACT MULTI-RATE METHOD FOR VEHICLE DYNAMICS SIMULATION Multibody.org and US Army TARDEC The design of vehicles increasingly challenges existing cost, weight, durability, and handling regimes. This challenge is further compounded by pressure to decrease or limit the duration of the design cycle. The simulation of vehicle dynamic behaviour commonly applies just rigid, or better rigid and linear flexibility models to predict motions and determine load cases. However, as the boundaries of materials are pushed these are becoming insufficient to accurately predict behaviour. Alternatively, complete nonlinear finite element representations of vehicle dynamics are always possible but are presently infeasible for the support of a single design under virtual test, not to mention several design iterations. To address these issues, a novel abstract multi-rate simulation method is outlined which is designed to exploit the richness of available model in the vehicle dynamics domain. The method relies on the availability of a virtual continuum of modelling fidelities and uses the fast executing low fidelity models to seed increasingly high fidelity models which execute concurrently in different regions of the time domain. As a result, discontinuities will appear in the states time-histories, and the method must then validate (or invalidate) the discontinuities as being possible states given the chaotic nature of the higher frequency components in the system. See SAE 2013-01-1196 (2013, 11pp, 26 refs.) STUDY ON DRIVING FORCE DISTRIBUTION AND POWER CONSUMPTION IN STEADY STATE CORNERING – FORMULATION AND VALIDATION USING IN-WHEEL MOTOR VEHICLE Toyota This paper clarifies the effect of driving force distribution on power consumption in steady state cornering. It details formulations of cornering resistance, mechanical loss, and electric loss from the standpoint of direct yaw moment. Finally, actual tests were conducted to validate the formulation results of cornering resistance and power consumption using a test vehicle equipped with in-wheel motors. Covers - vehicle dynamics. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-005.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) REAL-TIME TECHNOLOGIES IN DRIVING DYNAMICS PERFORMANCE SIMULATION THROUGH FULL VEHICLE MULTIBODY, 1D CHASSIS SUBSYSTEMS AND TIRE MODELING INTEGRATION LMS, Siemens and Fraunhofer ITWM Detailed plant modelling by means of a multi-body simulation model is the typical approach for virtual prototyping. Such models, complete of tyre, work off-line. However, for the design and validation of control or intelligent systems Real-Time vehicle models are required. Typically such simulations require the model to be simplified by means of look-up tables or elasto-kinematic maps, as well as usage of empirical models of the tire, weakening the confidence of the multi-body model with respect to the real world. Scope of this project has been the development of a methodology able to maintain the complexity of the full vehicle multi-body model for Real-Time applications. LMS has researched, developed and implemented in its multi-body tool Virtual Lab Motion a methodology able to maintain the complexity of the full vehicle multi-body model through usage of the multiple cores computing technology. The chassis subsystems, such as EPS, ABS/ESC and transmission, are also implemented in co-simulation with the multi-body model. The first part of this paper documents the changes necessary to obtain a full vehicle multi-body model in co-simulation with 1D chassis subsystems running Real-Time. In the frame of the CHASING R&D project (“Advanced Simulation Methodologies for Chassis & Suspension Engineering: Optimizing Driving Dynamics of Intelligent Vehicles”, supported by IWT Vlaanderen in the frame of the EUREKA European research project E!4907), Fraunhofer ITWM has researched and developed an innovative CDTire model suitable for comfort and durability



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application in hard Real-Time. The second part of this paper documents the changes necessary to obtain a complex tyre model suitable for ride and durability applications running Real-Time. The new tire Real-Time capable sub-model CDTire/Realtime (High Performance Solver) has been interfaced to the Real-Time capable LMS multi-body tool Virtual Lab Motion for front and rear suspensions in combination with LMS 1D tool Imagine Lab AMESim for chassis subsystems, to enable running Real-Time applications in comfort and durability scenarios. The integration in LMS Virtual.Lab Motion has been setup to perform offline applications for multi-attribute vehicle performance optimisation or robust design analyses as well as hard Real-Time applications like SIL or HIL. The paper documents the changes implemented (implicit integration, parallel processing and no reduction) to obtain a complete comfort and durability Real-Time vehicle model and the good results obtained in comparison with an off-line high-fidelity solution model. A final demonstration on full Real-Time vehicle model in combination with tyre is also presented. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-044.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 13pp.) DESIGN FOR VEHICLE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR UNDER FORCE CONTROL Kinki University Drivers control their steering wheel using both angle and torque. Method of controlling steering wheel by steering angle is called position control and controlling by steering torque is called force control. Vehicle dynamics under position control has been studied and developed, however that under force control has been hardly studied. The objective of this study is to understand and improve vehicle behaviour under force control. Sakashita formulated the vehicle stability condition under force control and pointed out those vehicles, having a lower natural frequency of their steering system than the natural frequency of their vehicles, are unstable above a certain forward velocity. However all passenger cars seem to be stable at any velocity. Therefore it is not stability but response that should be improved. To increase natural frequencies of vehicle–steering systems under force control, in this study, the natural frequencies have been formulated. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-076.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.)



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WEIGHT

DETERMINANTS OF US PASSENGER CAR WEIGHT Massachusetts Institute of Technology After a precipitous drop from 1976-1982, the weight of US passenger cars has grown steadily. This article examines multiple conflicting influences on vehicle weight in two categories: technological changes that reduce vehicle weight and improvements in functionality that, ceterus paribus, add to vehicle weight. The widespread adoption of unibody construction, lightweight materials and smaller engines have been offset by growth in vehicle size and feature content. The best estimates from this work indicate that new features and functionality would have added at least 250 kg (550 lbs) to the weight of the average new car between 1975 and 2009, if not for offsetting improvements in technology. Over the same period, it is estimated that alternative materials, more weight-efficient vehicle architectures, and reduced engine sizes have taken 790 kg (1700 lbs) out of the weight of the average car. These observable influences do explain the full extent of the drop and subsequent growth in weight, suggesting that substantial non-observed technological improvements were made from 1976-1982, and that unobserved improvements in areas such as crashworthiness and NVH have added substantially to vehicle weight in the past two decades. Weight reduction improvements include - major architectural changes, unibody construction, front-wheel drive, engine cylinder counts, alternative (lighter/stronger) materials, high-strength steel, aluminium, magnesium, plastics and composites. Graphs show - Average weights of new US cars by class; Historical sales mix of passenger cars by class; Weight effects of changes in since 1975 including secondary weight; Market shares of 4, 6 and 8-cylinder engines in new US passenger cars; Materials composition of new US passenger cars since 1975; Estimated contributions of technological improvements to weight reduction in new US cars, since 1975. See Doc.145921 (International Journal of Vehicle Design, 2014, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp73-93.)



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ARTICLES BY VEHICLE COMPONENT

BODIES LIGHTWEIGHT DESIGN OF AUTOMOBILE BODY-IN-WHITE BASED ON THE SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS GAC Engineering This paper presents one method based on sensitivity analysis for lightweight design of an automobile body. A SUV body structure is the research subject in this study. Finite element analysis models are established and the thickness of body components are taken as design variables, the lightweight of automobile body is the design object while the body modal and stiffness are constraints. The components insensitive to modal and stiffness are prior chosen to the design variables. Meanwhile, the modal, stiffness and other performances are also considered. The thickness of components is finally determined based on the CAE optimisation simulation analysis to reduce weight. The optimisation simulation results shows that the weight of SUV body is reduced by 17.38 kg as well as the lightweight of body could well meet the NVH, durability, crash 5 stars requirements and other performances of the SUV, which is significant on low fuel consumption and energy-saving. The study indicates that the method based on sensitivity analysis could highly improve the automobile’s lightweight design efficiency, and have vital significance for lightweight design of subsequent automobile. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-059.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) LIGHT-EBODY PROJECT LIGHTWEIGHT BODY FOR AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE RWTH Aachen University The resource-saving and energy-efficient design of an entire vehicle is of great importance, especially when it comes to vehicles with electric propulsion. Thus, a special lightweight body for electric vehicles shall be developed within the scope of the national publicly funded project Light-eBody. Besides aerodynamics and the further development of battery technology lightweight constructions are particularly appropriate to reduce energy consumption and therefore extend the vehicle range. Thus, a research consortium of 14 partners develops a light, resource- saving multi-material body for electric vehicles suitable for large scale production. The reduction of weight becomes possible with the help of an optimal use of different materials in a concept that is consequently tailored to the requirements of an electrically powered vehicle. A battery pack that is integrated into the structure contributes to stability and safety of the vehicle and therefore provides access to further lightweight potential. In addition to the design of new material concepts and manufacturing processes for multi-material lightweight bodies, the focus is on the development of necessary simulation technologies and appropriate joining methods as those are only partially existing for the expected combinations of material. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-008.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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BRAKES

IDENTIFICATION OF DRY SLIDING WEAR BEHAVIOR OF B4CP PARTICULATE REINFORCED MG MATRIX COMPOSITES FOR AUTOMOBILE DISK BRAKES Yildiz Teknik Universitesi Prediction of brake disc materials wear versus their formulation with brake operating conditions can play a critical role in the development of future brake disc materials. In this paper identification of the dry sliding wear behaviour of magnesium (Mg) matrix (MMCs) reinforced with 0-3-6 wt% B4C particulates was investigated. Wear tests were performed on a pin-on-disk configuration against SAE 1040 steel counter body under constant load and sliding speed. The wear resistance of composites was evaluated as a function of B4C particulates reinforcement. Identified models were based on experimental results. The wear load was considered as the input parameter, whereas the wear rate and friction of coefficient as the output parameter. A first order continuous-time linear model structure was chosen for the modelling. Simulations using the identified models were compared with experimental results and found that the modelling of wear process was satisfactory. See SAE 2013-01-1221 (2013, 6pp.) BRAKE DISC VARIABILITY: EFFECT ON FRICTION AND WEAR KB AutoSys Co Two sets of OE quality brake discs were evaluated for their equivalence in friction and wear under a humidity controlled condition in order to avoid the influence of humidity on friction and wear. These discs were received from two different suppliers located in two different countries. Small differences were found in disc chemistry and microstructure, which resulted in differences in disc properties, and friction and wear characteristics. It is recommended that extreme care must be exercised in determining the performance equivalence of one disc from one supplier against another disc from a second supplier. See SAE 2013-01-2053 (2013, 10pp.) SIMULATION AND PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS ON COMPOSITE ABS CONTROL STRATEGY FOR EV Brilliance Automobile Engineering Research Institute A simulation model of EV with the software of AMESim is established and the ABS control method with four independent channel by electric brake is designed in Simulink with the fuzzy logic control. The simulation is carried on under the low tyre-road friction coefficient. The simulation results show that, the co-simulation model and its control method is able to simulate the actual ABS braking process, ensure the wheel speed well follow the vehicle speed, improve the steerability and stability of the EV. Model parameters can be adjusted, so research on different parameters on the effect of ABS can be carried on, and the simulation model can be used as a well platform for ABS study on EV. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-012.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) ACTIVE BRAKE TORQUE VARIATION COMPENSATION WITH SPEED SCHEDULING OF AN ELECTROMECHANICAL BRAKE Linkoping University and University of Melbourne An approach to attenuate the brake judder actively is proposed. The proposed judder compensation algorithm generates a clamp force command that attenuates the judder inducing brake torque variation. An electromechanical brake with high-bandwidth closed-loop clamp force tracking performance is utilised to follow the generated command, where the judder is compensated at its source. Experimental results are presented and the compensator is validated over fixed and varying wheel speeds with significant judder attenuation demonstrated. Covers - brake-by-wire. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-067.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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A STUDY ON BRAKE STABILITY OF TRACTOR SEMI-TRAILER COMMERCIAL VEHICLES GAC Engineering Because of the long air brake pipeline of commercial vehicles as like tractor semi-trailer, there will be a bigger delay from the brake pedal to the actual force applied for the wheels on each axle, which will result in brake time difference and instability among the different axle wheels. In this paper, the model of the tractor semi-trailer and Electro-Air pressure brake system are built, and the brake stability in longitudinal and lateral motion are simulated. According to the study and design of the Electro-Air pressure brake system, the pressure brake system response time and stop distance is shorten. The brake force distribution strategy is studied and recommended to improve the tractor semi-trailer vehicle longitudinal and lateral stability. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-082.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 11pp.)



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CHASSIS

THE CHASSIS OF THE FUTURE Schaeffler When it comes to developing chassis, today‘s challenges go far and above the traditional conflict of having a comfort-based and sportive set-up. Replacing hydraulic systems with electromechanical actuators in chassis technology is particularly progressing at quite a rate, with scores of functions are already being realised using electromechanical means. In terms of steering, the last hydraulic systems are currently being replaced with electromechanical systems in the D segment. Electric and hybrid vehicles are the driving force behind this application of electro-hydraulic brake boosters. However, these boosters continue to be based on a hydraulic brake with a mechanical safe state. Gradual conversion of the anti-roll system is expected from 2015 onwards. Only the active chassis (Active Body Control, ABC) is currently still designed as a hydraulic system, but it can also be replaced with an electromechanical version. A whole host of benefits is associated with electrification of the chassis. Thus, the principle of on-demand actuation results in lower energy consumption. New features, such as the Continuous Damping Control (CDC), have also been developed in parallel with this benefit. CDC dampers already make up the extra specifications list in the B and C segments. Covers – products for reducing weight, friction reduction products, mechanical actuators with ball screw drive for chassis applications, electromechanical anti-roll system, sensor layer for measuring wheel force, level adjustment, actuator camber and toe-in actuation, developing the anti-roll system, “switchable” wheel bearings, active electromechanical damping. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_27_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 10pp.)



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DAMPERS

DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF ELECTRO-RHEOLOGICAL DAMPERS FOR A TILTING THREE WHEELED VEHICLE Deakin University and Fludicon Tilting vehicles like motorbikes and scooters are much more dangerous and often less comfortable to operate compared to cars. Semi-active and active suspensions are often used in luxury cars to improve the dynamic behaviour and to be able to adjust it to different driver preferences and needs. The research question is how electro-rheological dampers can improve the dynamics of a tilting vehicle with three wheels. The benefits of the electro-rheological dampers are investigated through simulations. The tilting three wheeled vehicle was described with a planar single track model. This model consists of three bodies for the torso and two wheels. The damper’s electro-rheological fluid (ERF) is regarded as compressible and has a mass inertia inside the damper’s annulus. A front- and rear wheel chassis dampers were investigated. Based on the damper characteristics of the presently implemented shocks that were characterised in bench tests, comparable ER-dampers have been designed and the expected damping fields calculated. This procedure was carried out for both front and rear dampers, which have very similar damping characteristics. The Bingham model was used to calculate the volume flow through the ER dampers. Finally the damping performance for the different designs is simulated for different for driving over an obstacle. Heave and pitch together with relevant frequencies were calculated for driving over an uneven road surface. The helix free damper performed very well, both heave and pitch dampened in very short times. Heave velocity and pitch were compensated to zero immediately after the event compared to around 5 seconds for heave and around 4 seconds for pitch without activation of the ER damper. Maximum damping forces were below 330N with a maximum voltage below 4000 Volts for both, the front and rear dampers compared to below 200N without activation. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-051.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 12pp.) CONTEXT-BASED SERVICE FUSION FOR PERSONALIZED ON-BOARD INFORMATION SUPPORT St. Petersburg Institute for Informatics and Automation of the Russian Academy of Sciences (SPIRAS), Ford and University ITMO Current in-vehicle information systems make it possible to benefit from integration of new ideas to provide richer driving experience. The paper presents a concept, main supporting technologies and an illustrative case study for improved on-board information system. The key idea of the proposed approach is to implement context-based service fusion supported by a negotiation model. This would provide a new, previously unavailable level of personalised on-board information support via finding compromise decisions taking into account proposals of various services and driver preferences. Covers - Navigation systems. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp111-120 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.) CONTROL OF THE MOTORIZED ACTIVE SUSPENSION DAMPER FOR GOOD RIDE QUALITY Seoul National University and Korea Automotive Technology Institute This paper presents a control algorithm for the motorized active suspension damper. The control algorithm consists of supervisory, upper-level and lower-level controllers. The supervisory controller determines the control modes, such as the passive mode, the roll mode and the body acceleration mode. The upper-level controller computes the damping force using linear quadratic control theory. The actuator input is determined by the lower-level controller. Three state estimators, namely the vehicle body's velocity estimator, the suspension state estimator and the friction estimator, are proposed to estimate the sprung-mass and unsprung-mass velocities, the



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tyre deflection, the roll angle, the roll rate and the friction. The performance of the proposed control algorithm was evaluated via simulations and vehicle tests. It was shown from both simulations and vehicle tests that the proposed control algorithm can improve the ride quality using a motorized active suspension damper. See Doc.145968 (IMechE Proceedings Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Sep 2014, Vol. 228, pp1344-1358.)



