Valerie Maholmes-Fostering Resilience and Wellbeing in Children and Families in Poverty.pdf

7/25/2019 Valerie Maholmes-Fostering Resilience and Wellbeing in Children and Families in Poverty.pdf

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Fosering Resilience and Well-Beingin Children and Families in Povery


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1

Fosering Resilience andWell-Being in Children and

Families in Povery

Why Hope Still Matters

VA L E R I E M A H O L M E S


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Library o Congress Caaloging-in-Publicaion DaaMaholmes, Valerie.

Fosering resilience and well-being in children and amilies in povery :why hope sill maters / Valerie Maholmes.

pages cmIncludes bibliographical reerences and index.

ISBN (hardback). Poor children. . Poor amilies. . Resilience (Personaliy rai) . Hope. I. ile.

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Prined in he Unied Saes o America

on acid-ree paper


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Tis book is dedicaed o all he children and amilies who have risen above he difficulcircumsances o lie and have chared heir own unique pah oward well-being, and ohopeul amilies ha are ye finding he srengh and resolve o coninue on heir journeyoward an opimisic uure. I also dedicae his book o my parens, Spencer and Mary,

whose love and suppor have always given me hope, and o my iends, who showered mewih opimisic words o encouragemen.


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C O N E N S

Preace ixForeword by Elijah Cummings xiiiAcknowledgmens xvAbou he Auhor xvii

1. Hope: Te Moivaion o Overcome Adversiy 1

2. Triving in Adversiy: oward a Framework of Hope,

Opimism, and Resilience 13

3. Wired for Hope? Examining Lifelong Capaciies for Learning,Growh, and Recovery from Adversiy 35

4. Parening and Family Maters: Conrasing Parening and FamilyProcessesExamining Family Srenghs and Asses 51

5. Do You Believe in Me? Promoing Hope hrough QualiyEducaion and Opporuniies o Learn 73

6. Friends and Menors: Te Proecive Power of Relaionships 97

7. Empowering Neighborhoods and Communiies o Foser Resilience 117

8. Hope, Opimism, and Resilience: Culural Frames of Reference 139


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C O N E N Svii i

9. Hope in Acion: Case Sudies of Moivaion, Overcoming,and Sriving oward Well-Being 157

10. Why Hope (Sill) Maters 173

Reerences 183Index 205


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ix

P R E F A C E

Recenly, a colleague and I edied a comprehensive ex on children and povery(Maholmes and King, 2012) ha examines he deleerious oucomes o growing upin and experiencing adversiies associaed wih economic disadvanage. While pu-ing ogeher ha volume, I began o wonder abou children who grew up in adver-siy bu who appear o are well despie hose circumsances. I wondered abou heacors ha conribue o heir success. I hough abou people I know and amiliesIve worked wih who, despie humble beginnings, were managing heir lives suc-

cessully. I also refleced on popular figures who shared sories in he media abouhe ways in which hey overcame early adversiy in heir lives. As I refleced on hesesories, i occurred o me ha a common heme among hese individuals was hope.I began o see he various ways in which hope is a highly influenial and moiva-ing orce in heir lives. Tis kind o hope is no passivei is no merely wishingor a beter lie, bu i is acive. I involves hinking, planning, and acing on hosehoughs and plans o achieve desired oucomes. I is he driving orce ha keepsus moving despie he adversiy and allows us o adap and o be resilien in he

mids o hese circumsances. In reflecing on hese hemes, I decided ha I wanedo ell he sories o individuals sriving o overcome adversiy. I waned o reviewlieraure ha corresponds o he srenghs and abiliies hese individuals displayed.o do his, I draw upon he concepual rameworks and heories o hope ariculaedin he posiive psychology lieraure and provide everyday examples o illuminaehese heories o hope. My goal in doing so is o make he conceps and heorieswe discuss so reely in academic circles more accessible o policymakers and prac-iioners who work wih poor children and amilies. When hope and resilience are

undersood in pracical erms, perhaps we can help more children and amilies be-er manage heir circumsances and char pahways oward well-being.I am eernally graeul o he individuals who allowed me o come o heir homes,

places o business, and oher venues o hear heir sories and learn abou heir lives.


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P R E F A C Ex

I waned o make heir sories he cenerpiece o his volume in an atemp o helpbring o lie he research and heories ha I presen in each chaper. I only hope Ivedone jusice o heir sories. In meeing hese amilies, I learned abou he com-plexiy o some o heir lives and he challenges hey encouner daily. For example,

when I wen o mee wih a amily member, I ound mysel arriving a he venueon he edge o a drug deal ha apparenly had jus been compleed. Some o heoher amilies I had hoped o inerview didn show up o meeings or hey los ele-phone service and or various reasons could no paricipae wih me in his process.o me, hese absences are a sory in and o hemselves, speaking volumes abouhe compeing prioriies and dimensions o heir lives ha remain misundersoodand underappreciaed by hose o us who make momenary appearances in he liveso hese courageous individuals. Neverheless, hey keep heir ocus on he priori-ies in heir liveskeeping heir amily ogeher, saying sober, wihdrawing romnegaive amily influences, and pursuing higher educaion. Tese prioriies are howhey define successwhy hey have hope and why hey coninue o srive owardwell-being.

Tis book covers a range o opics ha I believe are imporan o he commu-niy o policy and pracice proessionals. Afer giving overviews o he research onresilience, hope, opimism, and relaed psychological asses in he firs 2 chapers,I explore in each subsequen chaper an imporan acor ha I conend helps pro-moe hope and oser resilience in poor children and amilies. I invie he reader

o reflec on policies and pracices ha can be inormed by he research presenedand inspired by he inerviews wih amily members. Here I provide quesions haI hope will encourage reflecion on he hemes presened in he book. For example,in Chaper 3, I review basic inormaion abou he brain and how i develops, andI explore wheher various ypes o experiences promoe changes in he brain hamay allow or posiive adapaion in adverse conexs. Praciioners may reflec onhe ollowing:In wha ways can knowledge abou he brain and is capaciy or renewaland recovery inorm inervenion sraegies and effors o promoe hope and oser resil-

ience in disadvanaged youh?In Chaper 4, I discuss he influenial role o he amily in he lives o poor chil-

dren. Research shows ha amily uncioning has ar-reaching effecs on childrensdevelopmen, and parening shapes how children experience he world and howhey see heir place in i. I review hese ideas rom a srenghs-based perspecive anddiscuss assessuch as amily suppor sysems, menal healh, culural pracices,and posiive worldviewha may help a amily manage he day-o-day complexi-ies associaed wih maerial povery. Reflecion quesion: Te proecive role o par-

ens and parening is a recurring heme hroughou he book. Wha policies or praciceshelp or hinder parens om engaging effecively wih heir children and exended amily?In wha ways can more resources be direced oward supporing and educaing parens inposiive parening pracices?


