Vargas Llosa and the Latin American Tesis

8/14/2019 Vargas Llosa and the Latin American Tesis

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THE REPRESENTATION OF BRAZILIAN SOCIETY IN

LA GUERRA DEL FIN DEL MUNDObyDIXIE E. DRIGGERS, B.A.A THESISIN

SPANISH

Submitted to the Graduate Facultyof Texas Tech University inPartial Fulfillment ofthe Requirements forthe Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Approved

Chairpersotnof the Committee

Accepted

Dean of the Graduate SchoolMay, 1990


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M^5>

-^ 2^

1990 Dixie E. Driggers


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Harley D. Oberhelman for his assistance,guidance, and encouragement with this thesis.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iiINTRODU(7nONMARIO VARGAS LLOSA AND THE LATIN AMERICAN NOVEL.. 1CHAPTER

I. STRUCTURE AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT 7

II. REPRESENTATIVE CHARACTERS 22

m. INTERTEXTUALITY 33CONCLUSION 48BIBLIOGRAPHY 51

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E^JTRODUCnONMARIO VARGAS LLOSA AND THELATIN AMERICAN NOVEL

The 1940s began a period of great change and experimentation in thenovel in Latin America, a period known as the "boom." It was the advent of

new and often radical experiments in stmcture and narrative technique with thepurpose of exploring and expressing different levels of reahty. One of themost popular and well known of the "boom" authors is the Pemvian novelist,Mario Vargas Llosa. Raymond Leslie Williams states that Vargas Llosa is oneof the key figures in the rise of the contemporary novel in Latin America,along with Carlos Fuentes, JuHo Cortazar, and Gabriel Garcia Marquez (5).Journalist, critic, playwright, as well as novelist, he is also one of the mostprolific (WiUiams 1). George de Lama says of Vargas Llosa that he "long hasbeen hailed by critics as one of the most eloquent voices in the Third World.His books shape lively, metaphorical tales through an imaginative prism thatreflects and celebrates the grim and bizarre realities of Latin American life"(C2). As an internationally acclaimed author, many of Vargas Llosa's workshave been translated into several languages, including English, French,

German, Bulgarian, Czechoslovakian, Finnish, Yiddish, Italian, Dutch,Norwegian, Swiss, Polish, and Russian (Martin 47). In 1967 he won theRomulo Gallegos Award for International Literature; in 1977 was namedPresident of PEN Club International, and has been nominated for a NobelPrize in the 1980s (WiUiams 1).


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Vargas Llosa has had as a main topic for his works of fiction the reality oftwentieth-century Pemvian life. He experimented with interior monologue,variable narrative points of view, and multiple levels of time and space in hisearlier novels (Gerdes 3). According to Gerdes, Vargas Llosa's specialtreatment of the narrative components of the concepts of space, time, andnarrative point of view .. . is aimed toward the creation of a sense of multipletime frames and spatial diversity, concurrent action, and myriad points of

view, which, taken together, evoke the sensation of many lives experiencedsimultaneously (preface). He further states, "Stmcturally, Vargas Llosa'snovels work from concepts of discontinuity and simultaneity. Theydemonstrate a technical mastery of multiple perspectives that is the key to whatVargas Llosa strives to achieve in his narratives: the 'total' novel" (6). This"total" novel is characterized by Brody as "the attempt to express reality in allits complexity and on aU possible levels" (123). Many of his novels containautobiographical aspects. Experiences from his early life in Lima and Piuraare present in several of his novels, such as La ciudad y los perros, Loscachorros. La casa verde, and La Tia Julia y el escribidor.

His seventh novel. La guerra del fin del mundo (1981) (The War of theEnd of the World 1984), for which he won the Pablo Iglesias Award in Spain

in 1982, and the Ritz Paris Hemingway Award in March, 1985 (Souza 69),was in part, a departure from form for Vargas Llosa. His first, and so faronly, historical novel is set in mral northeastern Brazil shortly before the turnof the cenmry, not in modem Pern. It is also his first work to deal with thesubject of religion. Although it is a work of epic proportion, nearly sixhundred pages, and does employ many of the innovations in technique that heintroduced in some of his earlier works, it is, in a sense, also one of his most


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traditional novels. Less technically complex than his novels of the 1960s, it isnarrated by a controlling omniscient narrator in a basically straightforward andchronological manner (Williams 128). Williams considers it a synthesis ofVargas Llosa's writing career, less complex but a synthesis of the narrativetechniques perfected in his earlier novels (5).

La guerra del fin del mundo is a historical novel dealing with an episode in

Brazilian history known as the Canudos rebellion which took place in theharsh, unforgiving drought-ridden backlands of northeastern Brazil known asthe sertao. In the late nineteendi century, a wandering mystic named AntonioVicente Mendes Maciel, who came to be known as Antonio O Conselheiro, ElConsejero in Spanish, gathered around him a following of peasants andreformed outlaws from the mral sertao. The people attracted to his followingwere the poorest of the poor, the outcasts, and the misfits of this region ofoutcasts and misfits. For many years he wandered the backlands of theNortheast repairing churches, chapels, and cemeteries, and preaching to thepeople. He prophecied the coming of the end of the world and preached thatthe newly formed Republic of Brazil was the embodiment of the Antichristbecause of its secular nature. El Consejero and his followers sought toestablish a community of the blessed, those who would be spared in the

coming turmoil and would gain the Kingdom of God. Seeking to establish acommunity safe from the cormption of the world, in 1893 El Consejero andhis followers took over an abandoned cattle ranch, Canudos, and set aboutbuilding their ultra-Catholic Utopia. Preaching against the edicts of theRepublic such as separation of Church and State, civil marriage, taxation, andthe census. El Consejero soon came to be the target of poUtical attacks by boththe liberals and the conservatives. The government perceived him and his


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followers as a menace to the Republic; monarchists, supported by pro-monarchy factions and the English who sought toreestablish the Empire. So,in 1897 a small military expedition was sent to disperse the rebels. Theexpedition was soundly defeated before even reaching Canudos. It requiredthree more expeditions, each larger than the previous, and in the end a fullmilitary assault, to finally completely destroy the starving and ahnost unarmedcommunity. The cost of the Canudos campaign, however, was immense, not

only monetarily, but also in lives lost, and lost prestige of the military and the

government.

Vargas Llosa conducted extensive research on the subject before writingthe novel. One of his primary sources was Os Sertoes (1901) by Euclides daCunha, a military engineer and joumalist who accompanied the thirdexpedition to Canudos. A type of socio-historical work, it is considered to beone of the great classics of Brazilian literature. It is not only a detailedaccountof the military expeditions and battles, but also contains extensive sections onthe land and the people of the region. Besides a close reading of Os Sertoes,Vargas Llosa conducted extensive research in the Library of Congress and

spent several months in Bahia, including interviews with relatives of thepeople of Canudos.

The end of the nineteenth century was a period of great changes in Brazil.Slavery had been abolished in 1888, the Empire of Dom Pedro n wasoverthrown, and the Repubhc of Brazil was estabhshed in 1889. This was atime of transition and uncertainty in Brazil. The nascent Republic was tryingto establish its identity, create a viable government, and forge a unifiedcountry. It was a society changing yet imchanged. The motto of the newRepublic was Ordem e Progreso (Order and Progress) based on the principles


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of positivism. The decline in the importance of sugar and the rise of coffeeshifted prosperity and industry to the south creating a great rivalry between thenorthern and southern regions. The military did not consider governing to bepart of their duties, although there were some officers who believed the bestwould be a military dictatorship, their duty was to maintain order, regardlessof who might be the instigators of disorder. Catholicism was the religion ofthe land; however, the religions and gods of the African slaves and the native

Indians had not been completely abolished but rather syncretized into the

rituals and saints of the Catholic faith. Messianism was common in the

Northeast; the residents of Canudos were members of the last great messianic

cult to arise in Brazil.

Vargas Llosa brings this society to life in the pages of La guerra del fin delmundo. He gives it color, movement, and feeling. The people, the attimdes,the customs, the different regions, and the institutions of late nineteenth-century Brazil flow through the novel. Gerdes states that he "presents...a

complete social spectrum of nineteenth-century Brazil" (169). Although theaction of the novel takes place mainly in the mral Northeast, with some scenesin Salvador de Bahia, the capital of the state of Bahia, Vargas Llosa managesto encompass all of Brazil in this "spectrum of society." He includes not onlymral northeastern Brazil, but also the urban and sou them regions, with theirvast social and economic differences, and the rivalries between these regions.Vargas Llosa uses a variety of techniques to breathe life into various aspectsof Brazilian society during this period. Some of these include the use ofrepresentative characters, description, dialogue, letters, and newspaperarticles. Each event, anecdote, and character has a purpose, explains ordescribes some aspect or characteristic of the Brazilian people or society.


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Included in this portrait of society are many of the attimdes and customs of theera, as well as military attitudes and life, politics, religion, and how peoplefrom different segments of society relate to one another. This thesis will

analyze this representation of late nineteentii-century Brazilian society and the

techniques that Mario Vargas Llosa uses to recreate it in his epic historical

work. La guerra del fin del mundo.