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DRIVERS AIDS

LOCATION-AWARE ADAPTIVE VEHICLE DYNAMICS SYSTEM: CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT Virginia Tech and Volkswagen One seminal question that faces a vehicle's driver (either human or computer) is predicting the capability of the vehicle as it encounters upcoming terrain. A Location-Aware Adaptive Vehicle Dynamics (LAAVD) System is developed to assist the driver in maintaining vehicle handling capabilities through various driving manoeuvres. In contrast to current active safety systems, this system is predictive rather than reactive. This work provides the conceptual groundwork for the proposed system. The LAAVD System employs a predictor-corrector method in which the driver's input commands (throttle, brake, steering) and upcoming driving environment (terrain, traffic, weather) are predicted. An Intervention Strategy uses a novel measure of handling capability, the Performance Margin, to assess the need to intervene. The driver's throttle and brake control are modulated to affect desired changes to the Performance Margin in a manner that is minimally intrusive to the driver's control authority. Real-time implementation requires the development of computationally efficient predictive models of the powertrain and vehicle dynamics. A simulation demonstrates the implementation of the system during a simple driving manoeuvre. The status of the project, including future work, is described. See SAE 2014-01-0121 (2014, 7pp.) AUTONOMOUS DRIVING INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS FOR COLLISION AVOIDANCE BASED ON EXPERTIZED ANTICIPATORY DRIVING BEHAVIOUR Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology and Japan Automobile Research Institute The research aims to develop the system called “autonomous driving intelligence” as a driver assistance system considering expert drivers’ anticipatory behaviour to avoid potential collisions. The motivation of the research is to compensate the degraded driving ability in recognition, decision and operation process of low-performance drivers, resulting in further reduction of accidents. The current active safety systems are based on warning and autonomous braking in emergency situations which the effectiveness of the system is limited. In order to further reduce accidents, it is important to consider how we can enhance the collision avoidance performance by utilising the knowledge from expert drivers. The proposed driver assistance system as the autonomous braking/steering system is implemented in the experimental vehicle. Here, the driving task is to overtake a parked vehicle where there might be a pedestrian darting out behind the parked vehicle. The LIDARs attached on the vehicle are used to detect the parked vehicle and the pedestrian. Based on the risk potential algorithm, the experimental result shows that the vehicle gradually decelerated when getting closer to the parked vehicle and then the steering system was controlled to move the vehicle to a free space according to the path planning by risk potential. The automatic emergency brake was activated when the pedestrian darted out to the vehicle driving corridor. Test drives show that the system can work in practice without collision with the pedestrian in safe manner similar to the expert driver See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-045.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) EVOLUTION IN ADVANCED DRIVER ASSISTANCE: FROM STEERING SUPPORT IN HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION ZONES TO ASSISTANCE IN URBAN NARROW ROAD SCENARIOS Robert Bosch With the advances in environment sensor technology, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) that target increasingly complex scenarios such as inner-city traffic get into focus. Such novel ADAS will offer assistance in a wide range of urban traffic scenarios and, thus, will further decrease the number and severity of accidents. In this contribution, the evolution of an ADAS for lateral guidance in highway construction zones (i.e. the “construction zone assistant”) towards assistance in narrow urban road scenarios (i.e. the “urban narrow road assistant”) is presented. The focus of the contribution will be on the challenges of these two scenario types and their respective requirements on the system concept and design. While steering support in highway construction



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zones will be available on the market soon, its functional extension to inner-city traffic is still characterised by numerous technological challenges. Due to that, the emphasis in terms of algorithmic details will be on the “urban narrow road assistant”. Covers - automated lateral control, lane keeping systems. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp3-13 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.) LAYER-BASED MULTI-SENSOR FUSION ARCHITECTURE FOR COOPERATIVE AND AUTOMATED DRIVING APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT TNO Development of current ADAS is focused on single functionality and independent operation. Development of next generation cooperative and automated ADAS applications requires large amounts of information to be combined and interpreted. To operate efficiently and effectively, these applications should not operate in isolation, but share resources, information and functionalities. Furthermore, development, prototyping, real-life testing and evaluation of the applications in multiple-vehicle scenarios becomes more complex. In this paper iVSP, a scalable, multi-sensor fusion and processing architecture, is proposed for efficient development, prototyping, testing and evaluation of cooperative and automated driving applications in small to medium scale pilots. Covers - driver behaviour monitoring application, Cooperative Automated Emergency Braking Application (C-AEB). See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp29-38 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.) DESIGN OF REAL-TIME TRANSITION FROM DRIVING ASSISTANCE TO AUTOMATION FUNCTION: BAYESIAN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPROACH Carleton University Forecasts of automation in driving suggest that wide spread market penetration of fully autonomous vehicles will be decades away and that before such vehicles will gain acceptance by all stake holders, there will be a need for driving assistance in key driving tasks, supplemented by automated active safety capability. This paper advances a Bayesian Artificial Intelligence model for the design of real time transition from assisted driving to automated driving under conditions of high probability of a collision if no action is taken to avoid the collision. Systems can be designed to feature collision warnings as well as automated active safety capabilities. In addition to the high level architecture of the Bayesian transition model, example scenarios illustrate the function of the real-time transition model. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp39-48 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.) VISUALISATION FUNCTIONS IN ADVANCED CAMERA-BASED SURROUND VIEW SYSTEMS Continental This paper presents an overview of visualisation functions in camera based surround view systems. Video capturing and data transmission from the cameras into image processing unit will be discussed. The article shows how to correct camera pose and lens distortions with special focus on wide angle lenses. The driver will expect well stitched images and a constant and correct brightness in the visualised surrounding area. Image post processing techniques in order to overcome these artifacts are presented and subjectively compared to different state of the art visualisation functions. The paper also presents a video watchdog for important functional safety requirements. Finally an outlook to future visualisation functions is given. Covers - advanced driver assistance systems. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp267-276 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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ELECTRICS AND ELECTRONICS

ELECTRIC AND PLUG-IN HYBRID VEHICLES INTERACTION WITH THE ELECTRIC NETWORK ATA – Associazione Tecnica dell’Automobile Research Objective: 1. Management optimisation of the electric energy system. The concept is to make use of the on board energy storage of the electric and the externally chargeable (plug-in) vehicles for power balancing of the electric generation and utilisation network. 2. Booster the diffusion of electrically powered vehicles with a user friendly infrastructure operation system. The concept is to establish a network of electric energy supply stations and a communication network among user, infrastructure and a management centre to coordinate the charging operation according to battery state of charge, grid status and electric power production profile. Covers - “grid-to-vehicle”, “vehicle-to-grid”, infrastructure. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-077.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) METHODOLOGY FOR BUILDING-UP TECHNOLOGICAL CORE COMPETENCIES USING THE ELECTRIC POWER TRAIN OF VEHICLES AS AN EXAMPLE RWTH Aachen Currently, potentially one of the most significant technological innovations in the automotive industry is the transition from the conventional powertrain to the electric one. For the established enterprises in the automotive sector this transition will have far-reaching consequences with regard to their technological know-how about products and processes. Renowned automobile manufacturers have already recognised the signs of the time and reacted in different ways to this technological shift. On the one hand, BMW has started to develop the necessary skills and technologies internally. On the other hand, Daimler and Toyota invested in Tesla Motors, an early pioneer in the field of electric mobility. On the basis of the identified practical and theoretical problems, this paper is aimed at developing a practicable methodology for building up core competencies. The focus of this paper is not to establish a new theory of core competence management. On the contrary, this paper is building upon and further developing the existing theory of core competence in a practical way. There is a need for further research at the interface between strategic core competence planning and operational implementation management. The paper at hand focuses on technological core competencies of manufacturing enterprises which, when faced with a disruptive technological change, need to realign themselves with regard to their product knowledge and process expertise in order to benefit from the shift and to establish new competitive advantages. In developing the methodology, special emphasis will be placed on its practical character by applying the methodology to the production of electric traction motors in electric vehicle powertrains as an example. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-048.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.)

Architectures OPTIMIZED METHODOLOGY FOR EVALUATION OF COMPLEX NETWORK ARCHITECTURES Tata Motors This paper is in the field of communication networks where different Electronic Control Units (ECUs) communicate with each other using various communication protocols such as Controller Area Network (CAN), Local Interconnect Network (LIN), FlexRay, etc. Typically such types of communication networks are widely used in automobile domain. This paper proposes a holistic approach for evaluation and finalisation of complex network architecture for a vehicle. As part of this proposed method, at first one reference-network architecture is constructed for the highest end variant of the vehicle considering all possible ECUs for this vehicle. Then other possible logical variations in network architecture are constructed,



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which can also technically represent the vehicle's network architecture. Then a set of criteria measures are considered to evaluate how good (or bad) each variation of network architecture is with respect to the reference-network architecture. A detailed step by step methodology is proposed in this paper describing the various criteria and sub-criteria and the approach to finalise optimized network architecture for any vehicle. As the proposed method focuses on all possible aspects during network architecture evaluation; it results in minimisation of network related ECU variants in the vehicle, both in terms of hardware and software content of the ECUs, thereby achieving standardisation of vehicle communication matrix across all vehicle trim-levels. This standardisation in network architecture leads to reduced engineering effort to design and develop any ECU in the vehicle. See SAE 2013-01-1187 (2013, 17pp.) ASSESSING THE EVOLUTION OF E/E HARDWARE MODULES WITH CONCEPTUAL FUNCTION ARCHITECTURES Daimler and University of Tubingen Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) use hardware module strategies to reduce hardware costs and development time. They prefer stable and cost efficient design concepts but the introduction of innovative functions requires agile methods. Therefore, it is still a challenge to transfer product features to the design of the E/E architecture in the context of a modularised E/E hardware. Hence, this paper presents a novel approach for the E/E architecture modelling using a conceptual function architecture layer as further abstraction to allow design decisions. The approach improves the transparent description of E/E systems in the E/E architecture development, the comprehension of the complex systems of modern premium cars, and the traceability from product features to E/E hardware. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp61-69 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Batteries THERMAL BEHAVIOR AND MODEL OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE OPERATING CONDITIONS Shanghai Jiao Tong University Thermal behaviour and model are important items should be considered when designing a battery pack. A Lithium-ion battery thermal behaviour and model is investigated in this paper. Battery heat generating and conducting behaviour are studied. The temperature of the battery is measured when charging and discharging experiments in various profiles. Lithium-ion (LiFePO4) batteries are put into oils that in an insulated container. Many battery experiments have carried out in National Engineering Laboratory in Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Charge and discharge the battery with equipment in various styles including constant current charge, constant current discharge, pulse current charge/discharge, and simulation styles in EV and HEV. Temperatures of the battery surface and electrode are measured. The lithium-ion battery temperature in various charge/discharge profiles are presented as a function of time. The thermal modelling is studied and compared with experiments. The results show that the battery thermal behaviour is relevant with battery internal resistance, current, time and initial temperature. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-058.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 4pp.) MODELING LI-ION BATTERY CHARGING CHARACTERISTICS WITH TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE AND ITS APPLICATION FOR ESTIMATION OF OVER-POTENTIAL AT GRAPHITE ANODE Waseda University and National Traffic Safety and Environmental Laboratory, Japan Improvements in the capabilities of existing lithium-ion batteries are required to increase the performance of electric and hybrid electric vehicles. It is important to understand the behaviour of the chemical reactions that occur in these batteries and the overvoltage at their electrodes in order



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to predict deteriorations in their capacity and safety. The plating of lithium metal at low temperatures is a particularly important cause of battery deterioration. This paper describes the development of a pseudo-2D battery model. The thermal properties of the battery used in the model were then expressed as functions of temperature and used to predict its behaviour during low-temperature charging. By analysing the over-voltage, it was shown that the kinetic over-voltage at the anode, which affects lithium metal plating, varies in a complex way under constant current charging conditions. Finally, the model was used in simulations to evaluate a proposed methodology for controlling the C-rate. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-059.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) APPLICATION OF LI-ION CELL AGING MODELS ON AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL PROPULSION CELLS Politecnico di Milano In this paper the capacity fade of a Li-Ion battery for electric and hybrid vehicles is studied. The battery lifetime is a crucial characteristic for the usage of this technology on Full Electrical Vehicle (EV) or Hybrid Electrical Vehicle (HEV). Thanks to low costs and easy electronic devices design for small Li-Ion battery tests, many studies have established life prediction models. The aim of this paper is to verify whether these models can be used to predict capacity fade for a high capacity Li-Ion battery for full electric and hybrid vehicles, or not. During this study a test bench has been developed to control charge and discharge cell current. At last a comparison between different models will be provided. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp255-263 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Battery chargers EMF CONTROL METHODOLOGY IN WIRELESS CHARGING SYSTEM USED FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE Bombardier Transportation Bombardier’s ground-breaking PRIMOVE technology provides wireless, contactless power transfer for all types of electric and hybrid vehicles including trams, buses, and cars. This unique system allows electric vehicles to be wirelessly recharged either in motion (dynamic charging) or at rest (static charging) minimize impact on driving habits or journey times. Based on automatic inductive power transfer, PRIMOVE frees e-mobility from the constraints of cables, wires and plugs - making electric transport flexible and convenient. By increasing charging power (3.6 kW, 7.2 kW and 22 kW available for car, up to 200 kW for bus and tram), the charging time is decreased significantly. In addition the inductive transfer solution can be integrated into the road and roadside with the result that visual pollution is minimized. During the charging process, the electromagnetic field (EMF) level in public area requires to be limited below the levels defined in ICNIRP Guidelines (6.25 uT in frequency range 3 kHz to 150 kHz). The public areas include the space inside the vehicle and the free space beside vehicle giving protection to passengers, driver and pedestrians. In addition to the above human exposure requirement, the EMF level inside the vehicle are controlled to ensure electromagnetic compatibility of the electronics installed in vehicle. This paper describes the process of how the above requirements were achieved. In particular the paper will address the use of methodology of electromagnetic simulation, supported by well-designed research and verification testing. The impacts of the stray magnetic field and design objects of the vehicle screening are analysed firstly. Afterwards the screening methods applied on the vehicle chassis and on-board alternating current (AC) cables are analysed and compared in detail, including installation position of the screening metal sheet, screening material selection and weight optimization. Finally the paper will present the results from the latest projects demonstrating that the 6.25 uT limit in all public areas is achievable with 200 kW inductive power transfer. The paper will go on to describe the relationship with the independent assessment body TUV SUD who assess all PRIMOVE electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and EMF activities. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-074.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.)



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STATIC AND DYNAMIC WIRELESS/INDUCTIVE ENERGY TRANSFER FOR VEHICLES IS FEASIBLE! Flanders’ DRIVE With the introduction of electric vehicles, either all-electric vehicles or plug-in hybrids, battery charging is a significant and rather time-consuming necessity. Since the charging time is a function of the required energy, which is related to battery size versus maximum available power, this opens a wide spectrum of considerations from passenger cars to transportation applications. The right energy transfer method can increase social acceptance of passenger car electrification and enable the electrification of public bus transportation routes while reducing energy storage capacity, i.e. the weight required for propulsion. The research objective was to assess both the feasibility of wireless energy transfer for passenger cars during static energy transfer and the feasibility of wireless energy transfer for bus transportation using both static and dynamic energy transfers. Important research topics were the safety, efficiency and applicability of such inductive systems under different conditions such as installation and road construction methods. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-087.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) COMPACT, SAFE AND EFFICIENT WIRELESS AND INDUCTIVE CHARGING FOR PLUG-IN HYBRIDS AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES Hella and Paul Vahle Conventional charging systems for electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles currently use cables to connect to the grid. This methodology creates several disadvantages, including tampering risk, depreciation and non-value added user efforts. Loose or faulty cables may also create a safety issue. Wireless charging for electric vehicles delivers both a simple, reliable and safe charging process. The system enhances consumer adoption and promotes the integration of electric vehicles into the automotive market. Increased access to the grid enables a higher level of flexibility for storage management, increasing battery longevity. The power class of 3.7 kW or less is an optimal choice for global standardisation and implementation, due to the readily available power installations for potential customers throughout the world. One of the key features for wireless battery chargers are the inexpensive system costs, reduced content and light weight, easing vehicle integration. This paper demonstrates a wireless charging design with minimal component content. It includes a car pickup coil with 300mm side length and low volume and mass 1.5 dm³ power interface electronics. After an overview of its hardware requirements, power transfer and efficiency benefits are presented, providing the anticipated horizontal and lateral deviations. An intense magnetic field is required to transfer the target power at low volumes between the transfer units. This field heats up any metal object over the transfer coil, similar to an induction oven. Consequently, the system should be powered down whenever a metal object is detected in this area. A Foreign Object Detection (FOD) design has been developed to continuously monitor the critical high field area. Device testing results are also provided. Field characteristics are verified alongside the vehicle, ensuring system safety for living beings; compliant with all applicable standards reference limits which is more challenging than the basic limits. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp213-234 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Electric power generation EBERSPACHER TO LAUNCH DIESEL FUEL-CELL APU FOR TRUCKS AT IAA Eberspacher Eberspacher GmbH plans to unveil a diesel fuel-cell auxiliary power unit for the truck industry at the world's biggest commercial vehicle fair (IAA) in Hanover next month. The company says that the basis of the Eberspacher APU is a high-temperature fuel cell that can generate electricity from fuel gas of fossil origin - in this case diesel. The fuel gas is produced in a reformer, which sees diesel first mixed with air to create a gas mixture that then passes through a



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catalytic converter to generate a fuel gas containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This is then used in a fuel cell to generate electricity for the auxiliary units of the vehicle. Eberspacher says that the system provides the same output as diesel engine belt driven generators or separate diesel-powered APUs. Eberspacher says: "The fuel-cell APU generates electrical power - without mechanical power losses - from the diesel in the truck tank quietly, in an energy-saving way and virtually emissions-free. Nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide and soot particulate emissions are 90 percent less compared with a diesel-engine APU. Thanks to the control electronics, only as much electricity is produced as is actually required." See Doc.145978 (Truck & Bus Builder, Aug 2014, p14.)