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P re a ce xi

Children spend he vas majoriy o heir lives in school. In Chaper 5, I pu or-ward he noion ha, aside rom he amily, he school is perhaps one o he mosinfluenial organizaions in he lie o a child. School can be proecive agains hechallenges experienced by children who live in impoverished communiies and am-

ily environmens. Reflecion quesion: Wha sraegies can be implemened o promoegreaer opporuniies o learn or children in low-resourced, underprivileged schools?Posiive riendships and adul relaionships have he poenial o ameliorae

early adversiy in he lives o children. In Chaper 6, I explore he imporance oengaging in posiive peer relaionships and orming meaningul riendships, as wellas he role o menoring in osering resilience. Reflecion quesion: Qualiy iend-ships and posiive aduls can have an enduring impac on he lives o children. In whaways can exising programs be modified o promoe effecive menoring and engagemenwih youh? Are here unapped resources in he communiy ha can be drawn upono culivae meaningul and long-erm relaionships or economically disadvanagedchildren?

In Chaper 7, I explore communiy and neighborhood asses and how hesemay promoe hope and oser resilience. Te places where children grow up, heresources available o hem, he models o success and ailure in adolescens andaduls, businesses, communiy organizaions, and places o worship play a role inshaping a childs uure orienaion. How hese successes or ailures are inerpreedor and by children may have an impac on heir own sense o hopeulness and opi-

mism or heir uure. Reflecion quesion: Wha policies or pracices are needed ooser collecively efficacy in neighborhoods and o promoe empowermen among neigh-borhood residens o solve local problems?

Like communiies and neighborhoods, culural rames o reerence shape heway a child views him- or hersel in he world and, mos imporanly, culure plays acenral role in he idenificaion and use o imporan coping mechanisms and adap-ive processes. In Chaper 8, I explore he mechanisms by which culural values,pracices, and norms may be proecive agains aspecs o adversiy and how hope

and resilience may be osered. Reflecion quesion: How can we build upon valuedculural pracices and belies o promoe hope and oser resilience among economicallydisadvanaged amilies? o wha exen do some policies help or hinder he use o culur-ally inormed coping sraegies?

Chaper 9 provides case examples o he ways in which key indicaors o hopeand resilience have been applied o promoe posiive youh oucomes. Summarieso inerviews wih amilies are presened, as well as examples o how programsand inervenions were implemened o yield posiive developmenal oucomes.

Reflecion quesion: Wha can be learned om he experiences o he amilies iner-viewed or his volume o inorm policies and pracices supporing amily cohesion, educa-ional opporuniy, youh developmen, and suppor or single-aher-headed households?

I close his volume in Chaper 10 by oulining a se o sraegies and principlesgleaned rom he research and rom he inerviews wih amilies ha could inorm


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P R E F A C Exii

an acion agenda on behal o children and amilies. I ask he reader o considerhe criical imporance o inegraing ino policies, pracices, and inervenions ele-mens ha will inspire hope in children and amilies living in povery.

Earlier, I reerred o he individuals I inerviewed as courageous. Indeed hey are.

Tere are counless oher courageous individuals who may never have he opporu-niy o ell heir sories or o validae heir experiences wih conceps and heoriesdiscussed in he lieraure. I hope his volume will represen heir lives as well andha hose o us who work wih hese amilies, who advocae or or legislae on heirbehal, will also have he courage o have hope and o allow ha hope o be a moi-vaing and unrelening orce in our effors o oser resilience and well-being in heseamilies.


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xiii

F O R E W O R D

In Fosering Resilience and Well-Being in Children and Families in Povery: Why HopeSill Maters, Dr. Valerie Maholmes offers policymakers, clinicians, and parens alikewelcome insigh ino why some children are able o overcome almos relenlesssocial adversiy and succeed.

For an America beleaguered by a widening chasm beween wealh and poveryha hreaens our deepes social values and even our uniy as a naion, Why HopeSill Matersis boh hough-provoking and imely.

Research has augh us a grea deal abou why so many young people are ailingo reach heir poenial. Ye our viewpoins abou why some o our young succeed,apparenly agains he odds, is less well grounded in science and more a uncion oour own lie experience and resuling paterns o belie.

Consider my own lie sory.My parens lef sharecropping in Clarenden Couny, SC, jus afer WWII o

achieve educaion and greaer opporuniy or heir children. As a resul, I spenmy earlies years living in a small, rened Souh Balimore row house near For

McHenrywhere he Sar Spangled Banner sill waves.Every morning, like American schoolchildren everywhere, I recied he Pledge o

Allegiance o our flag, alhough I mus ell you ha I had o quesion wheher hoseinspiring words, libery and jusice or all, included my brohers, sisers, and me.

Our poorly equipped, eigh-room elemenary school didn even have a lunchroom, an audiorium, or a gymnasium. Because my parens had received litle or-mal educaion hemselves, hey were no able o send me o elemenary schoolready o learn, so I was rying o learn in wha was hen called he hird group.

oday, we would call ha class special educaion.One day, a counselor asked me wha I waned o become in my lie. I answeredha I waned o be a lawyer like Ms. Juania Jackson Michell, who had sood up orus children a he Riverside Swimming Pool we children had marched o inegrae.


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F O R E W O R Dxiv

I old him ha I waned o become a lawyer so ha I could help ohers.I mus ell you, hough, ha my counselor jus looked a me, a poor kid in he

hird group, and he exclaimed: You wan o be a lawyer . . .! Who do you hinkyou are?

I was crushedand I almos los aih in mysel ha daybu in he monhs ocome, good eachers like Mr. Hollis Posey lisened o my dreams. Tey believed inmy poenial, encouraged me, and augh o my srenghs.