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CHAPTER ISTRUCTURE AND CHARACTERDEVELOPMENT

Character development is essential to the representation of society in Laguerra del fin del mundo. The stmcture of the novel is also a key element in

this development, Lucretia Shotzbarger Tippit summarizes the complexstmcture of the novel and its narrative segments in her doctoral dissertation.The novel is divided into four parts. Part One is made up of seven chapters.Each chapter is then divided into four segments. The first segment of eachchapter deals with the background of El Consejero, the settlement ofCanudos, the beliefs of its inhabitants, and accounts of two battles from theirperspective. The second segments develop the character of Galileo Gall andhis encounters with various characters, and one battle from the perspective ofthe defeated army. The third segments each introduce a major character in theCanudos settlement: El Beatito, Joao Grande, Maria Quadrado, Joao Satan,Antonio Vilanova, el Leon de Natuba, and Padre Joaquim. The fourthsegments of each chapter in Part One again deal with Galileo Gall withemphasis on his philosophical and political beliefs.

Part Two, the shortest part, is stmctured differently. It has only threesegments and deals exclusively with the nearsighted joumalist and thenewspaper article he has written. The first segment describes him as he writesthe article covering a meeting of the Bahian legislature. The second is atranscription, verbatim, of the article for the Jomal de Noticias, theRepublican affiliated newspaper, and the third is a conversation between the


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journalist and his editor in which it is decided that he will accompany the thirdexpedition to Canudos as a reporter for the newspaper.

Parts Three and Four are stmctured like Part One. Part Three containsseven chapters consisting of five segments each. The first segments recount,from the army's perspective, the third military expedition which was led byColonel Moreira Cesar. The second segments introduce the traveling circus

characters, and the meeting and fight between Galileo Gall and Rufino. Thethird segments, set inside Canudos, are concemed with the organization of thecommunity, their preparations for war, and the attack on the city. The fourthsegments recount Rufino's long, difficult search for Gall, their deaths, and thechance meeting of Jurema, the dwarf, the nearsighted joumalist, and PadreJoaquim, The fifth and final segments of each chapter in Part Three deal withthe Baron de Canabrava, his meetings and conversations with his friends,political cronies, enemies, and various main characters.

Part Four contains six chapters divided into four segments each. The firstsegments of each chapter are a conversation between the baron and thenearsighted joumalist in the form of aflashback as they remember the eventsleading up to the destmction of Canudos several months previous. The

second segments deal with the final assault on Canudos and the death of ElConsejero from the perspective of several main characters within diecommunity. The third segments again recount events inside Canudos, thistime from the point of view of the joumalist, Jurema, and the dwarf. Thefinal segments focus on the internal problems experienced by the fourthmilitary expedition and the final, complete destmction of Canudos. The sixthchapter of Part Four departs somewhat from this format in that the first twosegments offer dramatic conclusions to their story Unes, the conversation


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religious converts of El Consejero, their memories, thoughts, actions andreactions, attitudes, and their conversations disclose many more details aboutthe different aspects of Brazilian society and the life of the people. Because heintroduces many of the characters beginning from their childhood, VargasLlosa is able to include details such as the everyday games and activities of thechildren of the plantations and villages.

The third segment of each of the seven chapters of Part One eachintroduce a character that will become part of El Consejero's entourage. Asthese characters are introduced, the biographical and background informationin these segments provides the reader with many details about life and societyin the sertao. Chapter One introduces Antonio da Mota who later came to beknown as El Beatito, In describing his childhood, the narrator contrasts itwitii the pasttimes of the other young boys of the town who spend their freetime in "corretear por los potreros, montar a pelo los animales chijcaros, cazarpalomas o ir a ver castrar a los toros ..." (21). El Beatito participated inreligious processions through the streets of the village where there were altarson the comers to place the images of the Virgin and Christ so they could rest.Religious processions, mentioned many times in the novel, were a commonpart of the religious life in both the rural areas and the cities. The second

chapter introduces Joao Grande, one of the best examples of the slavebreeding program of Adalberto de Gumucio. This segment includes muchabout life on a typical sugar plantation. Joao is sent to live in the big house so

he will not be mined by the backbreaking work of the field hands. As afavorite he is better cared for and allowed more freedom to play than most ofthe slave children. In this segment, the reader leams of the custom ofunmarried women who live with brothers or fathers and mn their household.


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The activities of Gumucio's spinster sister are typical of the mistress of a

plantation, "dedicaba el tiempo a tejer cofias, mantones, a bordar manteles,

colchas y blusas o a preparar dulces .,," (36). She carried ahns to

neighboring villages, attended church every Sunday, and went on retreat

every year to the Convento de la Encamacion. The Baroness de Canabrava,discussed later, also portrays the typical aristocratic lady and plantationmistress. Chapter Three introduces the character of Maria Quadrado. In thissegment the narrator describes "el milagroso Calvario de la Sierra dePiquara9a, donde dos kilometros excavados en los flancos de la montana yrociados de capillas, en recuerdo de las Estaciones del Senor, conducian haciala Iglesia de la Santa Cmz de Monte Santo ,.." (49). This church is thedestination of throngs of pilgrims each year, especially during Holy Week,emphasizing the strong religious beliefs of the people. Chapter Fourintroduces Joao Satan who later becomes known as Joao Abade. This is oneof the most informative of these segments. By recoimting details of JoaoAbade's childhood Vargas Llosa describes a typical viUage of mud huts,sunbaked streets, and the single store that supplied cloth, grain, tools, and

trinkets to the people of the surrounding area. It also describes the diversionsof the people: weddings, fiestas during the ranch round-ups, the festivals tocelebrate the village's patron saint's day, and the wandering minstrels whowandered the backlands and entertained during these celebrations. Thesewandering minstrels, such as the dwarf in the gypsy's traveling circus, arecommon throughout the novel. They carry messages, news, and informationfrom town to town, recite traditional baUads, and the history and stories of thesertao. At least one of these ballads is recognized by Gall as one he heard as achild in his native Scotland. In a later section the baron remembers a scholar


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friend who was fascinated by these minstrels, "se quedaba horas fascinadooyendo a los troveros de las ferias, se hacia dictar las letras que oia cantar ycontar y aseguraba que eran romances medievales, traidos por los primerosPortugueses y conservados por la tradicion sertanera" (338). Some of themost interesting information provided in this segment is the story of how thecangagos (bands of cangaceiros^ and the volantes (police brigades thatpursued them) came to be.

Los vecinos de Custodia temian, como a la sequia y a laspestes, a dos calamidades que cada cierto tiempo empobrecian alpoblado: los cangaceiros y las volantes de la Guardia Nacional.Los primeros habian sido, al principio, bandas organizadas entresus peones y allegados por los coroneles de las haciendas, paralas peleas que estallaban entre ellos por asunto de linderos, aguasy pastos 0 por ambiciones politicas, pero luego, muchos de esosgmpos armados de trabucos y machetes se habian emancipado yandaban sueltos, viviendo de la rapifia y el asalto. Paracombatirlos habian nacido las volantes. Unos y otros se comianlas provisiones de los vecinos de Custodia, se emborrachabancon su cachaga y quenan abusar de sus mujeres. (65)

As far as the people of the region were concemed, the government in the form

of the Guardia Nacional mistreated them as badly as the outlaws. What

follows is an extensive description of the life of the outlaws, hardships,

crimes, battles, escapes, even their clothing. It also introduces the coiteros.

"Corria el mmor de que este [Ze Faustino] era coitero, es decir que hacia

negocios con los bandidos y les proporcionaba informacion y escondites"

(66). It is later learned that it is also the custom of the landowners to give the

ouflaws what they want. "^Quienes los ayudan?" pregunta el Coronel.

^Quienes les dan armas, provisiones, dinero? "No se quienes, no se,

Uoriquea el cura. Es decir, si, muchos hacendados. Es la costumbre, senor,


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como con los bandidos, Darles algo para que no ataquen, para que se vayan aotras tierras" (248). The baron confirms this custom in his conversation withthe nearsighted joumalist. "Tuvimos que hacerio todos los hacendados de laregion, para que no nos quemaran las haciendas. ^No es esa la manera detratar con los bandidos en el serton? Si no se les puede matar, se les alquila"(435). Chapter Five introduces the Vilanova brothers and their families. Inthis segment the details of the life of one family is followed through

epidemics, drought, flood, theft, and other hardships common to thebacklands. Chapter Six deals with the Leon de Namba and touches upon thesuperstitious nature of the backland people with an example of the panicaroused by their belief in the Evil Eye. The third segment of the final chapterof Part One introduces Padre Joaquim, who had been briefly mentioned in aprevious chapter. The character of Padre Joaquim gives the reader insight intothe condition of the priesthood and the Church in the sertao.

These segments contribute a wealth of details about life in the sertao, fromdie detail that the men often drink cane brandy with sour cherry to the relatingof the ballad of Roberto el Diablo, from the Hermandad de Penitentes whopracticed self-flagellation to a viUage wedding celebration. They also includethe crops, food, dress, and weapons of the backlands. The backgroimd

information on the nearsighted joumalist in a later segment provides insightinto life in the city from the perspective of a poor but educated working man.The segments related from the point of view of various soldiers fumishparticulars about life in the military such as food, duties, punishments, racialmakeup, and conflicts and problems between different companies based ontheir region of origin. For example, the soldiers from the south were gauchoswho had fought in the war against Paraguay; they and the soldiers from the


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SertlQ despised each other. Although this is mentioned briefly several times,

it is graphically demonstrated in the confrontation between the sertaneio

Colonel Geraldo Macedo and Second Lieutenant Maranhao, a gaucho from the

south. In an incident just like so many other incidents the Colonel's men have

been accused by Maranhao's men of being traitors to the Republic, jagungos

in disguise. The Colonel, furious, goes to confront Maranhao.