Electric power management systems (COST)-EFFICIENT SYSTEM SOLUTIONS E.G. INTEGRATED BATTERY MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATION AND MODULE SUPPLY FOR THE 48V POWER SUPPLY IN PASSENGER CARS ams Virtual Vehicle Research Center Although the implementation of the 48V voltage supply in next generation passenger vehicles is certain to go ahead, economic and technical challenges remain to be overcome. The cost of lithium based batteries is falling, but costs for energy and power per litre/kg still remain an impediment to the application of the new voltage domain in high volumes. Engine cold-start, aging, efficient use of available energy and effective battery management systems are all facing problems that require technical solutions. ams AG provides (cost)-efficient IC solutions for lithium based battery systems, in-vehicle communication and power supplies for electronic modules for 48V systems. The Virtual Vehicle Competence Center provides the co-simulation environment for system integration and simulation-based evaluation of these systems. Covers - 14V supply, dual-voltage supply, CAN, FlexRay, semiconductor devices. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp143-152 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Power electronics COSIVU - COMPACT, SMART AND RELIABLE DRIVE UNIT FOR COMMERCIAL ELECTRIC VEHICLES Volvo, Swerea IVF and Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Systems and Device Technology The EU-funded FP7 project COSIVU aims at a new system architecture for drive-trains by development of a smart, compact and durable single-wheel drive unit with integrated electric motor, compact transmission, full silicon carbide (SiC) power electronics (switches and diodes), and an advanced ultracompact cooling solution. The main goals of COSIVU is to increase performance, flexibility as well as safety and reliability of commercial hybrid and electric vehicles, which are even more demanding with respect to power, performance, durability, and availability than other types of vehicles. In addition, the new architecture will be adapted to other vehicle platforms such as passenger cars. The COSIVU solution is integration of the wheel motor and the inverter into one system package. During the first twelve months of the project the COSIVU system architecture concept has been developed and a highly modular packaging concept was chosen for the power stage, using “Inverter Building Blocks” (IBB). SiC bipolar transistors and diodes have been selected and production of packaged SiC devices has started. The design of a double sided cooling version of the modules has been initiated. A theoretical design of a new driver solution, which includes power saving and reliability enhancing features, has been done. A thermal investigation test bench has been designed for the thermal characterization of the SiC based power modules. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp191-200 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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RELIABILITY OF NEW SIC BJT POWER MODULES FOR FULLY ELECTRIC VEHICLES Fraunhofer Institute for Electronic Nano Systems ENAS, Berliner Nanotest und Design, Swerea IVF and Fairchild Semiconductor Wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide (SiC) or gallium nitride (GaN) have the potential to considerably enhance the energy efficiency and to reduce the weight of power electronic systems in electric vehicles due to their improved electrical and thermal properties in comparison to silicon based solutions. In this paper, a novel SiC based power module will be introduced, which is going to be integrated into a currently developed drive-train system for electric commercial vehicles. Increased requirements with respect to robustness and lifetime are typical for this application field. Therefore, reliability aspects such as lifetime-limiting factors, reliability assessment strategies as well as possible derived optimization measures will be the main focus of the described work. Covers - cooling system. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp234-244 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.) FUTURE TRENDS OF ADVANCED POWER ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES Graz University of Technology Nowadays, advanced power electronics have efficiencies of more than 95% and give enhanced possibilities of power conversion. Nevertheless, the efficiency of electric propulsion systems can be raised in the future, but the potential for efficiency increase in electric systems is limited. Ongoing advances in power electronics can support an improvement of control systems within automotive drive units. New developed or designed components enable systems that are more efficient as well as effective control strategies. In this paper, advantages and disadvantages of different configurations are specified, evaluated and discussed. Practical examples of electric converter systems are given explicitly and conclusions for the future are made. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp287-296 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Energy storage systems VALIDATION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY STORAGES LIBRARY BASED ON BATTERY MEASUREMENTS Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH (AIT) The ongoing activities in the electrification of the conventional vehicle technology offer a great chance for an important contribution to the protection of the environment by helping to reduce and keep CO2 emissions low. A crucial step for developing innovative electrical vehicles is the successful exploitation of new technologies. Due to the need for a convenient range for electric vehicles (EV), lithium-ion technologies are very attractive for such systems. As they provide proper operating characteristics such as high energy density, cycle stability, etc, they are often used in battery systems for automotive applications. Thus also a growing demand in special simulation software for lithium-ion battery cells has been recognised in recent years. In this contribution the development, modelling and validation of multiphysical battery models using the description language Modelica will be presented in order to embrace the need for simulation models for electric energy storages. Modelica is a modern, object-oriented modelling language which is specialised on modelling complex multiphysical systems. The battery models developed in this work are provided in the Electric Energy Storages (EES) library which allows simulating the operating behaviour of lithium-ion batteries on cell and stack level considering the mutual influence of electric, thermal and aging effects on each other. The electric parameters of one particular battery cell are estimated on the basis of measurement data, generated at AIT’s battery testing laboratory. For validation, an FTP-72 load cycle is applied to the configured battery model and the real battery in order to compare the simulated and the measured operating behaviour. The developed EES library allows simulating a wide range of different battery technologies for various practical user applications such



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as vehicle to grid scenarios or function development of a battery management system. Thereby key aspects like electric, thermal and aging effects can be considered and evaluated with respect to the operating mode of the battery. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-085.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)

KERS 4WD ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY VEHICLES WITH FRONT SMALL, TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION ENGINES AND REAR KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEM RMIT University Kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS) placed on the rear non-motored axle of a small, lightweight, forward drive passenger car with a turbocharged direct injection (TDI) internal combustion engine (ICE) is possibly the best solution presently available to dramatically improve the fuel economy of today’s passenger cars within today’s constraints of budget, weight, packaging, simple construction, easy operation and best life cycle environmental friendliness. The vehicle may be built by using different KERS designs, from the purely mechanical M-KERS based on a continuously variable transmission and a flywheel permitting round trip regenerative braking efficiencies above 80% but requesting additional research and development and having the energy storage unit empty at the start of the driving cycle, to purely electric E-KERS systems based on an electric motor/generator and a battery with off the shelf components permitting round trip regenerative braking efficiencies above 70%, start with the energy storage unit full, but having however the traction battery as the weak part of the design, to mixed mechanical-electric systems EM-KERS adopting an electromechanical flywheel replacing the traction battery for intermediate advantages and downfalls. The engine is small displacement, small number of cylinders, high power density, turbocharged, direct injection. The TDI ICE may be gasoline or diesel, with higher power density but lower fuel conversion efficiency or vice-versa, with or without start-stop capability, to deliver high part load efficiencies over the reduced off idle operating points of a driving cycle. Downsizing, down speeding and KERS assistance permits to reduce the operation of the thermal engine over non-efficient brake mean effective pressure x speed map points in addition to the thermal engine energy supply reduction by the regenerative braking. The front wheel drive vehicle behaves as a four wheel drive during the driving characterized by accelerations and decelerations, with the thermal engine torque boosted by the KERS. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-003.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.)

Motors A CONCEPT FOR AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE WITH WHEEL HUB DRIVES FOR IMPROVED VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND PACKAGE EFFICIENCY Ford, Continental, RWTH Aachen University, Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule Regensburg and Schaeffler Technologies As the most efficient usage of limited traffic areas for individual traffic is highly desired, this paper describes a new concept for an energy and space efficient passenger car driven by electric wheel hub drives at the rear axle. It is characterized by enhanced vehicle dynamics, energy efficiency, manoeuvrability and safety, as well as by an improved ratio of usable volume to ground area. This project's aim is to enable wheel hub drives to be used in marketable mass production cars for the first time. Within this project, two main approaches are carried out in parallel. While the overall vehicle concept, packaging and design of body and chassis systems, are done in a virtual development environment, the drive and brake systems are fully developed and realized in hardware. The development of the vehicle dynamics controls is done both by simulations as well as by test drives. Based on the motion control approach, a torque vectoring control including a speed-window-control of the wheel hub drives is realised with the aim of using the maximum recuperation potential and enhancing the vehicle stability. The speed-window-control utilises fully the higher control dynamics



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of the wheel hub drives compared to a conventional brake system and limits the wheel hub drive speeds to maximum and minimum boundaries. For this purpose two technology demonstrators will be built equipped with two wheel hub drives and a brake system optimised for energy recuperation and controllability. Based on these technologies the functional safety will be examined according to ISO 26262 standard. The project's main results are planned to be both a production-oriented virtual prototype vehicle, optimised for electric wheel hub drives at the rear axle as well as the driveable technology demonstrators, equipped with the named drive system, showing improved vehicle dynamics and energy efficiency with increasing the safety and comfort known by the unmodified base vehicle. The properties of the virtual prototype will be evaluated by comparison to applicable and existing reference vehicles. By applying accepted test procedures to the technology demonstrators, the performance and the robustness of the new drive system as well as the improved vehicle dynamics will be proven. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-005.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 11pp.) MORE AGILE IN THE CITY: SCHAEFFLER´S WHEEL HUB DRIVES Schaeffler The use of a wheel hub drive has various advantages for drivers: - Usable space is gained in the vehicle body. No “engine compartment” is required, which means new body designs are possible. - The wheel turning angle can be increased because drive shafts are not required. Manoeuvrability is significantly improved from the customer’s perspective. This also applies when the vehicle has a driven rear axle because targeted assisted steering with torque vectoring can be operated on road surfaces with al low friction coefficient. - Driving pleasure and safety are increased because the control quality of the drive is higher than that of central drive systems because power is transmitted directly without a transmission and side shafts. These conventional target values of automobile development will be decisive for achieving customer acceptance of small city cars. In our opinion, electric vehicles will not be marketable on solely rational grounds – small traffic area and a good CO2 footprint. - Driving will be significantly simpler: For example, when starting on ice only the maximum transmissible torque is applied even if the accelerator pedal is fully depressed. - Passive safety is also increased because conventional drive units with high masses fitted in the engine compartment will no longer enter the vehicle interior if a frontal impact occurs. Covers – concepts for an electric wheel drive, a new generation of wheel hub drive, design and construction, electric/electronic components, the MEHREN research project. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_30_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 6pp.)

Networks POWER SAVING IN AUTOMOTIVE ETHERNET NXP Semiconductors A network sleep and wake-up concept designed to promote in-vehicle energy efficiency is nowhere to be found in the BroadR-Reach automotive Ethernet standard. However, a variety of approaches which would be compatible with the standard are conceivable. Below we set out some objectives in relation to the implementation of a sleep and wake-up process and take a closer look at various possible approaches. On technical grounds we shall come down in favour of an approach which permits the control of the sleep and wake-up processes using the network’s own resources. We go on to discuss partial networking as a network management operational state for an Ethernet-based transmission system and show how the associated sleep and wake-up process can be implemented at physical level. The proposed solution employs familiar AUTOSAR control mechanisms which are already in use in today’s vehicle networks. Covers - CAN, LIN, FlexRay. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp93-100 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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ANALYSIS OF CLUSTER RING CONTROLLER/AREA NETWORKS FOR ENHANCED TRANSMISSION AND FAULT-TOLERANCE IN VEHICLE NETWORKS National Tsing Hua University The Controller Area Network (CAN) is widely adopted in vehicle networks due to the simple communication protocol. However, with the increasing node number in vehicle network, insufficient bandwidth and faulty nodes or links, become two important problems in a single CAN bus. We propose a cluster ring topology for CAN bus to tackle both the bandwidth and fault tolerance problems. By applying the cluster ring topology, the extra bandwidth can also be used to fault tolerance for link or node fails. In addition, we estimate the injection rate versus schedulable messages in the three cluster ring topologies. The throughput models under different link or node faults for the three cluster ring topologies are also analysed. Then we provide simulation results to verify the developed theoretical models. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp101-110 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Relays WHEN DO WE GET THE ELECTRONIC BATTERY SWITCH? Infineon Technologies The battery pack of an electric or a hybrid vehicle is stacked to dangerous voltages up to 400 volts. It has to be disconnected during parking, for maintenance and very quickly in case of an accident. Special high voltage relays are State-of-the-art. As these components are easily damaged, expensive, heavy and bulky, a solution based on pure semiconductors is desired. This paper describes the benefits of a purely solid state battery switch. They provide the potential for increased reliability and more than a thousand times faster switching time in the case of an external short circuit. The weight could be reduced to a third from 3 kg to 1 kg, and the volume could be reduced over 79 from 7 litres to 2 litres. Despite the enormous performance gain, the production costs are likely to be similar or slightly lower. Covers - MOSFET components, short circuits. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp165-177 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Safety SAFETY SIMULATION IN THE CONCEPT PHASE: ADVANCED CO-SIMULATION TOOLCHAIN FOR CONVENTIONAL, HYBRID AND FULLY ELECTRIC VEHICLES AVL Modern vehicle powertrains include electronically controlled mechanical, electrical and hydraulic systems, such as double clutch transmissions (DCT), powerful regenerative braking systems and distributed e-Machines (EM), which leads to new safety challenges. Functional failure analysis of events such as the sudden failure of a DCT or EM, and the development and the validation of suitable controllers and networks, can now be evaluated using co-simulation techniques, from the early stages of product development. A co-simulation toolchain with a 3D vehicle and road model, coupled with a 1D powertrain model, is used to enable the definition of hardware and software functions, and also to support the rating of the Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL) during hazard analysis and risk assessment in the context of ISO 26262. This innovative approach may be applied to a wide range of powertrain topologies, including conventional, hybrid electric and fully electric, for cars, motorcycles, light or heavy-duty truck or bus applications. Covers - functional safety, controllability. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp153-164 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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Semiconductors/transistors POWER SEMICONDUCTORS: KEY COMPONENTS FOR HEV/EV University of Applied Science Aachen Due to increasing electrification power semiconductors become more and more key components for modern vehicles. The objective of this study is to investigate current solutions and to identify new trends for power semiconductors. The investigation is split into two parts and is based on a typical application of today’s and future cars. The inverter for motor control is analyzed in terms of power semiconductors. The analysis covers requirements of the electrical properties of the power devices. The second part examines existing power semiconductors like PowerMOSFET and IGBT in low and high voltage boardnet respectively. Finally the requirements are compared to the existing devices. Based on this comparison a gap analysis is done to extract future trends for the power devices. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-054.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 5pp.)

Sensors MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS IN BATTERY-ELECTRIC AND HYBRID CARS Graz University of Technology Over the last years discussions have been raising, which technology of propulsion systems will be optimal for future ground vehicles. Mainly conventional internal combustion engines (ICE) have been in use up to now, but battery-electric (BEV) or hybrid (HEV) propulsion systems are gaining more and more popularity worldwide. Therefore, different measurement equipment has to be used within battery-electric and hybrid drivetrain configurations compared to conventional cars. However, within battery-electric drive technologies the charging infrastructure and battery system is still a challenge to be mastered. With the help of appropriate measuring sensors and measurement systems, an inventive concept for a new monitoring system can be used to improve the total efficiency of battery-electric and hybrid propulsion systems. A special focus has been set on the energy consumption of battery-electric vehicles as well as the state of the art of power supply and battery systems. Different electric measuring sensors and measurement systems are compared according to the state of the art and its practical application. With the help of the acquired measurement data, suggestions for energy efficiency improvements can be made. The paper includes an overview of sensor architectures in automotive applications and a detailed discussion of selected technologies. Covers – ABS braking systems, Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC). See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-076.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.)

Starter generators INTRODUCTION OF 48 V BELT DRIVE SYSTEM: NEW TENSIONER AND DECOUPLER SOLUTIONS FOR BELT DRIVEN MILD HYBRID SYSTEMS Schaeffler The market for belt drives is in motion. At the 2010 Schaeffler Symposium, the focus was exclusively on conventional belt drives with pure load operation of the accessories. Since then, systems with belt starter alternators have increased in importance for belt drive development. They serve to support additional functions like recuperation, boost operation, and engine starts, and thus offer advantages for the fuel economy and function of the engine. The introduction of 48-volt electrical systems can mean a new boost for belt starter alternators. These enable an increased electric power output and mild hybridization of drives at justifiable costs. Through expanded functions –such as recuperation and electric boosting– considerable fuel consumption savings of up to 14 percent in the NEDC can be achieved. The transmission of ever-increasing levels of power and torque means belts are subjected to higher dynamic loads. At the same time, vibrations are increasingly introduced into the belt drive,



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as more and more frequently engines with reduced number of cylinders, but high mean pressures and thus high rotational irregularities are used. Innovative auto tensioners and crankshaft decouplers from Schaeffler are able to transmit the higher torques safely and also to reduce the vibration with the right design. Covers - Conventional belt drives and belt-driven starter alternator applications, belt tensioner configuration for the mild hybrid with belt starter alternator, belt starter systems with crankshaft decoupling, air conditioning in the vehicle interior with the internal combustion engine switched off. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_33_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 9pp.)

Testing A STUDY ON AUTOMATED TEST CASE GENERATION OF MODEL-BASED TESTING FOR FUNCTIONAL SAFETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONIC SYSTEM Kyungpook National University Model-based testing is a kind of testing methodology that is based on a model of SUT. Test case generator can create abstract test cases to verify and validate the model of SUT. After that, Test script generator creates concrete test cases that can run on the System under Test (SUT). The objective of this study is to implement automated generation of abstract and concrete test cases with Commercial-off-the-Shell (COTS) tools that is widely used in automotive industry. Model-based testing methodology requires some processes, such as requirement analysis, modelling and test case generation. Nowadays, several COTS tools are used in automotive industry. Most COTS modelling tools provide automated verification and validation tools but do not support test case generation. The abstract test cases for model verification and validation cannot run on the SUT. To run the concrete test cases on the SUT, appropriated COTS tools are needed. In this study, automated test case generation methodology based on XML for the automotive electronic system with discrete data has been carried out. XML translator has been developed to exchange the information of the SUT between COTS tools. Also, concrete test case generator based on XML has been developed to run the test cases on the SUT. Automated test case generation of model-based testing framework will be presented. In this paper, discrete model and test case data will be presented as the results of functional requirements and safety evaluation. Abstract test cases can assure the test coverage of the generated test cases and concrete test cases can run on the SUT. When the model is modified, automated test cases generation provides suitable abstract test cases and concrete test cases in time. Depending on the test case generation algorithm, the test coverage and the test cases can be adjustable. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-110.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.)