Meanwhile, ouside o school, our local recreaion leader, Capain Jim Smih,ook me under his wing; and Dr. Alber Friedman, our neighborhood pharmacis,rused me and gave me my firs job.

ogeher wih my parens, hey lifed me up by he srengh o heir example.Tey ook my dream and made i heir own.

So I kep working hard, and he day finally came when I made i ou o hehird group.

I wen on o sudy a and graduae rom Balimores op academic high school.Laer, I would earn aPhi Bea Kappakey a Howard Universiy and hen a law degree.

I worked hard o perec my calling, helping oher people whenever I could;as a resul, I am honored and privileged oday o represen my communiy in heCongress o he Unied Saes.

I share his personal recollecion wih you no o celebrae my own success in lie,bu o encourage everyone who reads hese words o suppor our nex generaion

on heir own lie journeys.Geneics and wha we like o call our individual naures may have had somehing

o do wih he hope and resilience ha have encouraged me hroughou my lie. YeI also know ha hose qualiies had o be nururedor I could well have allen byhe wayside as did so many o my childhood riends.

When Juania Jackson Michell o he NAACP sood up or us children as wewere atacked here a Riverside Swimming Pool, she gave me somehing ar moreimporan han he abiliy o cool off on a ho summer day. She augh me ha I was

a person wih righs ha ohers had o respec.Ta lesson ransormed me.When my parens, Mr. Hollis Posey, and hose oher key people in my early lie

encouraged me o have higher expecaions or mysel, hey helped o se me on acourse ha led me o he Congress o he Unied Saes.

Ye I doub ha I would have succeeded in ha journey wihou he expandingsocial consciousness and generous public suppor o 1960s America.

oday, or our naion o once again achieve ha effecive, uplifing naional per-

specive ha will help more o our young people build sable, producive lives, wemus beter undersand howyoung people can succeed agains he odds.We mus learn how o beter nurure heir hope-filled naures. I predic ha Why

Hope Sill Materswill be an imporan conribuion oward ha end.Elijah Cummings, Member o Congress


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A C K N O W L E D G M E N S

I especially wan o acknowledge he suppor o Dr. Jacquelyn Beals, whose hough-ul eedback and insighul criiques challenged me o work o my bes abiliy.I especially wan o hank he saffs a Hope and a Home and a Te Family Place orheir willingness o share heir excepional knowledge and wisdom wih me. I amawed by he work you do o ensure he healh and well-being o he children andamilies you serve. Finally, o he individuals who agreed o share heir insighs wihme, I hope ha he power o your sories will change he lives o hose who read his

book in he way my lie was changed by lisening o your hopeul experiences.


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xvii

A B O U H E A U H O R

Dr. Valerie Maholmeshas devoed her career o sudying acors ha affec childdevelopmenal oucomes. Low-income minoriy children have been a paricularocus o her research, pracical, and civic work. She has been a aculy member ahe Yale Child Sudy Cener in he Yale School o Medicine, where she held heIrving B. Harris Assisan Proessorship o Child Psychiary, an endowed proes-sorial chair. While a Yale, Dr. Maholmes worked in numerous capaciies, includ-ing Direcor o Research and Policy a he School Developmen Program. She has

served on numerous proessional boards and was also a member o he New HavenBoard o Educaion, where she served as Vice Presiden/Secreary. Noably, she wasawarded he presigious science-policy ellowship wih he Sociey or Researchin Child Developmen and he American Associaion or he Advancemen oSciences. Dr. Maholmes compleed her bachelors and masers degrees a MonclairSae Universiy in Monclair, NJ, and a docoral degree rom Howard Universiyin Washingon, DC. She also earned a sixh-year degree rom Fairfield Universiyin Fairfield, C. She is currenly employed a he Naional Insiues o Healh in

Behesda, MD.


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Fosering Resilience and Well-Beingin Children and Families in Povery


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1

1

HopeTe Motivation to Overcome Adversity

Hope springs eernal in he human breas: Man never is, bu always obe bles.

Alexander Pope,An Essay on Man, Episle I(1733)

Te essence o humaniy is he lie-long journey oward sel-acualizaion. In heprocess o achieving heir highes poenial, individuals ollow differen pahwaysand may reach vasly differen endpoins, ye heir underlying drive is he same.

Researchers, philosophers, and praciioners alike have sough o define he innerqualiy ha urges us o srive, moivaes belie, and gives rise o resilience. CarlRogers, he ounder o humanisic psychology, believed ha humans have a sel-acualizing endencyan innae drive pushing each person o ulfill heir poen-ials. Rogers (1995) believed ha his endency moves us o develop our capaciiesin ways ha enhance our being and humanness and move us oward auonomy. Tisdrive is direcional and consrucive, and alhough i can be suppressed, i cannobe desroyed wihou he desrucion o he organism (Rogers, 1977). Maddi, apersonaliy heoris (1996), describes his endency as a biological pressure o ul-

fill he geneic blueprin (p. 106), suggesing ha every person has a undamenalmandae o ulfill heir poenial (Pescielli, 1996).

Tese heories are compelling, bu hey raise a number o quesions: Wha isa he hear o his naural endency o srive? Wha circumsances suppress hesenaural endencies, and can hey have an impac on individuals abiliy o achieveheir poenial? How is he undamenal mandae o ulfill poenial achieved? Dosome acors hwar our bes effors o ulfill his mandae? And, conversely, arehere acors ha aciliae and enhance our abiliy o ulfill his mandae? Tis book

explores hese quesions by drawing on he everyday lives o amilies in difficulcircumsances who are in he process o overcoming hese challenges.

My premise is ha hopelies a he hear o he energy ha propels people owardsel-acualizaion: achieving he highes vision o hemselves or he good o heir


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W H Y H O P E S I L L M A E R S2

amilies, hemselves, heir communiies, and he greaer humaniy. I is my conen-ion ha hope is he essenial mindse ha enables individuals o have resilience inhe ace o adverse circumsances.