--^Usted es de muy lejos de aqui, no es cierto? -dice elCoronel Macedo-. Entonces, seguramente no sabe cual es paralos sertaneros la peor ofensa.

El AJferez Maranhao esta muy serio, con el ceno fmncido,y el Coronel se da cuenta que no puede esparar mas, pues aquelterminara sacando su arma. Con un movimiento fukninante,imprevisible, fuertisimo, golpea esa cara blanca con la mano

abierta. El golpe derriba al Alferez, quien no alcanza a ponersede pie y permanece a cuatro patas mirando al Coronel Macedo,que ha dado un paso para ponerse junto a el, y le advierte:

-Si se levanta, esta muerto. Y si trata de coger surevolver, por supuesto.

Lo mira friamente a los ojos y tampoco ahora ha cambiadoel tono de voz. Ve la duda en la enrojecida del Alferez, a suspies, y ya sabe que el surefio no se levantara ni intentara sacar elrevolver. El no ha sacado el suyo, por lo demas, se ha limitado allevar la mano derecha a la cintura, a ponerla a mih'metros de la

cartuchera. Pero, en realidad, esta pendiente de lo que pasa a suespalda, adivinando lo que piensan, sienten, los ocho soldados alver a su jefe en ese trance. Pero unos segundos despues estaseguro que tampoco haran nada, que tambien ellos han perdido lapartida.

-Ponerle la mano a un hombre en la cara, asi como se la

he puesto -dice, mientras se abre la bragueta, velozmente se saca

el sexo y ve salir el chorrito de orina transparente que salpica el

fundillo del Alferez Maranhao-. Pero todavia peor que eso es

mearle encima.

Mientras se guarda el sexo y se abotona la bragueta, losoidos siempre atentos a lo que ocurre a su espalda, ve que elAlferez se ha puesto a temblar, igual que un hombre con


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tercianas, ve que se le saltan las lagrimas y que no sabe que hacer

con su cuerpo, con su alma.

-A mi no me importa que me digan Cazabandidos, porque

lo he sido -dice, por fln, viendo enderezarse al Alferez, viendolo

llorar, temblar, sabiendo cuanto lo odia y que tampoco ahora

sacara la pistola-, Pero a mis hombres no les gusta que los

llamen traidores a la Repiiblica, pues es falso. Son tan

republicanos y patriotas como el que mas. (529-531)

Details such as these can be found throughout each chapter of the novel.One segment describes a typical market held every Saturday in Queimadaswhere people from the area come to sell their wares; beggars, travelingminstrels, and gypsies as well as merchants and farmers attend the fairs.

Several episodic segments briefly mention details about die inclusion of folkbeliefs and other religions into die rituals and beliefs of the Catholics,especially in mral areas, "a las practicas catohcas se injertaban a veces, comoplantas parasitas, cosmmbres dudosas" (93). Some of these include thedances of the Negros and Mulattos, herb concoctions of the Indians, palmreaders, curanderos. sorcerers, practitioners of smoke cures, and people whocould read the future in coffee grounds or a basin of water. The recollectionsof the joumalist also mention candomble rites, voodoo ceremonies, ancientreligious ceremonies of the Africans. Various superstitions are mentionedthroughout the narrative segments. The jagungos believe that if they die byhaving their throat slit, the favorite method of execution by the southem army,their soul goes straight to hell. They also believe that to reach heaven theymust be buried with wood above them, preferably a coffin, but due to a

scarcity of wood in Canudos twigs and slivers of wood have to suffice. Thestrong beliefs and superstitions of the region is further emphasized by thestory told by Jurema about die wooden San Antonio in the church atQueimadas.


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La encontraron en una gmta, hace anos, y la llevaron a la Iglesiay al dia siguiente desaparecio y aparecio de nuevo en la gmta. Laamarraron en el altar para que no se escapara y, a pesar de eUo,volvio a irse a la gmta. Y asi estuvo, yendo y viniendo, hastaque llego a Queimadas una Santa Mision, con cuatro padrescapuchinos y el Obispo, que consagraron la Iglesia a SanAntonio y rebautizaron al pueblo San Antonio das Queimadas en

honor del santo. Solo asi se quedo quieta la imagen en el altardonde ahora se le prenden velas. (62)

These passages emphasize the superstitious and impressionable namre of the

people. These episodes do not always contribute directly to the action, but

they create a depth of background knowledge that makes the people and

events of the novel more real and believable.

The extensive dialogue in other segments of the novel provides much

insight into die attitudes of the era. The dialogues between Baron de

Caiiabrava and his various friends and enemies yield a great amount of

information about the political attitudes and intrigues of various factions as

well as some of the history of the Republic. After the fall of Canudos, the

baron and Epaminondas Gongalves come to a political agreement which will

maintain the status quo of the region and prevent the federal government from

taking over the state government,

^No se ha dado cuenta? Con la muerte de Moreira Cesar, losjacobinos han sufrido un golpe mortal. Han perdido la linicafigura de prestigio con que contaban. Si, mi amigo, losyagunzos han hecho un favor al Presidente Pmdente de Morals,y al Parlamento, a ese gobiemo de "bachilleres" y "cosmopolitas"que ustedes querian derribar para instalar la Repiiblica Dictatorial.Morals y los PauHstas van a servirse de esta crisis para limpiar elEjercito y la administracion de jacobinos. Siempre fueron pocosy ahora estan acefalos. Usted tambien sera barrido en lalimpieza. Por eso lo he llamado. Vamos a vemos en aprietoscon el gigantesco Ejercito que viene a Bahia. El gobiemo federal


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persona mejor preparada para mantener el orden en este Estado es

usted, (330-331)

A conversation with the nearsighted joumalist and a remembered

conversation with the Vizconde de Ouro Preto describes die riots, mobs, and

murders in the soudi, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, as a result of die defeat

of Moreira Cesar and the accounts of die monarchist conspiracy printed in the

republican newspapers,

-Me acorde derepente de Gentil de Castro -murmuro elBaron de Caiiabrava-, La estupefaccion que debio sentir alsaber por que arrasaban sus periodicos, por que destmian sucasa. . . .

-Esta parte de la historia tiene explicacion -retintineo el

hombre que parecia plegadizo [el periodista]-. Lo que ocurrioen Rio de Janeiro, en Sao Paulo, es logico y racionad.

-^Logico y racional que la multitud se vuelque a las callesa destmir periodicos, a asaltar casas, a asesinar a gentesincapaces de sefialar en el mapa donde esta Canudos, porqueunos fanaticos derrotan a una expedicion a miles de kilometros dedistancia? ^Logico y racional eso?

Estaban intoxicados por la propaganda -insistio elperiodista miope . Usted no ha leido los periodicos. Baron.

-Conozco lo que paso en Rio por una de las propias

victimas -dijo este-. Se salvo por un pelo de que lo mataran a eltambien.

.. . A usted no lo lincharon porque en Salvador no hayjacobinos. Baron. Los bahianos solo se exaltan con losCamavales, la politica les importa un bledo. (361-362)Other conversations offer odier types of information. A conversation

between Rufino and his friend Caifas clarifies die sertanejo code of honor and

conduct. Caifas explains diat an obligation to a friend is more important dian

an obligation to an employer. He also talks about die need for revenge, "Se

que no duermes y que todo en la vida ha muerto para ti. Que incluso cuando

estas con los demas, como ahora conmigo, estas vengandote. Asi es, Rufino,


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asi es cuando se tiene honor La muerte no basta, no lava la afrenta. Lamano o el chicote en la cara, en cambio, si, Porque la cara es tan sagradacomo la madre o la mujer" (184), In anodier segment a conversation betweenMoreira Cesar and his officers demonstrates die intense disdain and dislikediat the soudiem men and devout republicans have for the Bahians, especiallythe Autonomistas, One dialogue between Moreira Cesar and the baron goesinto the different attitudes and developing economies of die Soudi and die

Northeast,

-Odio a los terratenientes locales y a los mercaderesingleses que han mantenido esta region en la prehistoria prosiguioel Coronel, con acento helado-, Odio a quienes elazijcar les interesaba mas que la gente del Brasil.

La Baronesa atendia a sus invitados, inmutable. El dueiiode casa, en cambio, habia dejado de sonreir. Pero su tono siguiosiendo cordial:

-^A los comerciantes norteamericanos que el Sur recibecon los brazos abiertos les interesa la gente, o solo el cafe? pregunto.

Moreira C6sar tenia lista la respuesta:

-Con ellos Uegan las maquinas, la tecnica y el dinero quenecesita el Brasil para su progreso. Porque progreso quiere decirindustria, trabajo, capital como lo han demostrado los EstadosUnidos de Norteamerica. (209-210)

Sugar cane was the principal crop of the Northeast and the Enghsh were major

investors in the economy. However, die Americans had begun investing in

the coffee plantations and the industrialization of the south late in die

nineteendi century. Industry and prosperity was shifting to die soudiem

region and becoming more closely linked widi the United States radier dian

Europe, A later conversation with his friends explains further die decline of

die region, and laments die destmction of die plantations, "los focos de

civilizacion de este pais" (269).