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HEAT EXCHANGERS

FATIGUE STUDY ON COMPLEX STRUCTURES OF BRAZED HEAT EXCHANGERS: WÖHLER CURVES OF ALUMINIUM MOCK-UPS Valeo Due to economic and environmental issues, the components weight and so the material thicknesses have been reduced which led to fatigue problems. In this study, a prototype dye was created to perform the fatigue test directly on aluminium mock-ups (tube and header of car thermal exchanger). The Wohler curves at the crack initiation compared with that of the mock-ups complete torn-off and the temperature influence are shown. A metallographic analysis coupled with EBSD analyses is proposed to understand the crack propagation as a function of the grains misorientation and a SEM study shows the propagation mode on a tube. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-009.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) EN & SN FATIGUE CURVES ON THIN (0.27 MM TO 1.2 MM) ALUMINIUM COILS FOR HEAT EXCHANGER APPLICATION: CREATION OF A NORM FOR MATERIAL VALIDATION Valeo Due to economic and environmental issues, the components weight and so the materials thickness have been reduced. This thickness reduction, combined with thermal shocks undergone by the exchangers and by the brazing assembly, led to oligocyclic fatigue problems on exchangers components, and particularly on tubes. To improve the Valeo exchangers reliability, SN & EN fatigue curves have been performed to standardise in fatigue the thin materials used for the thermal exchanger manufacturing. The temperature influence has been taken into account for the SN curves, and a first version of a criterion has been formulated. Several series materials of different thickness coming from different suppliers have been sampled. For each material, strips have been cut in the material reels. The half of the strips has been brazed according to a Valeo specific protocol and the other part not. All the strips have been machining by electro-erosion on tensile, SN and EN test-pieces. Covers - Wohler curves, Manson-Coffin curves, tensile strength. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-010.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) STUDY OF THE MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION IMPACT ON CORROSION RESISTANCE OF ALUMINIUM HEAT EXCHANGERS Valeo The context of this study is the microbial contamination of Aluminium heat exchangers. Different studies have been performed on microbial corrosion but only on steel and stainless steel alloys. These studies revealed an important impact of some bacteria on steel material corrosion resistance but the process takes a lot of time. We know that microbial contamination of parts lead to odour problem and now we have to demonstrate if the contamination can be harmful to Aluminium corrosion resistance and especially in a very short time. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-075.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.)



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HVAC

VEHICLE AC SYSTEM DURABILITY AND COMPRESSOR WARRANTY CONCERN CHANCE Visteon The majority of vehicle AC system warranty costs are a result of compressor replacement caused by excessive wear and seizure-related failures. In today's environment, compressor manufacturers can control manufacturing process well and maintain a stable product quality. Thus, compressor durability heavily relies on a durable AC system design. Both vehicle compressor suppliers have a variety of procedures and test methods to evaluate AC system and compressor durability. Often times, we still see very different compressor warranty return rates (one higher, the other lower) for the same compressor from the same production line in similar vehicle AC systems. In many cases, both AC systems passed vehicle and component durability tests. In addition, compressor manufacturing process quality was controlled well. The question remains why is there such different compressor warranty return rates? It drives one to think of a common index to characterize AC system durability level and thus link compressor warranty return rate with the degree of AC system durability. In this paper, vehicle drive duty cycle and AC usage, profiles are discussed. AC system and compressor durability tests are reviewed. Compressor warranty concern chance (CWCC) is introduced and discussed. CWCC is developed from a compressor compression index that describes compressor working status in AC system. By valuating vehicle AC system and component durability test data, CWCC is calculated by coupling with vehicle AC usage profiles. With this method, it can proactively analyse AC system and compressor durability test data to develop an index of compressor warranty concern chance, thus providing us a high confidence level for a robust AC system. See SAE 2013-01-1291 (2013, 7pp.) EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION OF TWO-PHASE EJECTOR AIR-CONDITIONING CYCLES USING LOW-PRESSURE REFRIGERANTS R134A AND R1234YF University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Two-phase ejectors have received increased attention in recent years because of their ability to improve the performance of automotive air-conditioning cycles by means of expansion work recovery. Much attention in recent years has been given to how high-pressure fluids, such as carbon dioxide, perform with ejector cycles; high-pressure fluids tend to have higher throttling loss, making them more attractive for expansion work recovery cycles, such as the two-phase ejector cycle. However, low-pressure fluids, such as those commonly used in automotive air-conditioning applications, tend to offer significantly lower work recovery potential. Nonetheless, the limited previous work on low-pressure refrigerants in ejector systems has shown that there is some improvement potential when using these fluids with ejector cycles. This paper presents the results of experimental and analytical investigations in which the performance of the low-pressure fluids R134a and R1234yf is compared between a conventional cycle without an ejector and several two-phase ejector cycles. An analytical comparison of the theoretical COP's and other practical advantages of several different two-phase ejector refrigeration cycles is presented. An ejector cycle was constructed in which the pressure lift provided by the ejector was utilised in order to provide multiple evaporation temperatures. Multiple evaporators provide the potential for reduced exergetic losses between refrigerant and a single air stream as well as the possibility of cooling multiple air streams, which can be beneficial in some applications. Experimental results comparing the performance of the two fluids on the cycles are presented. See SAE 2013-01-1495 (2013, 12pp.)



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STEERING

STRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE OF A NOVEL ELECTRIC POWER STEERING SYSTEM INTEGRATED WITH ACTIVE STEERING Ningbo University of Technology and Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Based on the review of the primary functions, as well as defects of the existing electric power steering (EPS) and active steering respectively, a realisation of active steering on existing EPS system is researched and a novel EPS system integrated with active steering is introduced. According to the working principle of double planetary gear train, decoupling control of force and angular displacement is realised. To study the effects of the proposed novel EPS system on vehicle's steering performance, mathematical models are built and then amplitude–frequency characters of steering feeling and steering sensitivity, as well as stability are investigated. Results indicate that road information can be measured by the torque sensor without any installation position changing, compared with that of existing EPS system and no other torque sensor is needed. Meanwhile, perfect combination of force and angular displacement can be obtained by the novel EPS system. See Doc.145922 (International Journal of Vehicle Design, 2014, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp94-113.) DEVELOPMENT OF AFS SYSTEM MODEL AND COMPARISON OF AFS CONTROLLERS WITH SMC, FLC AND PID CONTROL METHODS Tongmyong University In this study, three active front-steering (AFS) controllers were developed to enhance the lateral stability of a vehicle. They were designed using proportional – integral – derivative (PID), fuzzy-logic, and sliding-mode control methods. The controllers were compared under several driving and road conditions with and without the application of braking force. A 14 degree of freedom vehicle model and a driver model were employed to test the controllers. The results show that the three AFS controllers allowed the yaw rate to follow the reference yaw rate very well, and consequently the lateral stability improved. The results also verify that the driver model can sufficiently control the vehicle to allow it to follow a desired path. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-014.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) OPTIMAL DESIGN OF OFF-CENTER STEERING CHARACTERISTICS BASED ON SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION Tongji University and JTEKT Corporation Off-centre condition directly influences drivers’ steering feeling for vehicles with medium-low speeds. This paper focuses on optimal design of off-centre steering characteristics. Firstly, thirteen drivers were asked to rate the designed steering characteristics subjectively on local-express lanes in the speed from 40 km/h to 80 km/h; objective evaluation tests were conducted to derive objective evaluation indices. Then the correlations between subjective evaluations and objective evaluation indices were established by regression analysis. Setting a subjective evaluation rating as the goal of optimisation, the corresponding steering characteristic was achieved by nonlinear programming. The achieved optimal steering characteristic was rated relatively higher by three drivers from the same subjective sample group, verifying the reliability of the proposed method. At last, a map indicating the relationship affected by vehicle speed was achieved. The achieved results can be used as a guide for the development of a steering system. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-036.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) INTEGRAL ANALYSIS OF A VEHICLE AND EPS LOGICS FOR IMPROVING STEERING FEELING PERFORMANCE Hyundai This research aimed to inquire the steering feeling performance according to the steering system and the EPS Logic using the steering model and to propose the improvement direction of steering



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feeling performance for our vehicle through comparative analysis with a competitor vehicle with an excellent steering feel. Firstly we define objective indices of steering feeling using subjective-objective correlation study about voice of customers and reverse engineering about competitors. Second, we propose straight forward method to decide the parameter which is related to steering feeling for obtaining the characteristics of reference vehicle. A simulation model can make that procedure efficient. Therefore we implement the process using the multi-body simulation model that is validated by test result. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-046.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.) EFFECTIVENESS OF ACTIVE STEERING SYSTEMS UNDER DIFFERENT HANDLING MANEUVERS Concordia University Active Front Steering (AFS) systems are known to yield enhanced vehicle handling performance through application of a corrective steer angle to realize a target vehicle response over a wide range of forward speed. An AFS system, however, may yield limited performance under severe steering manoeuvres involving substantial lateral load shift and saturation of the inside tyre-road adhesion. The adhesion available at the outer tyre, on the other hand, would remain under-utilised. This study explores effectiveness of an Active Independent Front Steering (AIFS) system that could introduce a corrective measure at each wheel in an independent manner. Unlike the AFS, the AIFS system can thus permit maximum utilisation of the tyre-road adhesion at both the steered wheels without approaching saturation. The effectiveness of the AIFS system is investigated through simulation of a nonlinear yaw plane model of a two-axle truck with limited roll degree-of-freedom (DOF) under a range of steering manoeuvres. A simple PI controller is synthesised to track the reference response based on the neutral steer system. Considering instantaneous load shift between the steered wheels, controller applies relatively higher steering correction to the outer wheel with higher normal load compared to the inside wheel subjected to lower normal load. The steering corrections, however, are limited such that none of the tyres approach saturation. For this purpose, a tyre saturation zone is identified considering the normalised cornering stiffness property of the tyre. The responses are evaluated in terms of work-load of the inside tyre and the controller strategy is formulated so as to limit the work-load magnitude at a pre-determined level to ensure sufficient tyre-road adhesion reserve to meet the braking demand, when exists. Simulations results are obtained for the truck models integrating AFS and AIFS systems subjected to a range of steering manoeuvres, namely: a J-turn manoeuvre on uniform as well as split-µ road conditions, and path change and obstacle avoidance manoeuvres. The directional responses in terms of yaw rate, path trajectory, steer angles and tyre work-load are discussed to illustrate the effectiveness of AIFS relative to the AFS system. The responses are also compared with those of the model without an active steering control. It is shown that both AFS and AIFS can effectively track the target yaw rate of the vehicle, while the AFS exhibits limited performance due to saturation of adhesion at the inner tyre particularly under severe manoeuvres. The AIFS, however, helps limit saturation of the inside tyre by reducing its steer angle and permits maximum utilisation of the available tyre-road adhesion of the outside tyre by increasing its steering correction. The AIFS can thus be designed to provide target response while maintain a desired level of tyre-work load over the entire range of speed up to the vehicle rollover limit. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-065.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 12pp.) OPTIMIZATION OF THE STEERING CHARACTERISTICS IN THE VIRTUAL WHOLE VEHICLE - CONSIDERING REAL-TIME-CAPABLE MULTI-BODY SUSPENSIONS, STEERING, CONTROL SYSTEMS AND TYRES IPG Automotive So far, the domains of multi-body system suspensions (MBS) and real-time simulation have been completely separate entities. On the one hand the current MBS techniques are handicapped by very slow computation performance, productivity and global vehicle evaluation of integrated systems. Furthermore, MBS cannot be used for real-time applications for controller development and XiL methods, where real-world systems such as the ECU, the steering system, ESC and the



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powertrain system are integrated in a whole virtual vehicle. On the other hand, the real-time models are often not detailed enough to modify directly design parameters such as hard points and bushings or represent dynamic chassis characteristics, which in some applications are essential for gaining knowledge about the interaction. Now the long-held dream of applying a full-vehicle model with MBS (>100 DOF) in real-time has become true for the first time worldwide. This milestone achievement makes it possible to efficiently evaluate vehicle dynamics for ride and handling in the whole vehicle. The method will be illustrated by the example “optimisation of the vehicle steering behaviour”. The optimisation was evaluated with a manoeuvre catalogue and evaluation criteria - in the same manner as with real road tests. IPG has developed real-time MBS axles as well as a new axle interface for its vehicle model. Different model types can now be switched: MBS axles as well as the given multidimensional 3D K&C models. The MBS axle models were developed by means of MESA VERDE. The benefit is that this formalism represents the full non- linearity of all effects and is able to generate the differential equations of motion automatically. This has a symbolical and alphanumerical structure for dynamic allocation as well as intelligent substitution algorithms for minimal differential equations, which leads to a reduction of matrix operations. C-code can be generated directly and automatically. In addition to the service-based software architecture with multi-threading the comprehensive interface structure with the model management was key factor of success to meet the real-time target. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-068.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF UNDERSTEER COMPENSATION BY FOUR WHEEL BRAKING University of Lincoln AAM and Chalmers University of Technology This study is designed to validate a new approach to understeer mitigation chassis control, based on a particle motion reference: parabolic path reference (PPR). Considering the scenario of excess entry speed into a curve, related to run-off-road crashes, the aim is that automatic braking minimises lateral deviation from the target path by using an optimal combination of deceleration, cornering forces and yaw moments. Previous simulation studies showed that four-wheel braking can achieve this much better than a conventional form of yaw moment control (DYC). The aim of this work is to verify this on a test track with an experimental vehicle, and to compare performance with DYC and an uncontrolled vehicle. Experiments were performed with a front-wheel-drive passenger vehicle equipped with an additional four identical brake calipers controlled via an electro-hydraulic brake (EHB) system, enabling individual brake control. Minimising the maximum deviation from the intended curve radius is the control objective. Feedback to the controller consists of the available steering wheel angle, wheel speeds, yaw rate and lateral acceleration sensors in the vehicle. Additional to these variables, also the vehicle position was logged using a GPS system. It was found that PPR is superior to DYC in reducing the maximum deviation from the intended path, confirming the trends previously found in simulations. Furthermore, the PPR concept is found to be inherently more stable than DYC since more brake force is applied to the outer wheels than the inner wheels throughout the manoeuvre. The experiments involve a first implementation of a PPR control which is not a fully closed-loop control intervention and tuned to a step steer (transition from straight to fixed-radius curve. This is the first study to explicitly and systematically evaluate this new approach to understeer mitigation. The approach is fundamentally different from common DYC and suggests the potential for a new generation of controllers based on trajectory control via chassis actuators. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-074.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.) 2-DRIVE MOTOR CONTROL UNIT FOR ELECTRIC POWER STEERING Denso and JTEKT Corporation Electric power steering is increasing its number and expanding to heavier vehicles. We developed new motor control unit (MCU) for EPS. Motor and ECU were integrated for better installation and adopted redundant 2-drive design for more safe EPS. Developed MCU maintains assist of EPS even after failure in one drive unit. We also upgraded its performance with 2-drive technologies. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-117.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.)



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STOP-START SYSTEMS

DRY RUNNING, PERMANENTLY ENGAGED STARTER SYSTEM (PES) FOR A COMFORTABLE START OF COMBUSTION ENGINES PROVIDING FURTHER POTENTIAL TO REDUCE FUEL CONSUMPTION BorgWarner Engine Start/Stop systems are becoming standard in almost every vehicle category to meet emission targets. However the end customers poorly accept conventional solutions with an engaging pinion starter due to their operational behaviour. To improve especially the starting performance of a combustion engine, this paper shows a one-way clutch (OWC) system for permanently engaged starter (PES), that can be integrated into the flexplate respectively (dual-mass) flywheel of a powertrain and disconnects the starter motor from the crankshaft after engine start. Designed as a robust, dry running system, it has low requirements in terms of installation space needed between the internal combustion engine (lCE) and transmission and also low effect on existing engine designs and installation processes of powertrains. Because of its innovative design and the permanently engaged pinion the dry PES has advantages in the operational behaviour compared to conventional solutions: - "Change-of-Mind" capability (starter motor can be switched on anytime) - Faster system response and better repeatability - No additional drag torque and no wear at engine speeds above idle. - Improvement of NVH behaviour during engine start - Increase of ring gear durability for higher amount of engine stop/start cycles. BorgWarner's dry PES system not only provides idem advantages compared to present Start/Stop systems, but also enables lot of potentials for future technologies in automotive powertrains with combustion engines: - Advanced sailing and coasting functionality with early engine shut off. Hybrid applications with a high number of engine restarts - No additional system required for cold start - Reduction of crankshaft torque load during engine cranking. With an almost unnoticeable shut off and restart of the combustion engine, these technologies besides saving fuel also provide the potential to obtain wide acceptance of Start/Stop systems by the end customers. Covers – NVH behaviour, durability, drag torque, wear. See vCD 216 43m_Baumler.pdf and 43p_Baumler.pdf (VDI Congress - Drivetrain for Vehicles 2014, Friedrichshafen, Jun 2014, Paper – 15pp, Slides – 14pp.) START-STOP: YESTERDAY, TODAY AND TOMORROW Schaeffler Engine start-stop systems mark the entry into the electrified powertrain and from a cost-benefit point of view they are one of the best ways to reduce CO2 emissions. Savings measured under the NEDC amount to between 4 and 5%. In heavy urban traffic, the reduction in fuel consumption can be larger. Applying the current WLTP driving cycle it can be expected that the savings measured for basic start-stop systems will be lower than with the NEDC. This is due to the fact that the proportion of time during which the vehicle is stationary is estimated to be 13% – significantly lower compared to the NEDC which assumes 23%. By contrast, stop-start systems with sailing function will benefit since according to the new test procedure the vehicle is driven more dynamically and is accelerated to higher speeds. However, considering the reduced consumption under real driving conditions, basic start-stop systems still remain an affordable option. Surveys initiated by Schaeffler – even if they are not fully representative – show that many motorists would like to permanently switch off the start-stop system despite the proven benefits in fuel economy. This is due to discomfort associated with restarting. Here the currently used technologies, for example starter pinions, meet their functional limitations. A systemic approach to this task opens up promising options and potentials, for example when additionally taking into account the belt drives of accessory units as well as the second on-board electric system with 48V. This allows, for



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instance, comfortable air conditioning even with the engine switched off – to culminate in an initial mild hybridisation without the need for a high-voltage on-board system in the vehicle. Covers - the OEM view, market aspects, technical aspects, start-stop systems as judged by the customer, restart, change of mind, acoustics, technology roadmap, market development of start-stop systems, provisions of hydraulic pressure, gear detection, starter pinion with two-speed transmission, two-speed planetary gear, electrified drive for the air-conditioning compressor. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_24_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 7pp.)