In everyday erms, hope is hough o as he opimisic anicipaion o a posiive

oucome despie evidence o he conrary. I is generally perceived as he abiliy olook beyond he curren circumsance or siuaion and expec somehing differenrom whaever is currenly presening isel. Hopeulness is hough o oser per-severance, persisence, and resilience in uncerainy in many o he same ways asRogers sel-acualizing endencies. Tereore, hope is ofen hough o as a qualiyha resides wihin he human spiri and can be summoned as needed in imes odifficuly or adversiy. We rely heavily on hope as a source o encouragemen andmoivaion o susain our effors or o srive oward our bes and highes poenial,even when all evidence poins o a less avorable oucome. Hope is believed o playan imporan role in a variey o processes, including coping and recovery rom ill-ness and injury. Hope may be a proecive mechanism ha provides a buffer againshe ull impac o an adverse siuaion and gives he wherewihal o push beyond heprevailing risks and srive oward recovery. Hope, when grounded in realism abouones siuaion, may give srengh o manage he complexiies o an illness and heassociaed emoional challenges, aciliaing a leas psychological well-being andimproved qualiy o lie. For he amilies o recovering paiens, hope derived romsocial and culural suppor neworks, aih, and spiriualiy aciliaes coping and

posiive responsiveness o he needs o he loved one (Bland & Darlingon, 2002).Agains-all-odds human ineres sories resonae deeply wihin us and keep us

mindul o he power o he human spiri o overcome challenges and adversiy.Inspiraional narraives o people who accomplish seemingly impossible eashrough sheer willpower and deerminaion give rise o noions ha many obsa-cles can be overcome wih effor and persisence. Mos o us can recall a sory oldwihin our amily or social nework abou someone who never gave up despiedauning circumsances. In he popular media, Goldschein and Eisenberg (2011)

chronicled he lie o Ursula Burns, now a businesswoman, who grew up in a hous-ing projec on Manhatans Lower Eas Sidea hub or gangs. Burns was raisedby her single moher, who ran a daycare cener ou o her home and ironed shirsso she could afford o send her daugher o Caholic school. Ursula wen o NYU,rom here became an inern a Xerox, and a he ime o his wriing is XeroxsCEO and chairwomanhe firs Arican American woman o head a Forune500company.

Te sory o Oprah Winreys success is well known. She spen he firs six years o

her lie living wih her grandmoher and wearing dresses made ou o poao sacks.During ha ime, she experienced a series o adverse evens, including child moles-aion and een pregnancy. Only afer Oprahs moher sen her o live wih her aherdid her lie urn around. Oprah earned a ull scholarship o college, where she wasdiscovered by a radio saion and began her successul career. Oprahs name became


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Hope 3

an empire, and she is reporedly now worh more han $2.7 billion (Goldschein &Eisenberg, 2011).

Te sory o Dr. Ben Carson illusraes moivaion o achieve. Ben was also raisedby a single moher and, or he greaes par o his early childhood, didn believe

he was capable o learning because he always scored a he botom o he class.Envisioning a brigher uure or her children, Bens moher consanly reieraed ohem ha here was nohing hey couldn achieve i hey pu enough work ino i.While working as a housekeeper or a proessor, Bens moher quickly recognizedhe role ha books played in he mans success. Upon realizing his, she made herwo sons borrow books rom he library, read hem, and wrie her book repors. Tiswas he firs ime Ben had ever read a book rom sar o finish, and his was alsohe urning poin in his lie. Ben realized he poenial o hard worka qualiy hahelped him hroughou his rise o a presigious career in medicine. Because o hisdeerminaion and hard work, as well as he deep-rooed sel-confidence insilledin him by his moher, Ben wen on o excel in he world o neurosurgery, becominghe firs surgeon ever o successully separae conjoined wins atached a he head(Academy o Achievemen, 2012).

Former Presiden Bill Clinon has a similar sory: When Bill was 4 years old, hismoher lef him wih her parens while she rained as a nurse. Bills sepaher was analcoholic, and amily lie was requenly disruped by domesic violence; ye despiehis rocky relaionship wih his sepaher, Bill changed his las name o Clinon as

a eenager. When Clinon was 17, he me hen-Presiden John F. Kennedy and, asa resul, decided ha he waned a career in poliics. Clinon enered GeorgeownUniversiy in 1964, graduaed, and was awarded a Rhodes scholarship, whichallowed him o coninue his sudies or he nex wo years a Oxord Universiy.Afer atending Yale Law School, Bill evenually began he poliical career he firsaspired o during his youh and was he younges-ever governor o Arkansas.Clinon enered he 1992 race or presiden and was eleced o serve or wo erms(Encyclopedia o World Biography, n.d.).

Common o every individual in hese adversiy-o-prosperiy sories is a definingmomen, marked by a dawning awareness o heir own capabiliy ha changed hecourse o heir lie. For some, his awareness was osered by he inervenion o aparen or eacher. For ohers, i resuled rom an experience ha gave hem insighino wha heir uure could be. Noneheless, in each o hese examples awarenessgave rise o hope, and hope led o acion. o hope or a paricular oucome is anacive process. I allows one o move oward a paricular goal by envisioning andariculaing ha goal and by ideniying and securing resources and suppors o

bring ha goal o ruiion.Tese well-known sories inspire us o believe ha anyone can rise above heircircumsances o achieve heir goals and dreams. However, many sories o over-coming and achievemen ha begin in equally challenging conexs may end nowih maerial wealh bu raher wih a sense o accomplishmen in heir sriving


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oward sel-acualizaionwhaever ha enails or each individual. I hope doesspring eernal, he conexs in which individuals call upon hope may deerminehow asserive heir acions, how efforul heir sriving, how clearly ariculaedheir goals.

Few conexs embody more adversiy and uncerainy han does povery.Children and amilies living in and affeced by povery are ofen reerred o as nohaving hope, or eeling ha heir siuaion is hopeless, depending on he magniudeo problems associaed wih povery and economic disadvanage. Te despair andhopelessness associaed wih povery are well documened. A large body o researchhas shown how povery and disadvanage, when experienced early in lie, have con-sequences ha reach ino he early childhood years, adolescence, and adulhood(Maholmes & King, 2012). Tese consequences include negaive effecs on social,healh, and educaional oucomes. Sudies have also shown large and consisenassociaions beween povery and negaive academic oucomes, including lowerreading scores, poorer healh, and social behavior problems (Maholmes & King,2012). Children living in povery are a greaer risk or displaying behavior and emo-ional problems and difficuly geting along wih peers. Long-erm povery is alsoassociaed wih childrens inner eelings o anxiey, unhappiness, and dependence(Bolger, Paterson, Tompson, & Kupersmid, 1995; McLoyd & Wilson, 1991).