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^ -Nuestro enemigo numero uno ya no es Epaminondas, niningun jacobino -murmuro el Baron, con desanimo-. Son losyagunzos. La quiebra economica de Bahia. Esloquevaaocurrir si no se pone fin a esta locura. Las tierras van a quedarinservibles y todo se esta yendo al diablo. Se comen losanimales, la ganaderia desaparece. Y, lo peor, una region dondela falta de brazos fue siempre un problema, va a quedar

despoblada. A la gente que se marcha ahora en masa, no lavamos a traer de vuelta. Hay que atajar de cualquier modo lamina que esta provocando Canudos. (270)

Vargas Llosa also uses comparisons to point out different aspects ofdifferent levels of society and regions of die nation. Lieutenant Pires Ferreirais described as "joven, mas bien bajo, de bigotitos recortados como los usanlos petimetres que, alia, en Salvador, se reiinen en las confiterias de la rua deChile a la hora del te" (33). In this case, by comparing him to the dandies ofthe city die reader is allowed a glimpse into urban life.

The juxtaposition of segments and episodes is also a method ofcontrasting attitudes and ways of life . The sections dedicated to El Consejero

and his religious beliefs are juxtaposed with segments about Galileo Gall withhis rational, scientific, modem attitudes. Moving directiy from die bloodybattleground of Canudos to die luxury of the drawing room of the baron'stown house in Salvador also provides an important contrast between thelifestyles of the rich and the poor, the mral people and the urbanites. Thejuxtaposition of scenes from die point of view of die army widi scenes fromthe point of view of die rebels emphasizes the vast ideological differencesbetween the two groups,

Vargas Llosa's use of biographical information as a source of descriptivedetail, extensive dialogue, episodic segments, and die juxtaposition ofepisodes to provide contrast fumish die reader a wealdi of detail into die


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lifestyle and life of die people of the sertao. It also renders some informationon life in the cities and the southem regions of Brazil as well as an overviewof the politics of die era, and the condition of die Church and the Military.This knowledge enhances the reader's understanding of the characters, their

actions, reactions, attitudes, and die culmre and conditions diat cause the

events of the novel.


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CHAPTER nREPRESENTATIVE CHARACTERS

The use of representative characters to portray a type is not a new or

unusual technique in literature. Mario Vargas Llosa utilizes diis age-old

technique widi great effectiveness. Some of diese characters are not fully

developed as individuals and serve to portray typical attitudes, actions, andreactions of die segment of society which diey represent. Many of hischaracters however, even though they represent much of what is typicalwithin their class or sphere of society, are developed with a psychologicaldepdi that individualizes them. The characters diat will be analyzed in diischapter and how their development imparts cultural and societal informationare: Rufino, the sertanejo: Jurema, Rufino's wife and the typical woman ofthe sertao: Pajeij, cangaceiro and convert of El Consejero; El Consejero,charismatic and messianic prophet of the sertao: die Baron de Cafiabrava,aristocratic landowner, conservative, and founder of the Partido Autonomista

de Bahia; the baroness, aristocratic wife; Adalberto de Gumucio, landedaristocrat but less diplomatic and willing to change than the baron;Epaminondas Gon9alves, Republican politician, and leader of die PartidoRepublicano Progresista; Fadier Joaquim, Cadiolic priest of the backlands;and Colonel Moreira Cesar, military hero and positivist.Rufino is a guide in the backlands of die sertao. He guides die surveyorsfor the railroad, cowboys searching for lost cattle, and anyone else whowishes to get around die sertao: he also tracks die wild animals for dieir peltsand meat. For Vargas Llosa, Rufino is die typical man of die sertao. strong,

22


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self-sufficient, traditional in his beliefs,wary of strangers and of change.Bom and raised on die plantation of die Baron de Caiiabrava, Rufino dependson him much as a vassal depends on his feudal lord. It is die baron whochooses his wife for him and gives him permission to leave the plantation tomake his living as a guide and tracker. Such is his loyalty to the baron and hishonor code diat Rufino must ask the baron's permission to kill Jurema whenshe disgraces him, and he asks die baron's blessing before beginning his

search for her and Galileo Gall. When he speaks to die baron, "mantenia lapostura respetuosa y miraba siempre al suelo" (188). Rufino's code of honor

is strong and inviolable; he and his friend Caifas discuss honor and die

importance of keeping promises. Rufino was disgraced when Jurema was

raped by Gall. According to his code of honor, die only way to regain his lost

honor is to strike Gall in die face and then kill bodi Gall and Jurema, but first

he must be released from his promise to die baron to take care of her.

Nothing can swerve him from his purpose even diough he is also kiUed in die

process of killing Gall while Jurema escapes his vengeance.

Jurema, Rufino's wife, is typical of the women of the sertao. Perceivedmainly as a possession, she is completely controlled by the men in her life,first the baron who chooses her husband, then by Rufino, and finally byGalileo Gall, She is submissive, fatalistic, and superstitious. Gall describesher, "^Era un ser pensante? Un animalito domestico, mas bien. Dihgente,sumiso, capaz de creer que las imagenes de San Antonio escapan de lasiglesias a las gmtas donde fueron talladas, adiestrado como las otras siervasdel Baron para cuidar gallinas y cameros, dar de comer al marido, lavarle laropa y abrirle las piemas solo a el "(108). He later comments to himself on

the nature of the sertanejos. especially die women, "Son las gentes mas


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enigmdticas del planeta ... . Fatalistas, educadas para aceptar lo que la vidales traiga, sea bueno, malo o atroz" (124-125). Jurema knows diat after Gallrapes her she has been disgraced for life and has disgraced Rufino. He willkill diem bodi to regain his honor. She accepts diis as a fact and follows Gall

as she awaits her fate. From her perspective she has no odier choice.

However, she manages to survive where Rufino and Gall do not and, after

terrible suffering, gains more control over her life once she reaches Canudos.

She is able to reject Pajeii, the very influential cangaceiro. and choose her own

course, even diough it is not independence, but life widi anodier man. This

time it is a man of her own choosing, and she is not totally dependent upon

him for her survival; in this case he is dependent upon her.

Pajeu is another typical inhabitant of the sertao. a cangaciero. an oudaw

notorious for his crimes and his cmelty. "El mas malvado de todo el serton"(98). There are many cangaceiros in die region; Pajeu is just one example.Tales of his and other outiaws' crimes and atrocities are told throughout dienovel, giving insight into just one more hardship in a hard life that die peopleof the Northeast had to endure. A result of the existence of the outlaws is theflying brigades of police who pursued them, the volantes. The policebrigades are as cmel and inspire as much terror in die inhabitants of die regionas do the outlaws. They do not ease dieir lives, only make diem harder. Eventhough Pajeu is reformed by El Consejero and becomes one of his blessed anda primary defenders of Canudos, not all cangaceiros experienced similarconversions, for they continued to terrorize die region.

The character of El Consejero is not developed in great depdi. He remains

aloof to the action, even diough he is die center around which die plot and

action of the novel moves. His type is, however, very important in die


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society of die Northeast as die messianic prophet who comes to lead dieoppressed and poor of die sertao to salvation and die Kingdom of God. He isa medieval figure, well suited to die medieval society present in die sertao(Souza 80), His concem is widi living and suffering on Earth by die laws ofGod in order to attain a better life in die Heaven. There were several suchprophets roaming die backlands during die late nineteendi cenmry. One of themost famous was Fadier Cicero Romao Batista, a suspended Roman Cadiolic

priest, who founded a religious movement in Joaseiro, a small village in the

state of Ceara, also in die sertao. This "mystical city" existed for nearly fifty

years despite die hostility of Church and State (Delia Cava 402). El Consejero

"embodies traits of the many spiritual heroes of the region, especially those of

die long-awaited Sebastian whom all expected toreappear some day" (Tippit

152), People flocked to these prophets by the thousands in the belief and

hope of escape from the misery of life in the sertao and the promise of etemal

salvation.

These four characters present an outline of the typical poor of the mralnortheast of Brazil, the hardships they faced in daily life, and their resignation

and fatalism in the face of constant misery, poverty, drought and its resultingstarvation and epidemics. Details provided as these characters are developedalso describe small details of the customs, homes, dress, and daily activitiesof the sertanejos. These details are provided through descriptions of them andtheir surroundings, conversations, and their thoughts and memories whenthey are the focalisers of the narrative point of view.