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SUSPENSIONS

INPUT BASED CONTROL OF FULL CAR MODEL (ATV) SEMI ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM-SIMULATION Hindustan University A semi-active suspension system (SASS) uses a damper whose damping rates can be varied automatically, by the influence of an electromagnet, in real-time according to the continuously changing road conditions. The method by which the damper is controlled is one of the crucial factors that ultimately determine the success or failure of it. In order to achieve success; the rear suspension damper is controlled, based on the inputs from sensors placed at front part of a vehicle, using H-infinity Skyhook Input Based control. The test vehicle is an All Terrain Vehicle (ATV) used in the standard of BAJASAE. This study includes a suspension system comprising of two controllable magneto-rheological dampers, associated sensors and controller. This paper reports the simulation result and performance of input based control of SASS fitted in a full car model. See SAE 2013-01-1926 (2013, 8pp.) THE DEVELOPMENT OF FR-BASED 4WD MULTI-LINK SUSPENSION Hyundai-Kia In this paper FR (Front Engine, Rear wheel Drive) based 4WD 5-link independent suspension systems are introduced which are developed for low friction road stability in the winter. The arrangement of the lower control arm of the newly developed suspensions has been changed in order to correspond to 4WD layout. And basic performance is satisfied due to the addition of the driveline. Also NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness) performance has improved, to enhance the comfort of the vehicle See SAE 2013-01-1235 (2013, 8pp.) CONTROL DESIGN FOR AN ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ANTI-ROLL BAR SYSTEM Ford Three criteria are important when designing a suspension for a passenger vehicle: safety, handling and comfort. A vehicle suspension is always a compromise between these three subjects. Here, active suspension components like active roll control systems (ARC) can give the suspension system different characteristics in different driving situations to provide a better compromise. ARC systems can actively influence the roll movement of a vehicle. This is done by actuators which control the preload of the anti-roll bars (ARB). The actuators can be placed between the two halves of the stabiliser as rotational or, instead of the ARB links, as linear actuators. Up to now these actuators are usually hydraulically driven. Hence CO2 emissions get more and more important, the most promising systems for the future are electromechanical active roll control systems (eARC). The engineering objective is the control of such a system. The first task of eARC systems is to control the roll angle during cornering. For that, a set point value of the roll angle is defined based on the actual lateral acceleration. The curve is designed to give a good directional stability. As there are two actuators (one at the front and one at the rear axle), there is one remaining degree of freedom in setting the torque ratio between front and rear. This is used for shifting the roll distribution in such a way to stabilise the vehicle in evasive manoeuvres, based on a calculated target yaw rate. A simulation environment was established to analyse the eARC performance. Hereby also a different accuracy of the actuator modelling was considered. The modelling covers not only simple first order systems. But it comprises also complex systems that have a complete electro motor modelled with torsion of the sway bars and with current and torque limitation. Then the effects of the eARC system were evaluated with respect to comfort on bad roads, the steering feel when doing lane changes and the driving stability in evasive situations. Also a Ford prototype vehicle was built up to analyse the eARC behaviour in practice. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-060.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.)



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A SIMPLE SUB-OPTIMAL CONTROLLER FOR A SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM Eindhoven University of Technology In this paper a controller is derived that is capable of improving driver comfort using semi-active suspension. Model predictive control (MPC) is used to find the best possible controller for the given criterion. A fairly simple switching controller that approaches the performance of the MPC controller can be found by identifying the relation between the control signal from the MPC controller and a set of known sensor signals. The proposed controller switches on the basis of state dependent information. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-091.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) REAR MULTI-LINK SUSPENSION OPTIMIZATION: UNIFIED APPROACH Dassault Systemes SIMULIA A typical analysis process for an automotive suspension design has the following sequential workflow: 1) the design of the suspension joint location through Kinematic and Compliance (K&C) analysis using rigid multi-body simulation software and 2) the topology design of the suspension components based on the stress analysis using commercial finite element software. The first analysis is typically performed by a vehicle dynamics group or vehicle lay-out group. Once all the suspension joint points are determined, a second structural analysis is performed by a stress or durability group to ensure that the suspension components have enough stiffness and that the stress distribution isn't susceptible to failure. In this paper, the above automotive suspension analyses are integrated in the Isight platform for both suspension joint location optimisation and topology optimisation as a unified approach. Abaqus is used for both K&C analysis and stress analysis considering the loading from the tyres. In order to create automotive suspension models easily, the authors have created an Abaqus/CAE plug-in with Python scripts. Abaqus/CAE is also used to set up the topology optimisation which is then solved with Tosca Structure. Tosca is able to provide an optimal topology for the suspension links starting from simple rectangular beam shape models. The unified approach is applied to a rear multi-link suspension. In the optimisation of the suspension joint locations, Toe and Camber are considered as objective functions and the joint point coordinates of the suspension links are set as design variables. The joint points of the links are optimised as the Toe and Camber behaviour follows the target behaviour through K&C analysis. Once the optimal suspension joint points are obtained, the topology optimisation analysis is performed, starting from simple beam shapes with rectangular cross section profiles. The unified approach makes it easy to perform automated analyses systematically to optimize the design of the suspension joint locations as well as the topology of the suspension components. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-001.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.) MODERN LIGHTWEIGHT METHODS BOOST OPTIMAL DESIGN OF KEY COMPONENTS IN THE BALANCED SUSPENSION China FAW The paper addressed DFMA and its implementation methods for light weighting of Commercial vehicle applications. In order to show the advantages of designing by modern lightweight methods, the paper takes the balanced suspension for example. In case 1, not only did the spring shackle reduce 15% and its cost saved 25%, but also the geometry imperfections are solved by material substitution. In case 2, the system was optimised in order to achieve the reasonable stiffness distribution during the concept design by topology. In the detailed design process, using functional consolidation method and CAE optimised method, the weight of the whole system reduced 34.4%, especially the optimised bracket reduced 25%. Furthermore, the cost of the whole system reduced 30% on the premise of material unchanged, the fatigue safe factor of which rose 24.5%. In conclusion ,using these modern lightweight methods, the system and key components of vehicle can be designed to be more light, more inexpensive, high efficient. Covers – Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA). See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-066.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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Shock absorbers

KINETIC ENERGY TO ELECTRIC ENERGY CONVERSION USING REGENERATIVE SHOCK ABSORBERS Magneti Marelli and European Commission Joint Research Centre The European Commission promotes the development and the early uptake of new and advanced CO2 emission-reducing vehicle technologies. Regenerative technologies form an important part of these so-called Eco-Innovations (EU 725/2011). Recently, interest is growing on regenerative shock absorbers, which convert part of the kinetic energy of vehicles suspensions into electric energy, used to charge the battery. This study, carried out in cooperation between Magneti Marelli SpA and the European Commission Joint Research Centre, depicts a clear and comprehensive scenario on this technology, evaluating the potential of CO2 saving. An extensive analysis of the available literature has been performed, considering different types of technologies. Attention has been paid to the possibility to obtain the desired damping characteristics. Solutions have been analysed to integrate the power coming from the shocks in the electric grid of the vehicle. The mechanical power in input to the shocks has been calculated, taking as a reference the ISO standard for road profiles (ISO 8608:1995) and using both theoretical formulas and computer simulations. The overall efficiency of the conversion from kinetic to electric power has been shown to range between 0.25 and 0.5. Accordingly, quantitative results about the potential of CO2 savings have been obtained: for passenger cars, the potential of CO2 savings has been calculated between 1 and 2 gCO2/km, while higher CO2 savings are possible for commercial and heavy-duty vehicles. As a final innovative result, it has been demonstrated that regenerative shocks have the potential to be eligible as Eco-Innovations, since they allow to exceed the minimum threshold of 1 gCO2/km. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-020.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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TYRES

EFFECTS OF TYRE THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS ON VEHICLE PERFORMANCE Toyota It is known that tyre characteristics are changed by the tyre temperature. This paper shows that the tyre temperature influences the tyre cornering characteristics such as tyre cornering stiffness and RRC and so on, and confirms this finding by calculating how the tyre temperature changes vehicle characteristics. In addition, the tyre temperature was measured on public roads and the vehicle characteristics in general driving conditions were estimated. Covers - tyre cornering force, rolling resistance coefficient, vehicle dynamics, objective evaluation. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-0054.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) PROBLEMS WITH TYRE REGULATIONS IN EUROPE European Association for Accident Research and Accident Analysis (EVU) This paper deals with the legal demands and its consequences of both Regulations (UN/ECE) No. R 117 and (EU) No. 1235/2011, with regards to the tyre wet grip performance for Passenger Car tyres C1, Light Commercial Vehicle tyres C2 and Truck and Bus tyres C3. The current Brussels EU Regulation No. 1235/2011, valid from May 30, 2012, has in contrast introduced a European Tyre Label with wet grip index G classes from A to G for Passenger Car tyres C1, Light Commercial Vehicles tyres C2 and Truck/Bus tyres C3. Every wet grip class for each vehicle category has a defined band of numerical values for the wet grip index G. The legislated wet grip values G in this Regulation are very low, given the state of the art for tyre manufacturing and resultant safety on European Roads. (Note: In addition, this Regulation (EU) No. 1235/2011 has NO lower wet grip limit set for the wet grip index G with tyres in wet grip class F in any of the vehicle categories C1, C2 or C3!) The Paper compares measurements of braking distances on vehicles with tyres of different wet grip classes in line with the proposed changes for C1 tyres in UN/ECE R 117 and its proposed numerical amendment to C2 and C3 tyres. These proposed changes and amendments are carbon copies of the wet grip values G in Regulation (EU) No. 1235/2011 for the European Tyre Label, with the vital distinction, that in the above UN/ECE R 117 proposal, at least the lower limits of tyre class F are correctly defined. The measured braking distances and corresponding impact speeds of the test vehicles, by using tyres with wet grip indices G according to the proposed amendments of UN/ECE R 117 on vehicles of all classes, are showing very critical results. For example a passenger car braking from 100 km/h with budget-tyres of class F compared to one with premium tyres of class A shows an increased stopping distance of about 25m in the extreme. This vehicle will therefore hit the already stationary vehicle in front of it with a remaining impact speed of about 58 km/h. A Bus will impact with about 75 km/h. EVU welcomes the new European Tyre Label Regulation. Independent market surveillance should be introduced in addition as focal point to the concepts of monitoring this regulation. (The current EU regulation calls for a “self-certification of the tyre manufacturers” only.) See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-057.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 11pp.) INVESTIGATING THE POTENTIAL OF WHEEL CORNER MODULES IN REDUCING ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES KTH Royal Institute of Technology The improvement in tyre rolling efficiency is one of the key elements to optimize the fuel economy and thereby reduce the vehicle emissions. Earlier efforts to reduce the rolling resistance have mainly been focusing on new materials in the tyre compounds. The overall research aim of this study is to present the potentials of implementing innovative chassis concepts with the focus on Wheel Corner Modules (WCM) by describing the possibilities in affecting rolling resistance and relating them to previous research findings. The core idea of the concept is to actively control and actuate all degrees of freedom in the wheel, i.e. implementing steering, suspension and propulsion



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functions into a unique module which can be implemented in each corner of the vehicle. Using this concept the limitations of traditional wheel kinematics can be resolved extensively. This article presents the first step towards creating a vehicle simulation model that can show how the WCM functionality can influence the rolling resistance. A model of loss is chosen after analysing the behaviour of a three different rubber models and then implemented into a brush tyre model. An effective way, but less complicated compared to current methods, to introduce the loss into tyre model is presented. In conventional suspensions, the design is compromising between for example safety, comfort and rolling resistance, etc, at all driving conditions. However, using the WCM, the possibility of achieving a better compromise between those objectives is possible. Finally, based on WCM functionalities a plausible control architecture is proposed. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-099.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) IMPROVEMENT OF HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS OF ‘ECO’ TIRES THROUGH MEASURES WITHIN THE WHEEL SUBSYSTEM Technische Universitat Dresden and Audi Tyres play an important role in vehicle dynamics, as they are the only physical connection between the vehicle and the road surface. Reduction of tyre rolling resistance, i.e. increase of tyre energy efficiency, in general causes deterioration of tyre handling characteristics, such as cornering stiffness and relaxation length as well as tyre grip. On full vehicle scale, such ‘eco’ tyres usually lead to compromised vehicle agility, responsiveness and driving safety. Therefore, in this paper efficient solutions for compensation of disadvantageous characteristics of ‘eco’ tyres are investigated, without leaving the scope of the wheel subsystem. To this extent, extensive research tyre measurements regarding handling and rolling resistance characteristics have been carried out. These measurements focus on investigation of the influence of rim width and internal pressure on tyre behaviour. In particular, cornering stiffness and relaxation length as well as rolling resistance are measured. First, in this research an exemplary ‘eco’ tyre of the ‘tall and narrow’ type is evaluated regarding its general characteristics in comparison with a regular reference tyre. Then, in order to derive general relationships between rim width and tyre characteristics, influence of rim width is investigated for regular tyres. This knowledge is subsequently used in investigation of the influence of rim width on a sample ‘eco’ tyre, which is combined with analysis of internal pressure. On the basis of these analyses a combination of these two influencing factors is derived based on their singular influence and measurements for comparison of expected and actual results are carried out. Finally, conclusions on measures for counteracting handling deficits of ‘eco’ tyres are derived and recommendations are formulated. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-103.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) EVALUATION OF TIRES INFLUENCE TO VEHICLES ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND A REVIEW ON EUROPE UNION’S TIRE LABELLING REGULATION 1222/2009 TEST METHODS VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland European Union Regulatory Framework on tyres has produced regulations for tyres sold within EU to help achieve the CO2 emission objectives set in EU for year 2020. Regulations EC 661/2009 and EC 1222/2009 aim to encourage consumers to acquire better tyres by fuel-efficiency labelling. The fuel-efficiency labelling of tyres is determined by EC regulation 1222/2009 and the measurement method by UNECE Regulation 117 measured rolling resistance. This test is performed on a freely rolling tyre, which doesn’t take into consideration transient driving situations and the differences of tyres’ efficiency to deliver traction power to road. Therefore, currently tyres’ fuel-efficiency label depicts mainly tyres’ rolling resistance on vehicles freely rolling axle. This study was aimed to get a better understanding of tyres’ influence to overall energy efficiency of a vehicle. In this study VTT has performed measurements on a chassis dynamometer in laboratory conditions with different tyres in a given vehicle. Initial measurements were made with eight tyres in 205/55R16 size, which is the most common tyre size in modern passenger cars. After the initial study two tyres were selected for additional measurements. The second tier study included alternations of the tyre pressure, the weight of the rim, width of the tyre and the diameter of the tyre. These alternations were made one by one, while other variables were kept constant. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-047.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.)