In addiion o early experiences o povery, we have become increasingly awareha children who experience deep and persisen povery are likely o have eco-

nomic hardships and associaed problems in adulhood (Wagmiller & Adelman,2009) ranging rom a greaer risk o low birh weigh babies o oher healh, social,educaional, and parening oucomes (Redd e al., 2011). Conger, Conger, andMathews (1999) repored ha children who grew up in povery are more likely ohave low produciviy and low earnings compared o children who did no grow upin povery, and adolescens are more likely o drop ou o school and consequenlyengage in delinquen or anisocial behavior. Tese poor educaional oucomes arealso associaed wih challenges in adulhood, including unemploymen or under-

employmen and limied access o healh care and oher imporan social servicesand resources (Maholmes & King, 2012). Family povery is also associaed wihhigher risk or een childbearing, less-posiive peer relaions, and lower sel-eseem.All hese oucomes eed ino he vicious cycle o povery.

Te challenges associaed wih povery are seemingly inracable. As curren eco-nomic condiions become less sable, children are a he greaes risk or slippingdeeper ino povery. Given his rend, i is no surprising ha children would be ona rajecory o poor developmenal oucomes as a consequence o living in or being

affeced by povery.However, a less well-undersood sory is ha o he poor children who seem oare well despie heir risks or poor oucomes. Te circumsances surrounding heireconomic siuaion may no ulimaely change, bu some children and amilies areable o manage or overcome many o he consequences o povery. Regretably, ew


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Hope 5

i any populaion-based saisics are available on he children and amilies livingin povery who have managed o aver hese consequencesleaving us wih onlypopular sories and anecdoes abou children reared in adverse circumsances whoovercame hese adversiies o become successul aduls. In many ways, he lack o

any empirical reamen o his phenomenon has osered he noion o rugged indi-vidualism and a boosrap heology ha ew can endorse. Ye such perspecives dono lead o an undersanding o he environmen in which a child grows and devel-ops or how elemens o his environmen can be brough o bear on a childs oulookon lie, creaing condiions in which hopeulness will flourish. Nor does his indi-vidualisic view make a case or developing policies and programs ha could pro-moe hope and increase he likelihood ha more children and amilies will escapehe sranglehold o povery.

Te sory o hree young men who grew up in Chicagos Souh Side is insruc-ive. Te hree riends decided ha hey waned o become docors and made apac o suppor each oher so hey could make i ou o heir difficul circumsancesogeher (Davis e al., 2003). All hree are now successul docors and wrie pro-lifically abou heir sruggle o achieve. Mos imporanly, hey have crafed heirexperiences ino a se o lessons learned in order o help ohers achieve similaroucomes. Teir sory sheds ligh on he influences, boh posiive and negaive, oheir ecological conex: firs, he powerul influence o a role model who gave hema vision o wha hey could be in lie. Peer suppor was also an imporan process

in heir sory, as was suppor rom caring aduls. Tus, having someone believe hahey could, in ac, achieve hese goals was imporan or inspiring hope and engen-dering opimism (Davis e al., 2003).

Inrigued by human ineres sories and advances in research on resilience, aswell as he empirical sudies ha are now available, I was impelled o explore hisphenomenon o hope in more deph, looking a i in he conex o povery. I amconvinced ha his phenomenon deserves ar more atenion. I we can undersandhow hope uncions as a mechanism ha enables children and amilies o navigae

difficul circumsances and dey he odds sacked agains hem, perhaps we canlearn rom hese processesdeveloping sraegies o be adoped and designingpolicies and programs ha creae opporuniies or more children and amilies oflourish. I is my conenion ha hope maters a grea deal and plays an imporanrole in overcoming adversiy. Hope maters or he children and amilies who dis-cover is moivaional efficacy. Hope maters or hose presumed o be los causesbu who have unapped poenial o succeed. Hope sill maters or hose o us whosudy, educae, legislae, and provide services o children and amilies. We need o

find ways o look beyond wha seems hopeless and o provide resources and sup-por so ha he hopes placed in us by poor children and heir amilies are no uilebu are ulfilled.

Te purpose o his book is o explore he role o hope in promoing posiive ou-comes or children and amilies who live in povery and experience he problems


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associaed wih economic and social disadvanage. Tis includes persisen lack oadequae income; he inabiliy o acquire he basic goods and services necessaryor daily living and survival wih digniy; low levels o healh and educaion; lack oaccess o services, ransporaion, and oher resources; inadequae physical secu-

riy; lack o voice or poliical influence; and social exclusion (Bradley & Corwyn,2002; Deparmen o Healh & Human Services, 2012).o sar, le me inroduce he individuals whose sories and insighs are he

cenerpiece o his book. Tese accouns, obained hrough semi-srucured iner-view proocols (Harrell & Bradley, 2009), shed ligh on how hope has enabledlow-income amilies o manage he day-o-day complexiies o heir lives and oachieve heir mos undamenal goal: providing a beter lie or heir children.

Mee Ashane, an Arican American male in his 30s. I inerviewed Ashane on acollege campus, where he is pursuing a graduae degree in Arican American sudies.He speaks o he philosophies, heories, and ideologies o people o Arican descen,boh on he coninen and in he Arican Diaspora. He looks orward o having anacademic career where he can wrie and lecure abou hese ideas and help schoolhe minds o young scholars abou he imporance o knowing ones culural heri-age. However, Ashanes pah o graduae school was no ypical. In ac, very litleabou his experiences leading up o mariculaion in graduae school was ypical ohe average college suden. From a very early age, Ashane paricipaed in he cul-ure o gangs and o he srees. While spending ime in prison or his explois, he

had an epiphany. I share how his experience changed his lie and helped him akeseps oward a more hopeul and producive uure.

Similarly, Carlon had an awakening o sors. While shuffling rom homelesssheler o homeless sheler and sruggling o overcome addicion o alcohol, Carlonknew he needed o make a change in his liei no or his sake, hen or his daugh-er. A middle-aged Arican American man, Carlon now reflecs on his journey andshares he pride o single-parening and he challenges o recovery.