The odier side of die coin of life in die sertao is die landowners, die richand powerful owners of die great sugar plantations and cattle ranches. TheBaron de Caiiabrava is die most powerful of die old aristocracy of Bahia. He


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represents die old-fashioned, conservative, landed aristocracy. He representsdie old way, die feudal society of titled aristocracy and die people of die landwho depend on diem for dieir jobs and dieir weU being. The baron and hiswife epitomize die life of die rich of die period. The reader's introduction todie couple also includes an introduction to Salvador widi its narrowcobblestone streets and donkey drawn carts as well as to die lifestyle of diewealdiy Bahians,

Los Canabrava vivian en un palacio con azulejos traidos dePortugal, techo de tejas rojas, balcones de flerro forjadosostenidos por cariatides de pechos robustos y una fachada queremataba en cuatrofiguras de ceramica amariUa brillante: dosleones melenudos y dos piiias, Los leones parecian vigilar a losbarcos que llegaban a la bahia y las piiias anunciar a losnavegantes la esplendidez de la ciudad. La huerta que rodeaba ala constmccion hervia deflamboyanes, mangos, crotos y ficusdonde mmoreaba el viento. El palacio habia sido desinfectadocon vinagre, perfumado con hierbas aromaticas y engalanado conjarrones de flores para recibir a los dueiios. En la puerta, criadosde mamelucos, blancos y negritas con mandiles encamados y

paiiuelos a la cabeza los aplaudieron. (162-163)

The baron also maintains a less lavish but grand home at his plantation,

Calumbi, and diey are accustomed to spending several months out of the year

in Europe. Upon their retum from Europe, they expect to be met by the

govemor, civil, ecclesiastical, and military dignitaries of Salvador, and several

hundred loyal and jubilant Bahians , It is a sign of the changing times when

they are met by only a few old friends, and die govemor does not greet diem

publicly but awaits them in their home. Not only important in the economic

and social life of die region, the baron as founder of die Partido Autonomista

de Bahia, the conservative party of die majority under die new Republic, is

one of the most influential men in die state. The conservatives are still in


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power in Bahia, but die opposition is not a weak opponent and is able to usedie Canudos incident to its advantage. Not only a politician but also adiplomat, he realizes diat he and his kind must adapt if diey are to survive andmaintain any semblance dieir life before die advent of die Republic.

The Baroness is not a major character butrepresents the wealdiy, upperclass women of BraziHan society. She is beautiful and dignified, described as

"Esa mujer discreta, invisible detras de sus maneras corteses, cuyas sonrisaslevantaban una muralla impalpable entre ella y los demas ..." (267). But sheis not allowed to participate in making die decisions diat affect her life.Politics and business are not discussed in her presence. She is not a helplesswoman; in her conversations with Moreira Cesar and his doctor she describessome of die duties of die mistress of a plantation, "Aqui en Calumbi he tenidoque hacer de medico y de partera muchas veces" (207). She later talks aboutsome of the things she has seen living in the backlands, "He visto muchasdesgracias en mi vida,.,, Alia, en el campo, Cosas que aterrarian a loshombres de Salvador ^Te acuerdas del toro que enloquecio y embistio alos nifios que salian del catecismo? ^Acaso me desmaye? No soy una mujerdebil. En la gran sequia, por ejemplo, vimos cosas atroces ^no es cierto?"(266), According to her husband, she has always risen to any crisis that she

has had to face; however, the loss of her home, Calumbi, proves to be morethan she can handle, and she loses her mind when it is bumed to the groundby Pajeii and his men. Much of die aristocracy is unable to adjust to the majorchanges in Brazilian life and society,

Adalberto de Gumucio is also a member of die old, landed aristocracyand President of die Bahian Congress. One of die baron's close friends, he isnot as modem and open minded as die baron. Gumucio is known for his well


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bred horses and during the days of slavery for his weU bred slaves, which hemated as carefully as his horses. He is less willing to accept die changesbrought by die Republic or any changes diat direaten die sovereignty andpower of his class. He tends to agree with anodier of die region'slandowners, "el anciano coronel Jose Bemardo Murau" (267), who,concerning die buming of Calumbi by El Consejero's followers, states "Sihubiera sido yo, estaria alM muerto Hubieran tenido que quemarme a mi

tambien Uno puede destmir su propiedad si le da la gana. Pero que unapartida de ladrones infames y dementes me digan que van a quemar mi tierrapara que descanse, porque ha sudado mucho, eso no, Hubieran tenido quematarme" (268). Many landowners find it hard to change widi the times, to

admit that their power over the land and its people is no longer absolute. Thebaron, a more pragmatic man, realizes diat these changes cannot be stopped,only survived as best as possible,

Epaminondas Gon9alves is the leader of the Partido RepublicanoProgresista, the opposition party. He represents the modem, progressivepolitician, recentiy come to the forefront and who attempts to gain influenceand power rapidly, Gon9alves owns the newspaper Jomal de Noticias which

he uses to undermine and attack the conservatives, just as die conservativepaper, owned by the Baron de Caiiabrava, does to die republicans, A shrewdand aggressive politician, he inflames die emotions of die people in Salvadorand die nation's capital of Rio de Janeiro by feeding mmors of conspiracybetween die conservatives and die English to overthrow die Republic. It isGon^alves who frames Gall as an English spy sent to supply arms to diejagun^os. It is die republicans who eventually come out on top when diebaron and Gon9alves meet to discuss die fate of die state. The baron retires


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from public life, and Gon9alves becomes die power in Bahian politics.However, nodiing reaUy changes for die people whom diey are goveming.The agreement between die baron and Gon9alves maintains die stams quo,even diough die leaders have changed, and life continues in die sertao much asit has since it was first settled.

These four characters represent die wealdiy and die political organization

of the region. Along with the four previous characters they give die reader anidea of die organization of society in die Northeast, cleariy divided betweendie rich and die poor. Even diough diere are two political factions, neidierseems to be concemed widi die people of die region, only with die power andinfluence that they wield within dieir class. Theirs is a semi-feudal society inwhich the rich and powerful control the lives of the peasants who work forthem, living on their land and in die villages under their influence.

This leaves two of the three institutions of society to be portrayed byrepresentative characters, die Church and die Military. Fadier Joaquim, dieparish priest of the village of Cumbe, represents die Church in die sertao.Priests were scarce in the region, so he travels over a large territory baptizingdie children bom since the last visit by a priest, marrying the couples who

were betrothed or living together, saying mass, and performing odier priestlyduties. He is notorious for his drinking and womanizing, as were manypriests of the time. The mmor soon spreads "que su obispo lo habia alejadode alli [Pemambuco] por haberse propasado con una menor" (118), Soonafter he arrives in Cumbe he takes a mistress by whom he has three children,but he does not engage in simony as do many of the priests. The townspeopleseem to accept Father Joaquim's unpriesdy activities and attimdes widioutovert criticism.


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Colonel Moreira Cesar in many ways typifies die modem professional

BraziUan military man. He is a national hero, inspired by die ideals of

patriotism and nationalism. He believes in progress and industrialization and

die current popular philosophy of positivism. He is die epitome of die ideals

and beliefs of die Repubhc (Souza 78). In his worid diere is no room for

mysticism or religion; science and rational diought dominate his worid and his

beliefs. His beliefs, attimde toward die aristocracy, and die purpose of die

military are presented in a diatribe directed against his enemy die Baron de

Canabrava.

Hay una rebelion de gentes que rechazan la Repiiblica yque han derrotado a dos expediciones militares

Objetivamente, esas gentes son instmmentos de quienes, comousted, han aceptado la Repiiblica solo para traicionarla mejor,apoderarse de ella y, cambiando algunos nombres, mantener elsistema tradicional. Lo estaban consiguiendo, es verdad. Ahorahay un Presidente civil, un regimen de partidos que divide yparaliza al pais ... . Se habia incluso de reducir a la mitad losefectivos del Ejercito ^no? jQue triunfo! Pues bien, seequivocan, Brasil no seguira siendo el feudo que explotan hacesiglos. Para eso esta el Ejercito. Para imponer la unidadnacional. para traer el progreso. para establecer la igualdad entrelos brasilefios y hacer al pais modemo y fuerte. Vamos aremover los obstaculos, si: Canudos, usted, los mercaderesingleses, quienes se cmcen en nuestro camino. No voy a

expHcarle la Repiiblica tal como la entendemos los verdaderosrepublicanos. No lo entenderia, porque usted es el pasado,alguien que mira atras. (emphasis added, 213)

The baron describes him to Gall as an idealist, "No le interesan el dinero, ni

los honores y acaso ni siquiera el poder para el. Lo mueven cosas abstractas:

Un nacionalismo enfermizo, la idolatria del progreso tecnico, la creencia de

que solo el Ejercito puede poner orden y salvar a este pais del caos y de la

cormpci6n, Un idealista a la manera de Robespierre .,," (240), He is also


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hostile toward the church as evidenced by several of his statements, "Siempreha sido politica de la Iglesia Catolica estar donde cree que esti a suconveniencia" (246) and, "la adhesion de la Iglesia a la Repiiblica no es tansincera como algunos creen" (249). Moreira Cesar sees die army as diekeeper of national order and die promoter of progress, not subject to dieaudiority of any person or any organization outside die military. An

independent entity whose purpose is to put down anydiing or anyone,regardless of who or what, who direatens national order, unity, and progress.The defeat of Moreira Cesar, die national hero, creates a national crisis. The

defeat is perceived diroughout die country, especially in die soudi as a

defamation of die honor and prestige of die Republic as well as diat of die

army. After his defeat and deadi, die train began depositing in Queimadas, diejumping off point of the campaign, "a militares profesionales, cuerpos depolicia y regimientos de voluntarios que vienen desde todas las regiones delpais a este pueblo ensefioreado por las moscas, a vengar a los patriotasmuertos, a salvar a las instimciones humilladas y arestaurar la soberam'a de la

Repiiblica" (356).The war becomes a national vendetta to regain the army'slost honor as well as to save the Republic from the monarchists andSebastianists.