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ARTICLES BY ENGINEERING ACTIVITY

COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING

Simulation and modelling VEHICLE MODELING AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION USING ACTIVE TORQUE DISTRIBUTION National University of Sciences & Technology and Abasyn University The main aim of researchers, to prevent the spinning and drifting of vehicle, is to monitor the yaw stability control strategy. The yaw stability control system is incorporated with active torque distribution. A lot of work is done on torque distribution between right and left wheels using active differential to distribute torque to each drive wheel. Control algorithm based on different control strategies were used for torque distribution. In this study, active torque distribution strategy is incorporated via central transfer case between front and rear axle. A 4WD vehicle is used with 50-50 torque ratio amongst front and rear axle. The controlling parameter is the understeer and oversteer behaviour of the vehicle. A combined slip model approach used by Burckhardt is used for a 10 DOF vehicle modelling using MATLAB. The simulated results will be compared against a multibody nonlinear simulation software, i.e. CarSim. For implementation, J-turn test and Double Lane Change (DLC) were used. See SAE 2014-01-0103 (2014, 12pp.) ROBUSTNESS MODELLING OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS - APPLICATION TO THE INITIALISATION OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE PROPULSION SYSTEM Jaguar Land Rover and University of Warwick Robustness is particularly important in complex systems of systems due to emergent behaviour. This paper presents two novel, techniques developed as part of a framework for design for robustness of complex automotive electronic systems, but in principle could be applied to a broad range of distributed electronic systems. The overall framework is described to give the context of use for the techniques. The first technique is a “robustness case” which is a structured argument for the robustness of a system analogous to a safety case. The second is a model based approach to early robustness verification of complex systems. The approaches are demonstrated by their application to the system initialisation of the propulsion control system of a hybrid electric vehicle. The hybrid system initialisation process is discussed in terms of the key objectives and the technical implementation, illustrating the level of complexity underlying a simple high level requirement. The hybrid system initialisation model structure is presented in the form of a set of interlinked state-charts representing the five electronic control units and two control network systems which are the key system elements. An approach to model based robustness verification is described, covering a method of defining test objectives based on a structured robustness argument. The key steps in the testing of the model based on; coverage, parameter variation and fault insertion are described and illustrated with results. Finally, conclusions on the usefulness and limitations of the approach are given, with recommendations for further work. See SAE 2013-01-1231 (2013, 11pp.) PITFALLS IN REAL TIME SIMULATION MODELS CONVERSION Politehnica University of Bucharest and LMS International Real time simulation modelling approaches are usually based on mathematical simulation models that need special adjustments in order to investigate and to optimise the capabilities of the vehicle components. The objective of this study is to investigate the common pitfalls that are met during models conversion from offline simulation model to real-time-simulation model. The indispensable rapid prediction of vehicle behaviour represents a goal to be achieved. This can be completed by using simulation tools. During several vehicle operation stages, there are met



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different constrains with regard to the chassis and powertrain behaviour. The propulsion systems have to be optimised since the early design process stage. Real time simulation platforms have to be developed in order to satisfy these demands. They have to allow in detail virtually investigation for all the vehicles' components. The target is to test as early as possible the behaviour of the vehicles' systems in the environment they will be used in. Starting from a model in the loop (MIL) system, a virtual vehicle component is replaced with a physical component. During this transition there are met few inconsistencies. Some simulation pitfalls are not detectable by the system. Therefore, it is mandatory to investigate the behaviour for each virtual component and to compare it with psychical behaviour and data provided by acquisition systems. The predictive results include the possibility of testing virtual models in different environments and for different driving cycles. When physical components come available, they can replace the mathematical sub-models. The main finding has to include the approach of reducing, eliminating, or solving the pitfalls. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-083.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) A QUALITY FRAMEWORK FOR EVALUATING AUTOMOTIVE ARCHITECTURE Eindhoven University of Technology and DAF Trucks As the number and complexity of software systems increase in automobiles, it has become crucial to specify, measure, and evaluate automotive software quality. However, the existing quality methods focus on MATLAB/Simulink design models, and do not address architectural models (e.g. high-level functional or electrical/electronic (E/E) architectures). Therefore, our objective is to develop novel quality specification, measurement, and evaluation methods targeting both architectural and design models. We combine the methods proposed with recent insights in software quality modelling and create an integrated quality assessment framework for architectural and design models of automotive software. The quality framework comprises six quality characteristics, 16 sub-characteristics, 71 metrics, and three independent tools (parser, quality metrics calculator, and quality visualiser). By applying the framework to three subsequent releases of an architectural model and the corresponding design models, we have observed, for example, that addition of new functionality or bug fixing in design models often come at a price of increased complexity at the design level, and sometimes compromise modularity of the architectural model. Covers – Automotive System and Software Architecture (ASSA). See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-007.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) EARLY STAGE VEHICLE CONCEPT DESIGN USING ONE-DIMENSIONAL SIMULATION Honda Vehicle conceptual investigation at early stage of development has played significant role in accordance with increasingly complicated powertrain system and stricter regulation of fuel economy. This study presents a practical methodology for designing vehicle concept at earlier stage of development. This methodology consists of simulation tool chain that can predict vehicle acceleration and fuel consumption. In this paper, we demonstrate specific results of series-parallel-type plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) as an example. Then it’s proved that the vehicle simulation can define engine and motor power distribution according to vehicle target and requirement. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-028.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)

Software TEST DRIVEN MODEL BASED SERIES SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR AUTOMOTIVE SYSTEMS FEV With concerns growing over depleting fuel reserves and global warming, automotive manufacturers are adopting various methods to meet these challenges. In order to do so, the electronic content in the vehicles is increasing rapidly. Software is a key part of the electronic systems and the focus on quality, reliability, safety and traceability within the software systems is gathering momentum. To



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meet these developments, new standards have been established by manufacturers and suppliers to assure software quality with focus on safety systems. This paper focuses on the comprehensive testing and traceability process for lean and efficient software development at FEV GmbH. The test-driven model based software development approach involves the definition of test cases for the automotive software prior to the software implementation. While the specification follows the Autosar standard, implementation is realized model-based, generating control code fully automatically with established code generation tools. Test cases are defined, e.g. via the classification tree method for this purpose. In-house developed tools are tailored to automotive needs: the agile software development method “Continuous Integration” is applied to software models embedding diverse verification and validation methodologies as well as code integration and software documentation. The bi-directional traceability between the work products is ensured by an optimised interplay between the process and applied tools. This ensures software quality across various release versions and is also critical for safety functions within the software. The processes and tools developed in-house meet the requirements as laid down by the ISO 26262 standard for automotive systems. The discussed process leads to an increase in the software quality and early detection of faults in the software during the development process. This frontloading approach reduces time and costs of hardware-in-loop testing and in-Vehicle testing and improves the quality of the software at the same time. This is crucial in the current cost and quality driven environment. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-038.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)

Virtual engineering HIGH FIDELITY DRIVING SIMULATORS: ENTERING THE NEXT LEVEL OF VIRTUAL VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT Moog Dallara Today the role and level of detail of the virtual vehicle model in the several steps of the car development process has increased significantly. The software to execute virtual testing has matured significantly as well. This allows carmakers and suppliers to use virtual drivers to make an assessment of suspension designs, steering system layouts and various control algorithms. The current quality and fidelity of driving simulator technology allows carmakers to drive virtual car models. Particularly high fidelity driving simulator systems such as those from Moog are a valuable tool for carmakers to assess algorithms and designs by real human drivers. The added value of the later method is discussed in this article. In this article the added value of driving (virtual) car models is discussed. The discussion is divided into three segments. 1) Ultimate model validation. Driving the model by a professional test driver brings new insights to the surface. For validation and improvement of vehicle models a driving simulator makes the difference. 2) Hardware in the loop (HIL) and Software in the loop (SIL) have recently emerged as the main focus areas in the field of virtual testing. Nevertheless, the driver in the test remains a virtual entity, resulting in plots and data that require the interpretation of experts. With a driving simulator, a real human driver interprets the test results, enabling a comparison between the results in the plots and the evaluation of the professional test driver. 3) Subjective evaluation of new designs at a very early stage. Having a well-developed vehicle model and a vehicle dynamics focused driving simulator allows the manufacturer to drive and evaluate non-existing cars using real drivers in place of their virtual counterparts. Several subjects can drive different cars or different suspension settings in a very controlled environment in a short period of time. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-113.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 5pp.)



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CONTROL ENGINEERING

A CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR ELECTRIC POWER STEERING OF TIRE BLOWOUT VEHICLE TO REDUCE THE IMPACT TORQUE ON STEERING WHEEL Jilin University Impact torque will be generated on the steering wheel when one tyre suddenly blows out on the high way, which may cause driver's psychological stress and result in driver's certain misoperations on the car. In this paper, the model of tyre blowout vehicle was established; the tyre blowout was detected based on the change rate of tyre pressure, meanwhile, the rack force caused by tyre blowout was estimated through a reduce observer; finally the compensation current was figured out to reduce the impact torque on the steering wheel. Results of simulation tests showed that the control strategy proposed in this paper can effectively reduce the impact torque on the steering wheel and reduce the driver's discomfort caused by tyre blowout. See SAE 2013-01-1239 (2013, 8pp.) A NEW REAL-TIME ALGORITHM FOR CONTROL ALLOCATION OF IN-WHEEL-MOTOR ELECTRICAL VEHICLE China Automotive Engineering Research Institute The main goal of this paper is to develop a geometry based algorithm to solve the control allocation problem for electric vehicle using in-wheel motors. The proposed method does not require iterative computations, hence the computation effort can be greatly reduced and can be used in real-time application. The theoretical basis and details of the algorithm are discussed in this paper. It is also shown that the proposed method also can be used in several other four-wheel drive vehicles. The effectiveness of the proposed control allocation algorithm has been validated by the software tests. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-068.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 11pp.) DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VEHICLE CONTROL SOFTWARE FOR HYBRID ELECTRIC CITY BUS University of Tehran Isfahan University of Technology Nowadays hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has drawn attention of car manufacturer since it provides high efficiency, clean and safe transportation. The appropriate management of all components in such a vehicle is very controversial. Control system of HEV is responsible of supervisory control of the powertrain, including energy flow control based on the defined control strategy, communication between components, protection against dangerous situations, startup of subsystems and performance management of the entire vehicle. Vehicle Control Software (VCS) is designed and implemented as the central control system of a hybrid electric city bus in “Vehicle, Fuel, and Environment Research Institute (VFERI)”, University of Tehran, Iran. CAN protocol is used for data communication between the VCS and vehicle components. The VCS performance is evaluated with HIL testing method and the results reveal the acceptable performance and effectiveness of the VCS. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-072.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) TORQUE VECTORING CONTROL FOR DISTRIBUTED DRIVE ELECTRIC VEHICLE BASED ON STATE VARIABLE FEEDBACK Tongji University Torque Vectoring Control for distributed drive electric vehicle is studied. A handling improvement algorithm for normal cornering manoeuvres is proposed based on state variable feedback control: Yaw rate feedback together with steer angle feedforward is employed to improve transient response and steady gain of the yaw rate, respectively. According to the feedback coefficient's influence on the transient response, an optimisation function is proposed to obtain optimum feedback coefficients under different speeds. After maximum feedforward coefficients under different speeds are obtained from the constraint of the motor exterior characteristic, final



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feedforward coefficients are calculated according to an optimal steering characteristic. A torque distribution algorithm is presented to help the driver to speed up during the direct yaw moment control. Simulations performing multiple manoeuvres are carried out: The transient response and the steady gain of the yaw rate are improved; the direct yaw moment control can rectify the understeering caused by accelerating, balance the utilisation of the road adhesion between two axles, and increase the lateral stability margin of the vehicle. See SAE 2014-01-0155 (2014, 10pp.) INTEGRATED ROBUST CONTROL DESIGN FOR IN-WHEEL-MOTOR VEHICLES Institute for Computer Science and Control, Budapest MTA SZTAKI, MTA-BME Control Engineering Research Group, Budapest, Szechenyi Istvan University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics The paper proposes a multi-layer supervisory architecture for integrated control systems in road vehicles. The role of the supervisor is to coordinate active control components and provide priority among them. The supervisor has information about the current operational mode of the vehicle and it is able to make decisions about the necessary interventions into the vehicle components and guarantee the reconfigurable operation of the vehicle. The decisions of the supervisor are propagated to the lower layers through predefined interfaces encoded as suitable scheduling signals. The contribution of the paper is the application of the LPV methodology in a design case study in which an integrated control of four wheel independently-actuated electric vehicle with active steering system is developed. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-093.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.)

Chassis A NOVEL HIERARCHICAL GLOBAL CHASSIS CONTROL SYSTEM FOR DISTRIBUTED ELECTRIC VEHICLES Tsinghua University The current global chassis control (GCC) frequently makes use of decoupled control methods which depend on driving condition partition and simple rule-based vertical force distribution, and are insufficient to obtain optimal vehicle dynamics performance. Therefore, a novel hierarchical global chassis control system for a distributed electric vehicle (DEV), which is equipped with four wheel driving/steering and active suspension systems, is developed in this paper. The control system consists of three layers: in the upper layer, the desired forces/moments based on vehicular driving demands are determined; in the middle layer, a coordinated control method of longitudinal/lateral/vertical tire forces are proposed; in the lower layer, the driving/steering/suspension control is conducted to realize each distributed tyre force. As the most outstanding contribution of this paper, a non-convex optimisation problem with multiple constraints for coordinated control of longitudinal/lateral/vertical tyre forces is solved, in which (1) tyre force distribution problem is theoretically concluded as a constrained non-convex optimisation problem, (2) a unique objective function that combines the tyre workload and the dynamic ratio of the vertical forces is designed to evaluate tyre force distribution, (3) 14 constraints including vehicular driving demands, tyre friction limitations and actuator natures are involved to bound each tyre force reasonably, and (4) an algorithm that combines constrained optimisation and feasible region planning is proposed to solve the constrained non-convex optimisation problem. Simulation results based on Matlab/Simulink and CarSim show that the proposed hierarchical global chassis control system effectively achieves better vehicle attitude and handling stability during the accelerated double lane change scenario compared with the other GCC methods. See SAE 2014-01-0091 (2014, 15pp, 27 refs.) CHASSIS SYSTEM EVALUATION USING FORCE AND MOMENT ALLOCATION University of Michigan In a standard vehicle, the driver controls the trajectory of the vehicle using steering, acceleration and braking inputs. Vehicle response is strongly influenced by the chassis sub-system, which



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mediates the forces delivered to the vehicle via the tyres. A measure of vehicle chassis system performance is developed, based on comparing a given passive chassis system to an ideal active chassis. The ideal chassis optimally distributes tyre forces and uses active torque vectoring (traction or braking at each wheel) plus independent four-wheel-steering, so as to make the very best use of available friction. To conduct the analysis, optimal force allocation is applied to a specified manoeuvre using a conventional vehicle. The capability of the vehicle to follow the original path is evaluated as surface friction is reduced; thus the capability of the active chassis to improve this performance is used as a metric for baseline chassis performance. In this way, tyre friction utilisation, together with optimal force allocation and active chassis control is used as an evaluation tool, whether or not active controls are part of the vehicle design. This is a novel use of advanced vehicle control techniques; it provides a fundamental metric for chassis performance in specified manoeuvres, and has applications in vehicle development and refinement. While the present study uses simulation only, it is possible in the future to conduct evaluation using an experimental test; however a validated model would still be needed to perform the analysis. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-094.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)

Cruise control SMART AND GREEN ACC: AS APPLIED TO A THROUGH THE ROAD HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE INTEDIS LIVIC The Smart and Green ACC (SAGA) or simply Green ACC (GACC) may be defined as a system which autonomously generates longitudinal control commands for a vehicle while balancing the safety and efficiency factors. In previous studies, the SAGA function is investigated as applied to a battery electric vehicle. As a continuation of the SAGA function development, this paper investigates the behaviour of the autonomous longitudinal controller as applied to a “Through the Road” (TtR) hybrid electric vehicle. Given the presence of two power sources, the implementation of a SAGA system in HEV/PHEV has a higher level of complexity as compared to pure EV. As an autonomous longitudinal driver command generating system, SAGA acts as a surficial controller which is then combined with a core powertrain management system. The Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is used to determine the optimum power split between the IC engine and electric motor. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp15-27 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)

Speed SELF-TUNING SPEED TRACKING CONTROLLER FOR A PORTABLE BRAKE AND THROTTLE ROBOT Ohio Northern University SEA Ltd Vehicle testing often requires accurate speed control, whether maintaining a constant speed or following a dynamic speed profile. A portable brake and throttle robot designed for this task must quickly and automatically adapt its control to each test vehicle's mass and powertrain characteristics in order for the controller to perform well on a wide variety of platforms. This application presents two major challenges. First, each new vehicle installation requires rapid retuning of the controller. Manual tuning can be very time-consuming. Second, the “plant” is very nonlinear and asymmetric. Different actuators are employed for acceleration and braking. After a broad survey of control strategies and their suitability for this particular application, neurofuzzy techniques were among the most promising. Neurofuzzy networks can not only approximate nonlinear functions accurately, but the fuzzy rule-consequent weights can be readily updated in real time. A neurofuzzy controller was designed for the automotive speed tracking problem. Experimental testing was conducted and results were presented and analysed. See SAE 2013-01-1434 (2013, 8pp.)



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Traction

TRACTION CONTROL OF AN ELECTRIC FORMULA STUDENT RACING CAR Eindhoven University of Technology This article describes the design of a traction control system in an electric Formula Student vehicle. In many race applications the accelerator pedal is difficult to control for an inexperienced driver, especially in the case of electric vehicles, where a large torque is available from standstill. A 3-DOF driveline model is used in combination with a 7-DOF vehicle model and a non-linear tyre model based on 10 parameters. The driveline and tyre model are validated by measurements. These models are used to design a suitable traction control system. This system consists of an open-loop part, which uses the longitudinal and lateral acceleration to calculate a torque limit via a driver provided friction estimation. The feedback part of the controller regulates the slip-ratio of the rear-wheels. The traction control system is first implemented in the vehicle model and later in an electric Formula Student vehicle. A comparison is made between the vehicle with and without traction control. The vehicle with traction control performs significantly better in terms of longitudinal acceleration and shows a better driveability in terms of lateral acceleration. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-092.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) ROAD SURFACE FRICTION COEFFICIENT (MUE) DETERMINATION FOR TRACTION CONTROL SYSTEM The Automotive Research Association of India and TATA Traction Control system (TCS) provides better driveability and acceleration performance on low friction surfaces. The TCS typically tries to maintain the slip to an optimum value, to maximize traction force by modifying engine torque and/or brake force intervention. However the optimum slip is not a constant value and varies depending upon the road surface and tire conditions. It is a challenging task to predict this value dynamically and adapt TCS under all driving situations. Typically, TCS operates around fixed set point for slip. This will be achieved by controlling the brakes and torque independently. This system will not be efficient since the target slip may differ for different road friction coefficient. Hence, it is important to determine the Coefficient of Friction (Mue) of the road, to set the target slip value at an optimum level, so that the maximum tractive force can be derived under all road conditions. This paper describes the method used for development of Traction Control System for an Indian SUV and the methodology used to test it in simulation environment. The defining step in this development program was to estimate the surface friction of road under various vehicle running conditions. The Mue detection strategy and TCS controller are developed using Model Based Development (MBD) approach in MATLAB Simulink. Strategy is validated in Model In Loop (MIL) environment. The results obtained are presented in the subsequent sections. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-124.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.)

Yawing NON-LINEAR DECOUPLED 3D MOMENT CONTROL FOR VEHICLE MOTION USING IN-WHEEL MOTORS Toyota In recognition of the growing environmental awareness of customers, the automotive industry is researching and developing various types of electrically powered vehicles. These include vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors, i.e. motor units that are installed inside the wheels of the vehicle. Because this layout allows more effective use of interior space and due to the potential dynamic performance benefits of using in-wheel motors, this type of vehicle is attracting close attention. Vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors are capable of independent driving and braking force control of each wheel. Furthermore, in addition to yaw motion control, vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors can potentially control the motion of the sprung mass as effectively as an active suspension system due to the large vertical suspension reaction force generated during driving.