Everyone needs o have a Josephine in heir lie. An Arican American moher

o five, near reiremen age, Josephine shares he wisdom o her hard-ough vico-ries. I me Josephine hrough a ransiional housing program o which she was oncea clien. She now works a his program, skillully guiding oher parens hrough heineviable wiss and urns on he road oward well-being. She knows firshand howperplexing his journey can be, having o come rom upown o downown inhomelessness shelers, fighing o keep her amily ogeher.

Few parens have he inimae knowledge o child developmen as Amandadoes. She earned a PhD in developmenal science and works in child proecive

capaciies. Amandas sory represens he influenial role o amily uncioning onchild oucomes. A European American moher o a oddler, Amanda reveals hechallenges o growing up in amily dysuncion and how her early lie experiencesgave her he drive and ambiion o creae a caring and nururing home environmenor her child.


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Hope 7

In addiion o my inerviews wih hese parens, I also me wih saff in he iner-venion programs ha serve hese individuals, and I share heir insighs and rec-ommendaions or programs and policies. Sarah is an academic researcher andalso direcs a rauma program ha services American Indian children and amilies.

Her inerview provides imporan insighs regarding he roles o amily, culure, andspiriualiy in promoing hope and osering resilience. Ramona represens a pro-gram ha largely serves immigran amiliesprimarily mohers and children. Heraccouns o amily culure, advocacy, and educaion speak o he imporan role hahaving knowledge plays in osering a sense o empowermen, purpose, and opi-mism in amilies. Finally, excerps o ocus group discussions eauring low-incomesudens paricipaing in a naional leadership academy shed ligh on he influenialrole o parens and eachers in promoing hope in children and youh.

I anicipae ha he perspecives rom hese inerviews will personiy he scien-ific lieraure on hope, opimism, and resilience and help praciioners and policy-makers who work wih children and amilies o become more aware o he acorsha promoe hope in children and, in response, design inervenions and policiesha allow hope o hrive.

Hope and resilience do no occur in isolaion, bu hey are influenced by hepsychological and physical environmen in which children and amilies inerac.Bronenbrenners (1979) ecological heory rames an imporan perspecive orundersanding hese psychological resources and how hey occur in children and

amilies. His ideas call atenion no only o he individual bu also o he amily,communiy, and socieal acors ha work ogeher o influence a childs develop-men and oucomes. Bronenbrenners heory suggess ha a child is nesed wihinineracing sysems. Te firs o hese is wha he calls a microsysemor an immediaeinfluenial environmen ha includes he amily: is srucure, available resources,and he ways in which he amily uncions. In addiion, he microsysem includesoher influenial sysems, including peer and oher social relaionships, he commu-niy and is resources in erms o services and suppors, livabiliy in erms o saey

and securiy or he presence o crime and violence, and, finally, he availabiliy oreligious and culural insiuions. School is also included in he microsysem: Isresources, srucure, and uncioning are imporan consideraions in his heory, asare he relaionships and ineracions among he school, he amily, and he child.Individuals encouner he mos social ineracions wihin he microsysem. Here,an individual is no passively observing his or her experiences bu is helping o cre-ae and consruc experiences hrough ineracions wihin and across elemens ohis microsysem (Bronenbrenner, 1979).

Te ineracions, reerred o as a mesosysem, include experiences a home relaedo experiences a school, or experiences a school relaed o experiences a church,in he communiy, and so on. In conras, he exosysemdoes no involve an indi-viduals acive role in he consrucion o experiences. Insead, he experiences endo be exernally driven and beyond personal conrol. However, hese experiences


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have a direc impac on he microsysem o which he individual is par. An exam-ple migh be a childs paren being laid off rom work or losing a job. Tis even,o course, could have direc bearing on he parens abiliy o provide or a childsbasic needs o ood, sheler, and clohing, and could lead o maernal depression,

increased levels o sress or ension in he home, child abuse and neglec, or evendomesic violence.Te socieal conex is a Bronenbrenners macrosysemlevel, which reers o he

culural belies, hisorical narraives, or sociopoliical issues, including policies, haaffec how he child and amily uncion. Obviously, culural belies and hisoricalnarraives may direcly affec a child in erms o child-rearing pracices, worldview,or response o challenges. Individuals may no have as much o an influenial rolein shaping heir experiences a he macrosysem level, bu hey may uncion as dic-aed by sociopoliical or culural norms (Beancour & Beardslee, 2012).

Finally, Bronenbrenners chronosysemreflecs he cumulaive experiences o aperson over he course o his or her lieime. Tese experiences consiue majorransiions (boh posiive and negaive) and environmenal evens in lie. Exampleso such ransiions migh be he loss o a paren, birh o a baby, removal rom imme-diae amily o a oser home, imprisonmen o a paren, or marriage. Te chapers ohis book are writen o correspond o hese ecological sysem levels. Te conexs,processes, and acors ha give rise o hope will be reviewed in ligh o each level.I chose o do his o underscore ha jus as hese ecological sysems are ineracive

and bidirecional, so oo are he acors ha promoe hope and oser resilience. Aswe will learn rom Carlon, Ashane, Amanda, Josephine, and he individuals whowork wih hem, here are many processes and acors ha give rise o adapaionand posiive oucomes or children and amilies. Accordingly, policymakers andpraciioners mus work wihin and across sysems o bring abou change.

Troughou he book, I pose provocaive quesions o enhance undersandingso hope and discuss conrasing lieraures on imporan hemes. One such quesionis wheher we are wiredorhope. Are here pahways and processes in he brains

srucure and uncions ha give rise o hope and opimism? o wha exen doexperiences o he environmen promoe changes in he brain ha permi or oserposiive adapaion o poenially deleerious conexs? Finally, I discuss he brainscapaciy or renewal and recoveryessenially giving us he wherewihal o con-inue learning, adaping, growing, and perhaps hoping, hroughou our lives. Whilehe las wo decades have seen grea srides in undersanding brain developmen andhe imporance o early simulaion, here is sill much o learn. Te bes availablescience ells us ha an impoverished environmen may lead o poor uncioning and

deficis in cerain brain regions (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000; Kauman e al., 2000).Burgeoning empirical evidence suggess ha he effecs o impoverishmen canbe amelioraedalhough more research is needed in his areabu resoraioncan occur, giving us hope ha he long-erm and generaional grip o povery canbe loosened so more youh will have enhanced capaciy o achieve heir goals and


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Hope 9

realize heir poenial (Blair & Raver, 2012). Te poenial or coninuous learninggives us encouragemen as policymakers, educaors, parens, and hose who careabou he childrens welare ha our inervenion effors are no in vain. Raher, heyshould be redoubled o ensure each child a sae passage ino adulhood.