The characters presented in this chapterrepresent the three instimtions ofBrazilian society, the Aristocracy, the Church, and the Military, as well as themral poor of the Northeast and the up and coming political order. Throughthem, Vargas Llosa depicts die power stmcmre of Brazil, especially in dieNortheast, basic attimdes of different levels of society, and dirough theinteraction of the characters demonstrates dierelationships, conflicts.


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prejudices, and compromises which worked to shape Brazil during the lastdecade of die nineteenth cenmry.


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CHAPTER mINTERTEXTUALITY

One of die techniques used by Mario Vargas Llosa to convey to die readera sense of Brazilian life at the end of die nineteendi cenmry is dirough diewritten texts of odiers. These texts represent different points of view of die

events of die novel. They include die letters and joumal entries of GalileoGall and a newspaper article in die opposition newspaper in Salvador. Theletters are written to Gall's friends at L'Etincelle de la revoke, a revolutionary

newspaper he had helped found in Lyon, France. He does not know if hisfriends are still alive, much less if the paper is still being published, but hecontinues to write to them regardless. Gall, a Scotsman, phrenologist,idealist, anarchist, and revolutionary came to Brazil by virme of beingshipwrecked off the coast of Bahia. He travels diroughout Bahia exploringthe injustices of Brazilian society. He is a keen observer, and hisobservations serve the reader well as a window into Brazilian life. Gall alsoserves as a foil to the more regional and national views of the other characters.According to Raymond Souza "Su manera de pensarrepresenta una curiosa

mezcla de ideas anarquistas del siglo XIX y pensamiento marxista" (81). Hischaracter articulates the views and philosophies of modem Europe.

Gall believes that die people of Canudos have established an idealsocialistic commimity. He supports their ideals and seeks to join them, evendiough die reader realizes diat he does not really understand dieir beliefs,which are quite different from his. He never reaches Canudos. These letters,which never reach the paper because it no longer exists, contain Gall's

33


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observations of Brazilian Hfe and, sometimes, die conclusions he draws fromdiese observations. Two of die letters are quoted in dieir entirety in die novel.The odier letters are included only dirough comments about dieir contents bydie narrator and a few quotes taken from die text, but even diis minute bit ofinformation contributes to diereader's knowledge of die daily life, politics,and rehgion of die era.

In his letters Gall speaks of die injustice found in Brazilian society and ofdie abject misery of die poor who migrated to die city to escape die drought ofthe sertao. This injustice further strengdiens his belief in revolution. Thisinformation emphasizes the harshness and poor living conditions of the verypoor in contrast to the rich landowners and also reinforces the harshness andseverity of the region and its droughts. From this letter the reader can alsoglean that agriculmre is the mainstay of the economy because those who ownthe blue-tiled palaces own plantations and mills.

Las casuchas de los miserables colindan con los palacios deazulejos de los propietarios de ingenios y las calles estanatestadas, desde la sequia de hace tres lustros que empujo hastaaqui millares de refugiados de las tierras alias, con nifios que

parecen viejos y viejos que parecen nifios y mujeres que sonpalos de escoba, y entre los cuales un cientifico puede identificartodas las variantes del mal fisico, desde las benignas hasta lasatroces: la fiebre bihosa, el beriberi, la anasarca, la disenteria, lavimela. Cualquier revolucionario que sienta vacilar susconvicciones sobre la gran revolucion .. . deberia echar unvistazo a lo que yo veo en Salvador: entonces, no dudaria. (4243)

Gall's first ten letters are included in Part One of die novel. Only eight of

die ten are referred to specifically. The first, written shordy after his arrivalin

Bahia in 1894, describes Bahia as a "calidoscopio donde un hombre con


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nocion de la historia ve coexistir las lacras que han envilecido las distintasetapas de la humanidad" (40). This letter deals widi slavery, which, evendiough it had officially been abolished in 1888, "existia de facto, pues, parano morirse de hambre, muchos negros libertos habian vuelto a implorar a susamos que los recibieran" (40). However, only die most able were employed,for low wages, and the sick, elderly, and very young were left to starve on thestreets which, "hierven de ancianos, enfermos y miserables que mendigan o

roban y de prostimtas que recuerdan Alejandria y Argel, los puertos masdegradados del planeta" (40). Therefore die owners of die sugar plantationsstill controlled most of die Negro population widiout die responsibility ofcaring for them as diey had during die days of slavery. Although life inslavery was not easy, at least when Blacks were considered property, assetsof the plantations, diey were not generally abandoned when diey were nolonger in their prime; however, this was no longer the case after abolition.The simation of most Negros worsened while, after a period of mrmoil andadjustment, life on the plantations continued much the same as before.

The second letter describes how the very rich and the very poor live sideby side, not in segregated neighborhoods as in Europe. In diis letter hedescribes the parades of rich on dieir way to Mass every Sunday widi dieir

entourage of servants, what he calls "el conmbemio del oscurantismo y laexplotacion ,.," (40). He also writes of die amazing mixmre of races presentin society even diough, "han hecho de la blancura un paradigma, laquintaesencia de belleza" (40). The narrator reports diat in a later article Gallwrote diat despite die prejudices, "los descendientes de pormgueses, indios yafricanos se habian mezclado bastante en esta tierra y producido unaabigarrada variedad de mestizos: mulatos, mamelucos, cafusos, caboclos.


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curibocas" (40), Even diough whites considered diemselves to be superior,racial mixing was very prevalent diroughout most of Brazilian society andgave Bahia "una atmosfera cosmopolita y variopinta,"

Gall's fifdi letter concems superstition, and is also a comment on diestrong religious beliefs diat often led to fanaticism in die sertanejos. In it hetells of die Iglesia del Senhor de Bonfim, which pilgrims had filled widi

exvotos,"con piemas, manos, brazos, cabezas, pechos y ojos de madera y decristal, que pedian o agradecian milagros" (41). This was a common practice,as were roadside chapels and altars full of offerings, stames, and odier imagesof Christ or saints. These are mentioned often throughout the novel. Oneexample is the chapel full of offerings of weapons as well as the morecommon images of arms and legs. The narrator describes it as:

una capilla medio perdida entre las lomas amarillentas de la Sierrade Engorda, donde, tradicionalmente, hombres que tienen sangreen las manos vienen a arrepentirse de sus crimenes, y, otros, ahacer ofrendas. Es una constmccion pequefia, solitaria, sinpuertas, de muros blancos por los que corren lagartijas. Las

paredes rebosan de exvotos: escudillas con comida petrificada,figurillas de madera, brazos, piemas, cabezas de cera, armas,ropas, toda clase de miniisculos objetos. (157)

Rufino is able to arm himself there after being robbed by cangaceiros. Helater remms to give dianks and make an offering of his own even dioughaccording to Gall he is not a devout believer. Anodier example is die manychapels and altars leading up Sierra de Piquara9a to die Iglesia de Santa Cmzat Monte Santo,

His sixdi letter deals widi die advent of die Republic. Gall tells how itreally did not affect daily hfe, "que en la aristocratica Bahia habia significadosolo el cambio de algunos nombres" (41). In odier words, for most people


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the change from Emperor to President did not cause a great change in dieirway of life. This was especiaUy tme in die mral areas where news arrivedslowly and was often inaccurate. In odier letters and joumal entries, as wellas conversations. Gall elaborates on die evils of die Republic and itsoppression of die poor which he considers an extension of die oppressionunder die monarchy. He also comments on and discusses die meaning of dieCanudos uprising, its origins and purpose. He interprets die rebellion in light

of his personal behefs and his analysis is very different from how the rebelsdescribe themselves. Gall clarifies a different perception of die simation.

The sevendi letter is homage to four mulatto revolutionaries "que, un sigloatras, inspirados por la Revolucion Francesa, se conjuraron para destmir lamonarquia y establecer una sociedad iguahtaria de negros, pardos y blancos"(41). Therefore the reader becomes aware that revolution and rebellion havebeen a part of Brazilian hfe and some of it had been racially inspired. Eventhough there had much racial mixing, equality of race was still an issue andhad been long before abolition.

The eighth, ninth, and tenth letters deal widi punishments and torturedevices.

La octava, sobre los castigos corporales que habia visto impartira los siervos en patios y calles de la ciudad, y la novena sobre losinstmmentos de tormra usados en tiempos de la esclavimd: elpotro, el cepo, el collar de cadenas o gargalheira. las bolas demetal y los infantes, anillos que trimraban los pulgares. Ladecima, sobre el Pelourinho, patibulo de la ciudad, donde aiin seazotaba a los infractores de la ley (Gall los llamaba "hermanos")con un chicote de cuero cmdo que se ofrecia en los almacenescon un sobrenombre marino: el bacalao. (42)


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The abolition of slavery had not abolished die cmelty of public beatings forerrant servants. Apparendy some of die worst tormres were no longerpracticed at diis time, however, die use of die bacalao. a mediod diat had beenused since die days of slavery, was still common. The simation had notchanged very much, die main difference being diat all diose punished werefree men because there were no longer any slaves.