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Based on this mechanism, this paper describes a method for independently controlling yaw, roll, and pitch moment by driving force distribution control. It also proposes a decoupling method that cancels out the dynamic coupling effect between each motion and a control method at the limit of tyre adhesion. The following details also include an analysis of these methods and the results of actual-vehicle verification. Covers - vehicle dynamics, steering response control, sprung mass control. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-013.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) DEVELOPMENT OF AFS SYSTEM MODEL AND COMPARISON OF AFS CONTROLLERS WITH SMC, FLC AND PID CONTROL METHODS Beihang University In this paper, yaw motion control of a tractor semi-trailer based on the integration of active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw-moment control (DYC) is presented. A three-layer hierarchical structure is adopted for the proposed control system. In the upper layer, an integrated controller based on direct Lyapunov method is designed by using a simplified three degree-of-freedom tractor semi-trailer model to determine a desired yaw moment. Taking into account the tire cornering characteristics in different tire’s operation regions, a fuzzy controller is designed to allocate the desired yaw moment for AFS and DYC in the middle layer. Implementation of additional front-wheel steering angle and braking torques for selected wheels is handled in the lower layer. Computer simulations of the tractor semi-trailer with the integrated control system during double lane change manoeuvres are investigated in a TruckSim simulator using a high-fidelity vehicle dynamics. Simulation results show that the proposed control system can effectively enhance handling and stability of tractor semi-trailers and has considerable advantages over the AFS alone or DYC alone system. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-018.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.)



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DEVELOPMENT

A FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGN, TEST, AND VALIDATION OF ELECTRIC CAR MODULES DKFI This paper presents a practical framework and workflow for development and implementation of vehicle hardware and software components. It covers all activities from unit testing of single components to field experiments with the final constructed car. The described framework is based on the rapid control prototyping approach that is used for development and enables modularity in the design of subsystems. The framework was successfully used for the development and implementation of our new electric car concept (EO smart connecting car 2). Performance is analysed through detailed simulations and experiments. The Framework reduces time and costs significantly for implementing component prototypes of the target system. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp245-254 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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DIAGNOSTICS AND CONDITION MONITORING

DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLID-BORNE SOUND SENSOR TO DETECT BEARING FAULTS BASED ON A MEMS SENSOR AND A PVDF FOIL SENSOR Elaphe Propulsion Technologies and Hella Fahrzeugkomponenten Vibration analysis is an effective method to determine the health of a rotating mechanical machine. A test is set-up with two different sensors, MEMS and PVDF-Foil based. Experimental data is presented and a test to detect undamaged and damaged bearings has been performed. The MEMS sensor shows a good performance with clear indication of failure frequencies. The PVDF Foil in this configuration also shows the ability to detect the difference, but the natural properties leading to mechanical amplification of bearing vibrations are limiting the performances for weak mechanical failures. Monitoring algorithms are employed under standard conditions: RMS value of the signal, Kurtosis, Power spectrum density and Envelope analysis. Covers - condition monitoring. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp201-211 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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EFFICIENCY

EVALUATING AND MODELLING THE ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE TU/E LUPO EL BEV Eindhoven University of Technology The TU/e has developed a battery electric vehicle called the Lupo EL using a VW Lupo 3L as donor platform. This vehicle is used as a research platform now. An accurate vehicle energy usage model is really important to improve the energy efficiency and to build a range estimator. This paper will analyse the vehicle energy consumption from the power socket to wheels by analysing the measurement results and then building an accurate vehicle energy usage model to calculate the energy consumption for different driving conditions. The vehicle energy usage model is built in a reversed order, the vehicle speed is the input and the energy required from the power socket is the output. To determine the energy consumption, the energy flow can be divided into four parts: the battery part, the electric motor part, the mechanical part and the auxiliary power part. The auxiliary power can be measured when the vehicle is standing still. The aerodynamic drag force and rolling resistance can be determined in a coast down test. The motor power losses are analysed by constant speed driving, and after that a motor efficiency map is built based on the measurements. The battery is modelled by an electrically equivalent circuit model to calculate the energy losses. The model can estimate the energy usage of the Lupo EL under different circumstances with an accuracy of 95%. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-055.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 8pp.)



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END OF LIFE MEASURES DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY OF CREATING ELV DISMANTLING CATALOGUES AS THE WAY OF INCREASING THEIR RECYCLABILITY LEVEL Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University A methodology of developing ELV dismantling catalogues was created by NSTU specialists under the project jointly with the GAZ Group. The main goal of this work was to create dismantle catalogues for the GAZ Group light commercial vehicles. At first stages the necessary information regarding the legislation acts which contain the requirements in this field were gathered and analysed. After that a complex analysis of the vehicle construction was conducted in order to evaluate emplacement of components that were needed to be dismantled and to create the list of necessary equipment with taking into account applied fasteners, type of the vehicle and its category. At the next step an experimental disassembly of vehicles mentioned before was carried out that helped to gather necessary information regarding the methods and complexity of dismantling process, mass of dismantled components, accurate emplacement and number of fasteners. A graphic material that could be used in catalogues was created also. As the result of described process the dismantling catalogues and methodology of their developing were created. Covers - material separation. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-116.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.)



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ENERGY MANAGEMENT THE ALGORITHMIC RESEARCH OF MULTI-OPERATING MODE ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Jilin University and Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive The traditional energy management algorithm is mainly based on a single driving cycle, it is obvious that many factors might be often neglected by designer, such as different driving cycles would suit for different control strategies. But they tend to make decisions on the balance of torque distribution and battery power that based on a single driving cycle. Therefore, it is very difficult to achieve the optimal control in each case. In this paper we introduce a new design concept of Multi-operating mode energy management, a mathematical model of the energy management applied to a hybrid vehicle system is presented. Results of simulations using the model with the Multi-operating mode energy management were compared with results of simulations using a model with the single mode energy management, allowing the energy efficiency evaluation of the proposed energy management system. See SAE 2013-01-0988 (2013, 5pp.) ENERGY MANAGEMENT FOR FUEL CELL HYBRID VEHICLES; ON ROAD EVALUATION HAN University of Applied Sciences As any hybrid drive train, fuel cell hybrid propulsion systems need an Energy Management Strategy (EMS) to define the distribution of the power demand over the primary power source and the storage. An analytical derived EMS, minimizing the fuel consumption of a FCHEV without compromising its driveability, is presented. As the EMS is derived analytically, a minimum in fuel consumption can be mathematically guaranteed, given the validity of the models used. As models only approximate reality, an on road evaluation of the proposed EMS is a relevant validation. Therefore, the proposed EMS is implemented in a small fuel cell hybrid distribution van for validation and evaluation of its real-time properties. This paper reflects on these road tests, evaluates the main properties of the proposed EMS and discusses related design considerations. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-063.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) INTEGRATED CHASSIS CONTROL BASED ON THE STATE DEPENDENT RICCATI EQUATION TECHNIQUE TNO Developing active front steering (AFS), will significantly reduce the number of crashes and severe injuries of road occupants. Electric vehicles with electrified chassis systems, e.g. brakes, steering have an increased safety potential because of the reduced response time and the ability to apply continuous control. The main subject of the present paper is the development of an integrated chassis control scheme using all feasible actuators such as steering, braking in an optimal coordination towards regulating the vehicle dynamics. During critical driving situations, in which some of the tyres reach their limits, the vehicle dynamics are nonlinear and complex. The State Dependent Riccati Equation (SDRE) technique is a reconfigurable nonlinear optimal controller. In SDRE the nonlinear dynamics of the system is factored into the state vector and the product of a matrix valued function that depends on the state itself. In doing so, the nonlinearities of the system are fully captured bringing the nonlinear system to a linear like structure having state-dependent coefficient (SDC) matrices. The nonlinear regulator is derived by minimising an objective function which is formulated as a weighted integral of the system response and the actuators effort. The proposed optimised integrated control is based on a 3 DOF vehicle model with a nonlinear combined slip Pacejka tyre model and the SDRE technique. An extended linearisation scheme of the system’s state space equations on the basis of the Pacejka tyre model is developed and a suboptimal controller is computed at each time increment by solving efficiently an Algebraic Riccati Equation. The proposed control strategy has been evaluated experimentally by implementing the control system on a real time dSpace platform on a prototype vehicle. Experimental results show the



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effectiveness of the proposed IVDC in stabilising the vehicle during limit handling manoeuvres. A limitation of the current study is using the limited fault diagnosis and fault tolerant module. For the first time the application of SDRE using different vehicle actuators is presented and proven to be effective. Furthermore, the benefit of the proposed approach for obstacle avoidance manoeuvres is shown through comparison with other methods found in the literature. The problem of designing an optimal integrated chassis control system based on the SDRE technique has been presented. The proposed system has been tested experimentally and has been proven capable to stabilise the vehicle with an optimised tyre force distribution. Covers - Integrated Vehicle Dynamics Controller (IVDC). See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-023.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.) PREDICTIVE OPERATING STRATEGY FOR RANGE EXTENDER VEHICLES RESPECTING SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES AND INDIVIDUAL DRIVING BEHAVIOUR RWTH Aachen University, Forschungsgesellschaft Kraftfahrwesen mbH Aachen and Audi Battery electric vehicles will become more and more important in future, but up to now they lack sufficient driving range. While a conventional powered range extender can be used to enable driving over extended distances, the operation of the combustion engine with the depleted battery is not optimal in terms of consumption and emissions. The predictive operating strategy that is presented in this paper is able to minimise consumption and emissions as well as to guarantee a desired electric power reserve when reaching the final destination. It incorporates an iterative optimisation algorithm which calculates the most efficient operation mode of the range extender vehicle for a given route. The individual driver’s behaviour and the current traffic conditions that are identified by a self-learning algorithm are used to enhance map data for a precise wheel power prediction. Test drives were conducted with a prototype vehicle that was equipped with the developed predictive operating strategy. A specific route was driven with differing driving styles. The test drives started with the traction battery at the same state of charge to ensure comparability of the results. For different drivers the prediction of the energy demand led to different results respecting the individual driving style and the differing environmental conditions. Thus the predictive operating strategy was able to derive the ideal range extender usage for each different driver on the predicted route. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-041.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 7pp.) ON BOARD ENERGY MANAGEMENT ALGORITHM BASED ON FUZZY LOGIC FOR AN URBAN ELECTRIC BUS WITH HYBRID ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM Politecnico di Milano and Massachusetts Institute of Technology Nowadays considerable resources have been invested on low emission passenger vehicle both for private and public transportation. A feasible solution for urban buses is a full electrical traction system fed by supercapacitor, that can be recharged at each bus stop while people are getting on and off. Moreover, in order to consider the worst operating condition for the bus (like traffic jam of higher distance to be covered), a conventional battery is also installed, obtaining a hybrid energy storage system. An energy management function, able to manage the two on board energy storage system based on fuzzy control logic, has been developed and validated by means of numerical simulations and compared to a previously presented one in order to evaluate its performances. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp179-187 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

LIFE-CYCLE ENERGY OPTIMISATION FOR SUSTAINABLE VEHICLE DESIGN KTH Swerea SICOMP A methodology is presented in this paper, in which the trade-offs in energy between vehicle production, operational performance and end-of-life are formulated as a mathematical problem that may be optimised. This methodology enables the consideration of the life-cycle environmental impact, through the proxy of life-cycle energy, in the very first stages of transport vehicle design where it can be concurrently balanced with other functionalities. The methodology is illustrated through a sandwich panel design case study. The optimisation results for this case demonstrate that a design solution does exist, which meets functional requirements with a minimum life-cycle energy cost. They also highlight that a pure lightweight design may result in a solution, which is sub-optimal from a life cycle point-of-view. See vCD 212 F2014-LWS-070.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF URBAN MOBILITY Graz University of Technology Due to required CO2 reduction strategies, new propulsion and vehicle technologies get increasingly important. An interesting question treats the CO2 reduction potential of alternative propulsion systems in combination with different scenarios of usage. The objective of the presented study includes the life cycle assessment of various kinds of propulsion systems. The life cycle analysis considers the material and energy effort of production, the impact during the use, as well as the energy supply. The simulation includes a basic subcompact vehicle, which was equipped with different propulsion systems (internal combustion engines, electric drives, and hybrid systems) with the target do enable a comparison and assessment of the different technologies. The impact of production has been simulated based on existing data from literature for the manufacturing of propulsion technologies including their main components and modules. The impact of use has been simulated on the basis of generic user-profiles for urban areas. These user-profiles have been generated in a comprehensive customer-study and include the driving characteristics of the population in a European mid-sized city. The results of the study include a comparison and evaluation of CO2 emissions during different phases of automotive life-cycles. It will be highlighted, that various applied technologies (e.g. propulsion concepts) show a very dissimilar behaviour during their complete life cycle, when considering different use cases. This consideration enables a discussion of future potentials for reduction of energy and resource consumption, as well as CO2 emissions. In contrast to publications regarding greenhouse gas emissions delivered by automotive manufacturers, this paper also considers the term of production (resources, energy supply and CO2 emissions). Furthermore, it includes a comparison of different existing technologies, and considers different use-cases with different traffic performances and preferred driving regions (urban, suburban, road or highway). Limitations of the study are given because of a limited availability of literature in view of production of cars. A part of the study is based on information from publications of automotive manufacturers and supplier; in this way, the results represent an averaged behaviour. As a difference to production, the behaviour of the in-use section has been researched in a separate accurate study, which delivered a high data quality. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-021.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) COMPARISON OF LIFE CYCLE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS OF CONVENTIONAL, CNG-HYBRID AND ELECTRIC POWERTRAINS FOR LONG MILEAGE APPLICATION IN A TAXI FOR SINGAPORE Technische Universitat Munchen and TUM Create In this analysis we assess the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of four types of vehicles



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which might play a role in achieving future emission reductions: vehicles using compressed natural gas (CNG), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), mild hybrid CNG vehicles and range extended BEVs. Our analysis covers the manufacturing processes of these vehicles and their use as a city taxi in Singapore. We also consider upstream emissions from fuel and electricity production. All necessary parameters are derived from an intensive literature review and the model for calculating the life cycle emissions is presented. The influence of data uncertainties is analysed by parameter variations within different scenarios. The calculation results are found to be quite robust: The BEV and the mild hybrid CNG vehicle similarly show very low GHG emissions within all scenarios whereas the pure CNG vehicle always ranks the worst. In an additional scenario we also assessed the influence of an improved electricity generation with lower emissions in the future. In this the results of the BEV and the range extended BEV were significantly improved compared to the previous baseline calculations. We conclude that the introduction of BEVs is an effective measure to reduce GHG emissions in the transport sector of the future. However, mild hybrid CNG vehicles seem to be a very practicable solution for mobility with less GHG emissions today and in the nearer future. Covers - Battery Lifetime and Necessary Replacements. See SAE 2014-01-1616 (2014, 11pp, 47 refs.)



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PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT, ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON

REDUCING THE UNCERTAINTIES IN THE ACHIEVABLE VEHICLE PERFORMANCE TARGETS THROUGH DESIGN OPTIMIZATION University of Malaya In this paper an alternative method is proposed for defining the suspension performance targets through the use of full-vehicle modelling consisting of a ride model and a handling model. These models are derived with the use of a non-linear damper, suspension kinematic characteristics and basic vehicle dimensions. The vehicle performances can be explored using the design-of-experiments method. The non-sorting method is then employed to sort for non-dominated solutions, where these samples represent the Pareto front of the vehicle performances in ride comfort and handling. The k-means clustering method is used to classify further the solution into different unique optimum characteristics. The expectation–maximization algorithm is developed to compute the allowable variance of design parameters required to achieve the specific optimum design targets. This method can be a very useful tool in the earliest design stages where vehicle data are inadequate. This methodology potentially reduces the uncertainty in the achievable vehicle performance targets by allowing engineers to compare the optimum limit of the suspension with those of benchmark vehicles in the early suspension design and development process. See Doc.145911 (IMechE Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Aug 2014, Vol. 228, No. 9, pp1061-1083, 44 refs.) PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF PLUG-IN HYBRID PASSENGER VEHICLES University of Technology Graz Passenger Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) have shown significant fuel reduction potential. Furthermore, PHEVs can also improve longitudinal vehicle dynamics with respect to acceleration and engine elasticity. The objective of this study is to investigate potential of concurrent optimisation of fuel efficiency and driving performance. For the studies a backward vehicle model for a parallel PHEV was designed, where the power flow is calculated from the wheels to the propulsion units, the conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electric motor/generator (EMG) unit. The hybrid drivetrain is according to a P2 layout, consequently the EMG is situated between the shifting clutch and the ICE. The implemented operation strategy distributes the power to both propulsion units depending on the vehicle speed, requested driving torque, the battery’s state of charge (SOC) and state of power (SOP). Additional information, such as the slope of the road, can be taken into account by the operation strategy. In the paper the fuel saving potential as well as the longitudinal dynamics change of different PHEV configurations are presented as a function of battery capacity and EMG power. Consequently, applicable hybrid components can be defined. By using additional information of the environment like various sensor data, road slope amongst others, the fuel saving potential can be improved even more. By studying the dynamic model the overall results of the backward model are confirmed. In conclusion, this study shows that it is possible to concurrently reduce fuel consumption and increase driving performance in PHEVs. The potential depends strongly on the configuration of the electric components and the implemented operation strategy. Consequently, the hybrid system configuration has to be chosen carefully and aligned to the vehicle performance. See vCD 212 F2014-EPT-069.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 10pp.)