Te influenial role o he amily is well documened, and a large body o researchshows ha amily uncioning has ar-reaching effecs on childrens developmen-al rajecories (American Academy o Pediarics, 2003). In paricular, paren-ing direcly shapes how children see and experience he world and how hey seeheir place in he world (Greenberger & Goldberg, 1989; Hughes & Chen, 1997;Maccoby, 1992). Parening behaviors and pracices ha are warm, nururing, andengaging promoe secure atachmens and help a child o develop sel-conrol, con-fidence, and he social and emoional skills needed or a variey o lie siuaions(Jackson-Newsome, Buchanan, & McDonald, 2008).

I goes wihou saying ha maerial asses afford amilies a range o advanagessuch as economic securiy, ood securiy, and housing. Ye even in he absence omaerial asses, some amilies possess psychosocial asses such as amily supporsysems, menal healh, culural pracices, and a posiive worldview ha help hemmanage he day-o-day complexiies associaed wih maerial povery. Wha aresome o he salien amily psychosocial asses, and how are hey culivaed and incul-caed in children? How do hese promoe hope and oser resilience? Tese ques-ions are explored and, where appropriae, he experiences o Carlon, Josephine,

Ashane, and Amanda are shared o address hese quesions.Ouside he amily, he school is arguably one o he mos influenial organiza-

ions in he lie o a child. Ineracions wih eachers, peers, and oher personnelindelibly impress upon children cerain perspecives on who hey are and wha heycan do in he world. Schools ha oser engagemen and allow hese ineracionso occur help aciliae hese imporan impressions and perspecives. However, inaddiion o he psychosocial aspecs o he schooling process, I ocus atenion onhe necessiy o ensuring ha children and youh have he opporuniy o learn.

While he debaes surrounding his imporan policy have subsided and atenionhas ocused on oher issues, is mandae remains unulfilled. As dispariies in disad-vanaged childrens learning and behavioral oucomes persis, our atenion needso be urned again o his imporan goal o eradicaing inequiies in he educaionalprocess. Research consisenly poins o he imporan role o qualiy early edu-caional experiences in simulaing cogniive abiliies and regulaory capaciies inchildrenall imporan processes or learning and engagemen (Dawson, Ashman,& Carver, 2000; Greenberg, 2006). Invesing in hese experiences will increase

he chances or economically disadvanaged children o have posiive oucomeshroughou he schooling process, hus laying he groundwork or success in adullie. Te schools role in promoing hope and osering resilience is highly influenialand should be cenral o our undersandings o he processes by which we can pro-ec agains he challenges encounered daily by children who live in impoverished


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communiies and homes. Ashanes sory is illusraive o he ransormaivepower o educaional opporuniy coupled wih he moivaional aspecs o hope.ogeher, hope and opporuniy provided he conex or Ashane o rebound romadversiies associaed wih a criminal liesyle.

Te abiliy o engage in posiive peer relaionships and orm meaningul riend-ships is an imporan developmenal achievemen. A youhs masery o hese asksis associaed wih posiive developmenal oucomes (Lerner e al., 2005), proso-cial behavior, and posiive school adjusmen (Gifford-Smih & Brownell, 2003).I will explore he exen o which hese ineracions and psychosocial processesamong peers play a role in promoing hope. I will also broach he imporan opico menoring. Te aciliaing role o menoring or promoing posiive child devel-opmenal oucomes is well documened in he lieraure. Early research by Russianpsychologis Lev Vygosky reerred o he dynamic o his relaionship as he Zoneo Proximal Developmen, in which an exper leads and suppors a novice unil heor she has obained he requisie skills o maser a ask. Vygosky (1978) sees heZone o Proximal Developmen as an area ha requires he mos sensiive insruc-ion or guidanceallowing a child o develop skills o use on heir own. Tisresearch has remendous relevance or hinking abou he specific ype and imingo menoring ha vulnerable youh may need o achieve heir goals. Formal andinormal menors provide he scaffolding necessary o help a youh gain confidence,personal agency, and a sense o sel-efficacy (Dubois & Rhodes, 2006). In so doing,

menoring and responsiveness rom caring aduls can promoe hope in youh andinspire hem o srive persisenly oward heir goals.

Neighborhoods are significan in he social ideniy o children and youh. Tespecific communiies where children grow up; he available resources; he mod-els o success and ailure; and he ypes o businesses, organizaions, and places oworship play roles in shaping a childs uure orienaion and worldview. I explorecommuniy and neighborhood asses and how hese can promoe hope and oserresilience. I also explore he noion o social capial, which researchers reer o as

he abiliy o draw upon ones social neworks and groups o acquire he resourcesand suppor needed o navigae unchared erriory (e.g., new employmen, newneighborhoods, new school conexs, ec.) or o negoiae or resources and sup-por (Coleman, 1988; Runyan e al., 1998; Catell, 2001). o whaever exen heseasses are presen, hope has an opporuniy o be presen and o hrive.

Much like communiies and neighborhoods, culural rames o reerence canshape he way a child views him- or hersel in he world; mos imporanly, cul-ure plays a cenral role in he idenificaion and use o specific coping mecha-

nisms, adapive processes, and sraegies in succumbing o or overcoming adversiy(Guirrez & Rogoff, 2003). I explore he ways in which culural values, pracices,and norms may proec agains aspecs o adversiy and he role hope plays in hisprocess. In addiion, I discuss he imporan role o culure in promoing hope andosering resilience, including acors ha may influence percepions o opporuniy,


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Hope 11

worldview, and social capial. I consider ways in which culural help-seeking behav-iors and coping sraegies may aid in amelioraing he effecs o sress and oherissues associaed wih living in povery.