In anodier letter, quoted in its entirety. Gall recounts his visit widi FrayJoao EvangeHsta de Monte Marciano in die Monasterio de Nuestra Senora dela Piedad. Even though he has an abhorrence for religion and clerics, he iscurious about die situation in Canudos. The Friar had traveled to Canudos byorder of the Archbishop to discover what was occurring in this obscure anddistant region of die country and to attempt, unsuccessfully it mms out, topersuade the followers of El Consejero to remm to their homes. The letterrelates how Gall first came to leam of die community being formed inCanudos and his interpretation of their actions, "que, en Canudos, hombreshumildes e inexperimentados estan, a fuerza de instinto e imaginacion,llevando a la practica muchas de las cosas que los revolucionarios europeossabemos necesarias para implantar la justicia en la tierra" (55). This and othercomments in the letter give insight into current revolutionary beliefs popular in

Europe at the time. Gall also comments on the proliferation of Freemasons indie Republic which has weakened the Church. The Church had accepted dieRepublic and its secular laws even though diey weakened its influence. Thereligious cult now forming in Canudos in opposition to die laws of theRepublic also endangers its influence because any rift widiin die Churchfurther weakens it. The Church's point of view and what becomes die pointof view of many Brazilians is expressed by a quote from die Friar, "Son una


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secta poHtico-rehgiosa insubordinada contra el gobiemo constimcional delpais, constimyen un Estado dentro del Estado .. .(56)." The letter evenincludes a little about die medicine and healdi of die period as Gall commentsdiat his source of information about die Friar's visit to Canudos was a relativeof die baron's who was being treated for a tapeworm by die doctor for whomGall worked.

The text of anodier of Gall's letters makes up anodier segment. In it herecounts his meeting widi one of die followers of El Consejero. The manexplains die reasons for the establishment of the community and die beliefs ofdie Counselor's following. Gall, however, manages to interpret dieir actionsto fit his own perception and ideals. They wish to establish an ultra-religiouscommunity govemed by the Law of God, while Gall believes it to be apolitical revolution. Not only does die letter clarify the beliefs of dieresidentsof Canudos, but also clarifies the ideals and beliefs of Gahleo Gall, freedomfighter. Included in the letter is a description of the people of the region. Hewrites of the oppression and maltreatment of the women, "las servidumbresmorales y fisicas de las mujeres son extremas, pues las oprimen el patron, elpadre, los hermanos y el marido. Aqui, el terrateniente escoge las esposas de

sus allegados y las mujeres son golpeadas en plena calle por padres irascibles0 maridos borrachos, ante la indiferencia general" (88). Gall also commentson the attimde of die people in general which he contrasts widi die people ofthe coast and attributes it to their lack of Negro blood. "La gente del interiorno es como la de Bahia, a la que la influencia africana ha dado locuacidad yexuberancia, Aqui las caras son inexpresivas, mascaras cuya funcion pareceser la de ocultar los sentimientos y los pensamientos" (88). He also verybriefly explains die cult of Sebastianism which is part of die behefs of die


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people of Canudos and is mentioned many times in die novel. They believe

diat "los yagunzoa muertos resucitaran para estar vivos cuando aparezca el

Ejercito del Rey Don Sebastian (un rey portugues que murio en el Africa, en el

siglo XVI)" (90). Much of die letter is phrased in die fomi of questions. In

diese and odier questions posed in his odier writings and musings, Gall

ponders die place of die Canudos rebellion in die history of rebellions and

attempts to understand its philosophical foundations in relation to his personal

philosophy. He makes clear his belief in science and rationality as die answer

to all questions.

^Son estos diablos, emperadores y fetiches religiosos laspiezas de una estrategia de que se vale el Consejero para lanzar a

los humildes por la senda de una rebehon que, en los hechos -adiferencia de las palabras-es acertada, pues los ha impulsado ainsurgir contra la base economica, social y miUtar de la sociedadclasista? ^Son los simbolos religiosos, miticos, dinasticos, loslinicos capaces de sacudir la inercia de masas sometidas hacesiglos a la tirania supersticiosa de la Iglesia y por eso los utiliza elConsejero? ^O es todo esto obra del azar? Nosotros sabemos,compaiieros, que no existe el azar en la historia. que, porarbitraria que parezca. hay siempre una racionalidad encubiertadetras de las mas confusa apariencia. ^Imagina el Consejero eltranstomo historico que esta provocando? ^Se trata de uninmitivo o de un asmto? Ninguna hipotesis es descartable, y,menos que otras, la de un movimiento popular espontaneo,

impremeditado. (emphasis added, 90)

By acmally including these questions in this letter and his other letters, the

author articulates many of die reader's questions about the simation. Even

diough they are not answered widiin the letter, the reader is allowed to come

to his or her own conclusions from die knowledge gained diroughout die

novel.


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In one letter which Gall intended to write but probably never completed,he planned to tell his compattiots in France, "que el paisaje del cielo erainfinitamente mas variado que el de latierra en esta region del mundo y queesto sin duda influia en la disposicion rehgiosa de la gente" (124). The peopleof die sertao were known for dieir religious fanaticism and propensity tofollow charismatic, messianic rehgious leaders such as El Consejero. Galloffers diis as one reason diat could contribute to diis tendency; die infinite

variety and beauty of die heavens, which is the residence of God, contrastedso sharply with the cmel, monotonous land where diey resided and diedifficult, dreary Hfe diat diey led, that diey mmed toreligion, sometimesfanatically, as a way to cope with their hardships. Their goal was to reachHeaven, and in order to do so they had to be strong believers and suffer thehardships of Hfe in die sertao. This is a medieval attimde which fit in wellwith the semi-feudal organization of their society and die bmtaHty of theirlives.

Much of the information gamered from GaU's writing is from his joumalentries where he records many of his thoughts and impressions, and from hismemoirs, which he leaves with the Baron de Canabrava. While waiting forRufino to guide him to Canudos, Gall writes in his joumal about Rufino, a

typical sertanejo.

Lee en el cielo, y en los arboles y en la tierra como en un Hbro; eshombre de ideas simples, inflexibles, con un codigo del honorestricto y una moral que ha brotado de su comercio con lanaturaleza y con los hombres, no del esmdio pues no sabe leer,ni de la religion, ya que no parece muy creyente. (62)

As pointed out in die second chapter, Rufino is fairly typical of die sertanejo.

Gall sums up his characteristics, attimdes, and way of life in just a few


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words, simple, inflexible, uneducated but able to survive in one of die mostinhospitable regions of Brazil because of his knowledge of namre. AldioughRufino is not particularly religious, he adheres to his code of honor much asodier people of die sertao adhere to dieir religious beliefs.

One joumal entry, written while he is in die backlands town ofQueimadas, is a detailed description of a tannery and die hide tanning process,

an important industry in diis region of livestock and game animals. The entryis transcribed in its entirety even diough it has nodiing to do widi die people of

Canudos or the war the government is now waging against die followers of ElConsejero. It simply and straightforwardly describes a major industry of thearea and die people diat it supports. That is its purpose, to familiarize diereader with the region and its people. It has no bearing on the uprising itselfbut helps the reader to understand the economy and life of die area. In thissection also, the narrator describes, through GaU's eyes, a political raUy of thePartido Republicano Progresista, the accompanying fair, and the indifferenceof the people of this backlands town. The attimde of the townspeople saysmuch about the importance of politics in their lives.

Gall also wrote his memoirs, "un resumen de lo que soy, de lo quepienso" (243), and an account of all diat had happened to him in his quest tohelp the residents of Canudos. Most of diis information has already beenpassed on to die reader as the narrator foUows die characters dirough dienovel. GaU leaves his papers widi die Baron de Caiiabrava, asking him tosend it to L'Etincelle de la revolte. The readers never get to read diistestimony, aldiough die Baron shares it widi some of his friends as dieydiscuss the events diat have occurred and how diey affect dieir lives, diegovernment, and the lives and attimdes of odier Brazihans.


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Galileo Gall's letters and joumal entries are not set off from die moreconventional narration in die novel in any special manner. The gifting andclosing of die letters quoted verbatim are not included. However, diey areimportant in diat diey are written in diefirst person and impart informationdirectly from Gall's point of view radier dian dirough die omniscient narrator.The odier letters, even diough diey do represent Gall's impressions, arefiltered dirough the narrator and dierefore take on a more distant interpretation.

Much of die information presented through GaU's writing is political innamre, whedier he is relating information or interpreting diat information.But, much non-poHtical information can be gamered from these writings also,information and details about die customs, habits, and beliefs of die people ofBahia, the sertao, and the clergy.

The other written text that Vargas Llosa utilizes in his novel is anewspaper article written for dierepublican newspaper in Salvador, the Jomalde Noticias. The newspaper is owned and run by Epaminondas Gon9alves,president of the Partido Republicano Progresista, opponent of die old politicalguard led by the Baron de Canabrava, founder of the Partido Autonomista deBahia. The article is quoted verbatim; its style is joumalistic radier than

literary. The article covers the session of die Bahian legislamre caUed after diedefeat of die second miHtary attempt to reclaim Canudos from die rebels. Thetwo parties confront each odier over die events at Canudos and die discoveryof rifles being smuggled to die Sebastianist rebels by die so-caUed English spyGaHleo GaU. Many tilings can be learned from diis article, not only about diepolitical attitudes of the Bahian legislators, but about die history of theRepublic and customs of the time.


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One of die main impressions gained from die article is die amount of

hostility, bitterness, and lack of cooperation between die two parties. The

Progresistas accuse die Autonomist Party, the Govemor, and die Baron de

Caiiabrava as dieirringleader, of conspiring widi die English and die Canudos

rebels to overthrow die Republic and reestablish die monarchy. They dien call

for die intervention of die federal government in die matter.