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SAFETY ENGINEERING

MODEL-BASED AND SCALABLE FUNCTIONAL SAFETY ENGINEERING METHODOLOGY FOR ON- AND OFF-HIGHWAY VEHICLES Flanders’ Drive This paper presents opportunities for the intensive use of behavioural and structural models during safety-related systems engineering. The key outcome of the presented research activities is the detailed mapping of the SysML model diagrams and physical behaviour models for specific steps of the safety engineering lifecycle. Innovative approaches for performing quantitative safety analyses based on the input of SysML models are also discussed. Finally, the positive effect of the new methodology on the efforts required for safety-related engineering processes is elaborated. The presented study is based on an engineering methodology developed together with leading Flemish industrial partners for designing a safety-related E/E system according to international standards. This methodology can be applied not only to passenger cars but also in agricultural, (earth moving) machinery and off-highway domains. This so-called Flanders’ ASIL methodology (FLAME) describes the processes, work products, roles and responsibilities and presents links to the requirements of relevant functional safety standards. The methodology is supported by a web-based tool and can interact with other development tools. The synergies and gaps identified across the vehicle and machinery domains are also highlighted. Covers - ISO 26262, model-based systems engineering, SysML. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-120.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) AN ACTIVE VULNERABLE ROAD USER PROTECTION BASED ON ONE 24 GHZ AUTOMOTIVE RADAR University of Magdeburg, Volkswagen, Centro Tecnologico de Automocion de Galicia and Fiat Among other initiatives to improve safety of Vulnerable Road Users (VRUs), the European Commission is funding a research project called ARTRAC: “Advanced Radar Tracking and Classification for Enhanced Road Safety” aimed to develop an integrated safety concept for pedestrians. ARTRAC investigates the possibility to use a stand-alone radar sensor especially for the detection of VRUs in order to generate the appropriate supporting actions to the driver with the goal to avoid or mitigate a possible collision. The supporting actions comprise driver warning, automatic braking and steering recommendation. This paper provides an overview of the definition of the system solutions for the warning and vehicle automatic actuations in case of a potentially dangerous situation with respect to a VRU occurs; and of the development of specific software for the actuation over the vehicle braking and steering with the goal to perform an automatic response devoted to avoid an accident involving a VRU or, in the worst case, to mitigate the impact. The functional performance of the systems is analysed with a specialised pedestrian test facility. Covers - active safety, automatic braking, collision avoidance, control strategies, steering recommendations. See Book 10661 XB:A4B: pp81-91 (Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications 2014 - Smart Systems for Safe, Clean and Automated Vehicles, Germany, Jun 2014, VDI/VDE/IT.)



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THERMAL MANAGEMENT

NEW TESTING CONCEPTS AND THERMAL MANAGEMENT FOR ELECTRIFIED DRIVE TRAINS Aalen University Innovative driveline concepts of electrified vehicles take the vehicle test rigs to their limits. Axlesplit hybrids, for example, have no mechanical connection between their combustion engine powered axle and the electrically powered axle except the road contact (Through-the-road hybrid). This exceeds the dynamic limits of conventional roller-type dynamometer test rigs. But even under conventional operating conditions, more emphasis on additional test cases should be made: Thermal sensitivity of electrification components and their interconnected thermal management require a refined preconditioning of the test rigs. Each load point shift by the energetic operating strategy (charge, boost, assist) results in a redistribution of the traction torques of both axles and therefore in a shift of friction saturation and driving stability. Therefore, drive control and chassis control have to act jointly and to be designed commonly. This fact also offers opportunities, like increased regenerative braking up to the control range of the stabilisation system, or torque vectoring in the case of single-wheel drive. By integrated optimisation of energetic operating strategy and thermal management of vehicle components, the energy consumption of electrified vehicles can be reduced significantly: Especially plug in hybrids consist of a number of heat sinks and sources, i.e. components that either need to be heated or cooled. These components differ in their optimal temperature range, energy amount and time behaviour. For example, the use cases charging, preconditioning, electric drive, warm up and combustion powered drive lead to entirely different system states, which again can depend on drive cycle and climatic conditions. Approaches for reduction of heating or cooling energy are for example - intelligent connection of fluid circuits - heat transfer by heat pumps in case of different temperature levels - heat storage in case of time-delayed energy demand To take full advantage of electrified drive concepts, in comparison to conventional vehicles enhanced testing concepts and test rigs are needed. Integrated testing approaches are presented which are equally suited for conventional and electrified powertrains. See vCD 212 F2014-IVC-040.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 6pp.) SCHAEFFLER´S THERMAL MANAGEMENT FOR A CO2 REDUCTION OF UP TO 4% Schaeffler Improved and variable use of the heat flows in a vehicle is a requirement for further reducing emissions and fuel consumption and increasing the air conditioning comfort in passenger cars. The integrated turbochargers (ITL) increasingly used in vehicles place increased requirements on cooling systems. ITLs require a predictive cooling system if possible instead of a system, which reacts to different operating conditions. This requirement cannot be met with conventional thermostats because thermostats have a delayed reaction to energy input into the cooling system and also suffer from pressure losses. Innovative mechatronic components are required for making a predictive calculation of the cooling requirements from the engine load and speed. Schaeffler’s thermal management modules (TMM) are able to adjust the coolant flow to zero, for example, in order to achieve accelerated heating of the engine. At the same time, they are able to decouple thermal masses and thus dissipate quantities of energy to other components such as the engine oil, transmission oil, heater or traction battery via the residual mass. In contrast to conventional thermostats TMMs are controlled using a load-based calculation model. This allows the integration of a large number of connected components as well as a narrow temperature range of +/-2°C. Covers - Audi 1.8-litre TFSI engine, EA888Gen.3, maintaining the engine oil temperature, maintaining the temperature in the interior, cold-start strategies, gasoline technology car. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquim_2014_21_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 8pp.)



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HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENT OF AUTOMOBILE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS RWTH Aachen Numerical simulation and benchmarking the total energetic performance of vehicles, requires specific values regarding the behaviour of heat transfer. This is particularly of interest if energetic simulation models are employed, to evaluate the performance of automotive heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. Measurements of the heat transfer through enclosure components have to account thermal bridge effects to adjacent components. Within this paper we present a simple methodology for the evaluation of characteristic values of the heat transfer through an arbitrary automobile enclosure component. It is based on state of the art measurement methods and enhanced for determining additional coefficients of the heat transfer processes. In a stationary vehicle a defined and constant heat load is generated until the heat flow through the vehicle's envelope has reached steady state. Simultaneously, the mean inner and outer air temperatures as well as the surface temperatures of the investigated component are determined. Hence, the total heat transfer over the vehicle's envelope can be evaluated by the measured data. Afterwards, the tested component is provided with a defined external insulation and the overall thermal transmittance of the total vehicle envelope is determined again. On the basis of the difference between the heat transfer values with and without insulation the coefficients for internal and external convective heat transfer and the coefficient for conductive heat transfer can be estimated as integral quantities. In addition, the effect on the convective heat losses at the vehicle outer envelope is examined by the incident flow at the vehicle in a wind tunnel. Therefore, the results of the thermal conductivity resistance can be validated with regard to its independency of the incident flow characteristics. For this paper we examined the front and rear door, the windscreen, the trunk lid and the vehicle roof and ground of a test vehicle. Using this method, it is possible to divide the entire vehicle envelope in a variable quantity of components and to investigate them with a limited number of measurements in terms of their convective and conductive properties. The obtained results can be used for evaluating further thermal insulation measures for future automobile model generations and as inputs to energy simulations. See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-030.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.)



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WASTE HEAT AND ENERGY RECOVERY PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLES TO IMPROVE VEHICLE EFFICIENCY Queen’s University Belfast This paper presents the background rationale and key findings for a model-based study of supercritical waste heat recovery organic Rankine cycles. The paper’s objective is to cover the necessary groundwork to facilitate the future operation of a thermodynamic organic Rankine cycle model under realistic thermodynamic boundary conditions for performance optimisation of organic Rankine cycles. This involves determining the type of power cycle for organic Rankine cycles, the circuit configuration and suitable boundary conditions. The study focuses on multiple heat sources from vehicles but the findings are generally applicable, with careful consideration, to any waste heat recovery system. This paper introduces waste heat recovery and discusses the general merits of organic fluids versus water and supercritical operation versus subcritical operation from a theoretical perspective and, where possible, from a practical perspective. The benefits of regeneration are investigated from an efficiency perspective for selected subcritical and supercritical conditions. A simulation model is described with an introduction to some general Rankine cycle boundary conditions. The paper describes the analysis of real hybrid vehicle data from several driving cycles and its manipulation to represent the thermal inertia for model heat input boundary conditions. Basic theory suggests that selecting the operating pressures and temperatures to maximise the Rankine cycle performance is relatively straightforward. However, it was found that this may not be the case for an organic Rankine cycle operating in a vehicle. When operating in a driving cycle, the available heat and its quality can vary with the power output and between heat sources. For example, the available coolant heat does not vary much with the load, whereas the quantity and quality of the exhaust heat varies considerably. The key objective for operation in the vehicle is optimum utilisation of the available heat by delivering the maximum work out. The fluid selection process and the presentation and analysis of the final results of the simulation work on organic Rankine cycles are the subjects of two future publications. Covers - CO2 reduction. See Doc.145929 (IMechE Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Sep 2014, Vol. 228, No. 10, pp1142-1153.) SYMBIOSIS OF ENERGY RECOVERY AND DOWNSIZING IAV Recovering exhaust gas energy is a promising approach to reducing the fuel consumption of future vehicles powered by internal combustion engine. For application in passenger cars, IAV is pursuing a systematic approach to integrating a Rankine cycle that involves a close-coupled heat exchanger upstream of a turbine, a main heat exchanger downstream of a catalytic converter and a single-cylinder reciprocating piston expander. The entire cycle has been examined on the engine test bench using ethanol as the working medium. Covers - simulation models, potential for reducing consumption from further downsizing. See Doc.145948 (MTZ Worldwide, Sep 2014, pp4-9.)



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MARKETING A CLEAN DIESEL STATE OF MIND - TOP STATES FOR DIESEL DRIVERS GROWING CLEAN DIESEL CARS, TRUCKS AND SUVS: IS YOUR STATE IN THE TOP 10? Background: - Clean diesel technology is emerging as an increasingly popular option for new car buyers. - Resurgence in clean diesel technology in the US since 2006 - Fuel economy, performance, proven, long-term value contribute to growing acceptance - Clean diesel seen as a technology to contribute to meeting 2025 CAFE requirements of 52.5 mpg Methodology: - The Diesel Technology Forum commissioned R L Polk and Company to secure vehicle registration data for all 50 states from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2013. - Goal was to evaluate the trends in clean diesel and hybrid registrations nationwide, to identify geographic and other trends in 2013 and compare to previous years. - Analysis covered 1. Passenger cars, light-duty trucks, vans and SUVs. Identified clean diesel and hybrid vehicles. 2. Heavy-duty pickup trucks (> 8500 lbs gvwr) –gasoline and diesel Our analysis includes the - The top states for.. - clean diesel car, SUVs, pickup trucks and vans. - fastest growth of clean diesels - fastest growth of clean diesels and hybrids; - total clean diesel and hybrid registrations; Table shows - top 10 states of diesel drivers (SUVs, cars, pickup trucks and vans); Diesel pickup registrations; top 10 States for Total Diesel Cars, SUVs, Pickup Trucks and Vans… compared to Hybrids Graphs show - fastest growing clean diesel car and SUV Registrations. Conclusions: - Clean diesel technology is emerging as an increasingly popular option for new car buyers. - Real-world fuel economy, performance, proven, long-term value have solidified clean diesel as a preferred advanced technology choice - Fuel saving impacts of switching from gasoline to diesel in light duty vehicles now recognized in President Obama’s All-Of-The-Above Energy Strategy for a Sustainable Economic Growth Plan - Growth in future diesel options recognizes key role in Clean diesel in meeting future vehicle fuel efficiency requirements (CAFE standards -52.5 mpg/2025) See Electronic Document 6994 (Diesel Technology Forum, 4 Jun 2014, Press release, 25pp.)



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ROADMAPS PARADIGMS OF FUTURE MOBILITY Schaeffler The question of whether technologies can be transferred to another region is often reduced to the issue of costs. This is a one-sided view that bears the risk of losing sight of the customer and the customer’s needs. For this reason, Schaeffler has decided to use a comprehensive approach for working out the development of future market scenarios. A recently completed mobility study was based on a three-step method: 1. Prepare mobility patterns for 12 selected world regions 2. Cluster the patterns in a matrix 3. Work out four in-depth scenarios for future mobility. Covers - CO2 reduction, Honda principle, frictional power loss reduction, UniAir system, intelligent electrification, 48 volt on-board electric system, hybrid technology, battery electric vehicle. See vCD 224 Schaeffler_Kolloquium_2014_01_en.pdf (10th Schaeffler Symposium, Herzogenaurach, Apr 2014, 8pp.) PASSCAR-DIESELS GO WEST – ROADMAP TO CLEAN DIESEL APPLICATIONS COMPLYING WITH FUTURE REQUIREMENTS Robert Bosch After its success in Western Europe, there is a rising interest in Diesel-powered Passenger Cars in other regions of the world. Besides well-established Diesel markets like India, consumers in mainly Gasoline dominated markets like Japan or the US have no longer prejudices against an outdated generation of Diesel engines. Triggered by numerous attractive applications, they begin to appreciate the classical advantages of Clean Diesels, such as high low-end torque meaning convincing towing capacity or outstanding fuel economy translating into attractive cruising range. To serve these changing needs specifically in the US market, a couple of domestic carmakers and several OEM from overseas have been preparing to enter the segment of PassCar- and Light-Duty Clean Diesels. First examples like GM's Chevrolet Cruze or the Chrysler's Grand Cherokee Diesel are already in dealer's showrooms of course accompanied by next generation applications of a whole bunch of Clean Diesel models from German OEM. When entering into a new market with Diesel-powered vehicles, the question pops up if the future requirements in these markets could be met concerning both emission requirements as well as Green-House-Gas (GHG) or Fuel Economy requirements. This article will show a roadmap to comply with future requirements such as CARB's LEV III, EPA's CO2/GHG or NHTSA's CAFE. As some of these requirements are really long-term or not even finally fixed, the article will not define a final solution, but reveal different approaches how these future requirements could be met. Covers – NSC, SCR, SCR-on-DPF, deNOx, OND Requirements. See vCD 222 01_Gerhardt_Bosch.pdf and 01_Gerhardt_Robert Bosch.pdf (SIA Powertrain Conference - The Clean Compression Ignition Engine of the Future, Rouen, France, 21-22 May 2014, Paper - 10pp, Slides - 28pp.)



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LITERATURE BUSINESS CASE ELECTRIC DRIVING Pernosco RVO.nl The Dutch government is eager to realise a critical mass of two hundred thousand electric vehicles on the roads in the Netherlands by 2020. A variety of projects are being subsidised to study the use of electric vehicles. In return, these pilot projects must communicate the lessons learned to Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO.nl). RVO.nl is a public organisation that is, among other things, charged with subsidy evaluations and publications on behalf of the Dutch government. The objective of this study is to assist pilot projects in registering the utilisation data needed to calculate the business case. The government is supporting pilot projects for electric driving in five different market segments: (a) logistics and distribution; (b) commercial mobility and commuter traffic; (c) mass transit: public transport, taxis, car sharing, and carpooling; (d) company vehicles, including garbage trucks; and (e) government vehicles. Pernosco has visited the projects that have completed in order to understand their business and to request the utilisation data they recorded. The definition of each collected data element is determined using the Pernosco object model for innovation so that the utilisation data can be compared and reported upon using a business intelligence tool (QlikView) with illustrative pivot tables and graphs. Because the range of electric vehicles is still limited, most of the vehicle owners in the pilot projects began by analysing their utilisation data for conventional vehicles to determine the operating areas that are most suitable for electric driving. Subsequently, they recorded utilisation data for each area of operation in order to compare the expected and realised benefits and costs to those for conventional vehicles. In the end, six parameters appeared to be key in calculating the business case from utilisation data: the trips driven, the assignments executed, the types of application, the customers served, the vehicles used, and the servicing required (maintenance and charging). See vCD 212 F2014-MVC-024.pdf (FISITA, Maastricht, Jun 2014, 9pp.) GUIDE TO INDUSTRY EXECUTIVES - NAMES AND TITLES OF ADMINISTRATORS AT CAR COMPANIES IN THE UNITED STATES Lists Chairman, President, CEOs and other executives of approximately 30 North American automotive companies and their affiliates. See Doc.145949 (Supplement to Automotive News, 4 Aug 2014, 8pp.) EU TRANSPORT IN FIGURES STATISTICAL POCKETBOOK 2014 European Commission Transport represents a crucial sector of the economy. This publication provides an overview of the most recent and most pertinent annual transport-related statistics in Europe. It covers the European Union and its 28 Member States and, as far as possible, the current EU candidate countries and the EFTA countries. The content of this pocketbook is based on a range of sources including Eurostat, international organisations, national statistics and, where no data were available, own estimates. Own estimates have mainly been produced to get an idea of the EU total. At the level of individual countries, they are merely indicative and should by no means be misinterpreted as ‘official’ data. The publication consists of three parts: (1) a general part with general economic and other relevant data, (2) a transport part covering both passenger and freight transport as well as other transport-related data, and, finally, (3) an energy and environmental part with data on the impact which the transport sector has on the environment. Most of the tables have data up to 2011; where available, more recent data have been provided. See Electronic Document 7029 (Luxembourg; Publications Office of the European Union, 2014, 77pp.)

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Vehicle Engineering News - estore.ricardo.com · A BUSINESS ANALYSIS OF OLEV APPLICATIONS FOR BUS RAPID TRANSIT ... presents the measurement and analysis of engine condition during