El Partido Republicano Progresista, a traves de suPresidente, el Excmo. Sr. Diputado Don EpaminondasGon9alves acuso formalmente al Gobemador del Estado deBahia, Excmo. Sr. Dom Luis Viana, y a los gmpostradicionalmente vinculados al Baron de Caiiabrava-Ex-Ministrodel Imperio y Ex-Embajador del Emperador Pedro fl ante lacorona britanica-de haber atizado y armado larebehon deCanudos, con ayuda de Inglaterra a fin de producir la caida de la

Repiiblica y larestauracion de la monarquia.

Los Diputados del Partido Republicano Progresistaexigieron la intervencion del Gobiemo Federal en el Estado deBahia para sofocar lo que el Excmo. Sr. Diputado DonEpaminondas Gon9alyes Uamo "conjura sediciosa de la sangreazul nativa y la codicia albionica contra la soberania delBrasil"....

El Vice-Presidente del Partido Republicano Progresista,Excmo. Sr. Diputado Don Elisio de Roque leyo un telegramaenviado al heroe del Ejercito brasileiio, aniquilador de lasublevacion monarquica de Santa Catalina y colaborador eximio

del Mariscal Roriano Peixoto, Coronel Moreira Cesar, con estelaconico texto: "Vengay salvealaRepiibHca". (132)

The Autonomistas protest and offer the baron's service to die state and his

current absence from die country as proof of his innocence.

El Vice-Presidente del Partido Autonomista y Presidentede la Asamblea Legislativa, Excmo. CabaUero Don Adalberto deGumucio, dijo que era una infamia sugerir siquiera que alguiencomo el Baron de Caiiabrava, prohombre bahiano gracias a quieneste Estado tenia carreteras, ferrocarriles, puentes, hospitales de


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Beneficencia, escuelas y multimd de obras piibHcas, pudiera ser

acusado, y para colmo m absentia, de conspirar contra la

soberania brasileiia. (132)

They further hold forth diat he is diefirst victim of dierebeUion because die

confiscated ranch, Canudos, is his property. The opposition accuse thebaron of aiding dierebeUion by giving die rebels die ranch and insist diat "laausencia, en vez de exculparlo, podia delatarlo, y que a nadie enganabasemejante coartada pues todo Bahia era consciente de que en el Estado no semovia un dedo sin autorizacion u orden expresa del Baron de Caiiabrava"

(134). It was proposed that he was in Europe for the sole purpose ofconspiring with the British Crown. The debate raged amid insults and threatsfor more than five hours with "momentos de sumatirantez en las que, variasveces, los Excmos. Sres. Diputados esmvieron a punto de pasar a las vias dehecho" (132) until a recess was caUed to give the Deputies time to cool down.

The break itself threatened to degenerate into a brawl. The enmity between the

two parties is evident despite the formal, poHte language they use with each

odier. Also evident are some of die misconceptions that the Brazilian people

have concerning the inhabitants of Canudos whom the opposition describes

variously as "rebeldes muy superiores en numero y en armas [to diefirst two

military expeditions]," " el movimiento subversivo de Antonio Consejero,"

"esta conjura que amenaza la esencia misma de la nacionalidad brasilefia"

(132), and "el caso de bandidismo y locura Sebastianista" (134).

Besides die poHtical climate many odier details about customs of theregion can be divined from die reading of the article. One of these details istiiat smugglmg, especiaUy of arms, is a common activity in die backlands, anaccepted way of life.


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El Excmo, Sr. Diputado Don Joao Seixas de Ponde dijo que erauna hipocresia amiar semejante alboroto por el haUazgo de unosfusiles en el serton, cuando todo el mundo sabia que el trafico ycontrabando de annas era desgraciadamente algo generalizado enel interior y, si no, que dijeran los Excmos. Sres. Diputados de laoposicion de donde habia amiado el Partido RepublicanoProgresista a los capangas y cangaceiros con los que habia

fomiado ese Ejercito privado que era la Uamada Guardia RuralBahiana, que pretendia funcionar al margen de las instimcionesoficiales del Estado. (136)

This also comments on die difficulty of life and die scarcity of goods in dieregion; smuggling is an activity diat generally only takes place when goodscannot be acquired by any odier mediod. It is also discovered dirough diispassage and others diat die Rural Guard, die police force of die state, isorganized, recmited, financed, and controUed by die party of die opposition.It consisted mainly of capangas (hired gunmen) and cangaceiros. Anodierminor detail which is leamed is diat dueHng is still an accepted mediod ofsettiing disputes. According to the reporter the vehement debate included"amenazas de duelo" (132) and on another instance when one Deputy is

insulted by another the injured party, "exclamo que ese insulto tendria surespuesta en el campo del honor.. ."(133). A few historical facts can begleaned from the newspaper article also. These center around die greatnational hero Marshal Roriano Peixoto, the Iron Marshal, "el gloriosogobiemo del Mariscal Roriano Peixoto, benemerito de la Patria, cuyorecuerdo vivira siempre en el corazon de los brasilefios" (133). The MarshalcmeUy but effectively put down a rebeUion in the soudiem state of Rio Grandedo Sul and saved die Repubhc, one of die reasons he is considered diegreatest hero of die nation. A similar uprising in Santa Catarina, put down byColonel Moreira Cesar, has been previously mentioned. The article also


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briefly mentions plans for die expansion of die railroad into die interior in anattempt to modemize die region, help it catch up widi die rest of Brazil, and

further unite die nation.

The use of diese texts provides the reader with a different perspective ondie events of die novel. The letters and joumal entries of GaU are admittedly

biased because of his strong phUosophical and ideological beliefs, but theinformation provided can still be useful in interpreting Brazilian society. Thenewspaper article is also biased, in this case from the republican political point

of view. Even so, it provides information on die political attimdes as well assome customs of the time and a Htde BraziHan history.


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CONCLUSION

Through his use of representative characters, stmcmre, variable points ofview, comparison, dialogue, description, and written texts, Vargas Llosa haspresented die reader of La guerra del fin del mnnHn widi a panoramic view ofBraziHan society in die 1890s, including customs, attimdes, politics, rehgious

beliefs, and superstitions of various segments of society. These segmentsinclude die mral, urban, rich, poor, die Church, and die Military. Hundredsof characters each bring bits and pieces of culmral information into dienarrative as diey are introduced and eidier developed as characters ordisappear quickly as die novel progresses.

The Brazil diat takes shape under die pen of Vargas Llosa is that of adivided and restiess nation. The divisions can be categorized in several ways:economic, political, regional, and philosophical. The Northeast is a harsh,backward land still mled by feudal lords and worked by their vassals, eventhough slavery has been abolished. The economy of die region is based onsugar cane, livestock, and their by-products. The people are strong, simple,uneducated, superstitious, and prone to religious fanaticism. The rich who

govern the region, regardless of their political affihation, are concemed withmaintaining their stams and power. Any improvements, such as the extensionof die railroad, are calculated more for dieir benefit dian for die benefit oftheirconstiments. The south, on die odier hand, has embraced die positivist idealsof order and progress, the new Republic's motto. They welcome science andtechnology, and strive to build an industrialized society pattemed after theUnited States of America. These different attimdes and ways of life have

48


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developed into stereotypes and prejudices which hinder die development of atmly united nation.

Under die new government, formed in 1889, die Cadiolic Church has lostmuch of its influence. The Republic is a secular government whichrecognizes die separation of Church and State. Marriage and burial, once diestrict domain of die Church, have become die domain of die government,

which has also established taxation and a national census. The Jesuits hadalready been thrown out of die country, and die remaining religious orders areunable to minister to die entire nation. In mral areas there are few priests toshepherd the residents of vast areas. Churches and cemeteries have faUen intomin. What priests remain are known for they sinfulness, greed, and abuse ofpower.

The Military is powerful even though it is not involved in die acmalgoveming of the nation. In the national motto Ordem e Progreso (Order andProgress) it is die military diat ensures Order. Several uprisings in variousregions of the country have been cmeUy but effectively put down by the army,creating several national heroes in the process. Despite regional differencesand prejudices, the Brazilian military machine, which is based in die South, is

an effective keeper of Order so as to bring about Progress.

The last decade of the nineteenth cenmry was a period of transition fromEmpire to Republic, from a slave nation to a free nation. Vargas Llosa hasbrought to life die stmggles of a new nation seeking unity and trying toestablish a national identity as the new cenmry commences. He not onlyincludes a panoramic view of Hfe in BrazU, but also mcludes die everyday, themundane, details diat give die reader die feeling diat diese are real people


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stmggling with real problems. In doing so, he paints a vivid portrait ofBrazilian society of die 1890s and some of die problems it faced.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BeUo, Jose Maria. A History of Modem Brazil 1889-1964. Trans. James L.Taylor. Stanford CA: Stanford U.P., 1966.

Brody, Robert. "Mario Vargas Llosa and die Totalization Impulse." Eds.

Charles Rossman and Alan Warren Friedman. Mario Vargas Llosa: ACoUection of Critical Essays^ Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1978. 120

127.Calasans Silva, Jose. No Tempo de Antonio Conselheiro: Figuras e Fatos daCampanha de Canudos. Salvador: Progresso, 1959.

Campos, Jorge

Documents

Vargas Llosa and the Latin American Tesis