Finally, is imporan o pu in concree erms how he heories and ideas pro-

posed hroughou he book can be used o engender acion. Te ulimae goal ohis volume is o explore where he evidence supporing hese ideas and heoriesmay converge and, mos imporanly, o ranslae his evidence ino discree acionseps ha praciioners and policymakers can ake o creae a hope-promoingagenda. I end his volume wih a se o lessons learned, case sudies, and principlesgleaned rom he research and rom he inerviews wih amilies, which underliehis acion agenda.

O course, he heories offered and ideas discussed are no mean o be exhaus-ive or prescripive. Tey may no, in and o hemselves, have an impac on chil-drens oulook on lie or heir abiliy o cope in adverse conexs. Bu aken ogeher,he psychosocial asses, inervenions, resources, and policies described may workin andem and creae he condiions ha inspire hope and moivaion o hrive inhe mids o adversiy. Moreover, I do no inend o porray having hope as a sil-ver bulle or overcoming adversiy. Raher, I have observed ha some processesseem o allow amilies o hrive in he mids o difficul circumsances. In some caseshese circumsances change and become less consraining, while in ohers he cir-cumsances are neiher easily nor rapidly resolved. Undersanding he acors ha

avor hope over hopelessness may help us work wih amilies o give hem he hope,agency, and opimism o sel-acualize and achieve heir poenial.

Resilience and hope do no mean he absence o adversiy. In ac, individualsinerviewed or his volume describe in vivid erms he pressures and challengeso povery and economic disadvanage. Ye, somehow, hese challenges servedo moivae hese amilies o pursue a hopeul pahway. Te pahway rom hav-ing hope and opimism o reaching posiive oucomes is ofen ar rom linear. Inac, my inerviews show ha here are muliple pahways o resilien oucomes,

wih posiive and negaive experiences ineracing a differen developmenalime poins o reach hese oucomes. I srongly suspec ha hope is presen aeach o hese ime poins, and i is he presence o hope ha allows individualso persis in heir pursui o beter oucomes. Tus, his book is no an exhaus-ive sudy, bu i provides an iniial view hrough he lens o hope o policiesand pracices ha will help amilies surmoun barriersboh psychological andsrucuralha migh oherwise confine hem o he prisons o povery andeconomic disadvanage.

Tus he subile o his book is Why Hope Sill Maters. I maters in he exen owhich children and amilies will engage wih or even see he value o paricipaingin inervenions or will ake advanage o available resources. I maters in he efforparens and children pu orh o achieve a goal. I maters in erms o wheher heyeel heir goals are atainable. I parens or children eel ha puting orh any effor


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is uile, or ha having a dream or aspiraion is o no avail, hen he policies, prac-ices, and inervenions ha offer prospecs o a posiive, ruiul, and more produc-ive uure may also ail. Te challenges in he lives o children and amilies living inpovery ofen lead us o projec hopelessness in he way we respond o heir needs.

Having purposeul opimism is imporan, and i maters grealy o hese amiliesdespie he complexiies o heir lives. For hose who ouch he lives o hese am-ilies, a srong and pervasive hope in heir abiliy o sel-acualize and ulfill heirpoenial sill maters.


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13

2

Triving in Adversiyoward a Framework o Hope, Optimism, and Resilience

Le my body dwell in povery, and my hands be as he hands o he oiler; bule my soul be as a emple o remembrance where he reasures o knowledgeener and he inner sancuary is hope.

George Elio,Daniel Deronda(1887)

One o my avorie sayings is How you sar ou is no always how you end up.Underlying his senimen is he belie ha, despie he challenges and complexiieso lie, ones ae is no necessarily sealed. Saring lie wih disadvanages doesnmean ha hey will define he narraive o ones lie, obsacles and sebacks nowih-sanding. Te deleerious oucomes o povery and economic disadvanage are welldocumened (Maholmes & King, 2012). Empirical sudies have demonsraed herisks or negaive oucomes such as poor physical, menal, and emoional healh;school dropou; and oher problems ha ofen perpeuae he cycle o povery(Korenman, Miller, & Sjaasad, 1995; Duncan, Yeung, Brooks-Gunn, & Smih,1998; Evans, 2004). Popular media highligh he all-oo-amiliar sories o inner ciyyouhs who drop ou o school and become involved wih he juvenile jusice sys-

em, or he adolescen moherboh undereducaed and underemployedwho isoverwhelmed by he sresses o her lie. However, or each o hese sories here islikely anoher wih a similar beginning bu, leavened by hope, a differen middle andperhaps a differen ending.

Hope is an imporan psychological resource ha has been associaed wih posi-ive oucomes. I is commonly hough o as an inangible bu palpable resource hahelps us manage he unknowns in our lives. We rely on hope o yield posiive ou-comes in difficul circumsances (hoping or he bes). We call upon hope or direc-

ion and ocus in imes o uncerainy (hoping or answers). And we reer o hopeas a way o explaining he seemingly inexplicable (hope ha hings will becomeclearer in ime). In addiion o hese everyday applicaions, hope has been used as akey sraegy in herapeuic relaionships wih paiens having menal healh or oher


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rehabiliaive needs (Koraamaddi, 2012). Hope is believed o play an imporansupporive role in he recovery o chronically ill paiens, recovery rom he pain obereavemen, and psychological healing rom difficul lie circumsances (Benzein& Berg, 2005; Cucliffe, 2006; Snyder, Lehman, Kluck, & Monsson, 2006). In

ac, as ar back as 1905, hope was menioned in psychiaric lieraure by Freud,who believed ha many benefis o psychoanalysis could be explained by paiensexpecaions, colored by hope and aih (p. 289) in he reamen process (ciedin Weis & Speridakos, 2011). Hal a cenury laer, Menninger (1959) urged menalhealh praciioners o sudy hope, a basic bu elusive ingredien in our daily work(p. 281) (cied in Weiss & Speridakos, 2011). More recenly, cogniive and socialpsychologiss have pu orward heories o hope ha reflec is influenial role inbringing abou posiive psychosocial, educaional, emoional, and healh oucomes.

Closely relaed o hope are wo imporan conceps also associaed wih posiiveoucomes: opimismand resilience. Alhough each has is own unique characerisicsand qualiies, I propose ha, ogeher wih hope, hey oser adapive uncioningand well-being. Hope is a psychological resource ha moivaes and drives uureacion. I involves a sense o personal agency, planning, and sraegic hinking owork oward goals. We can see hope refleced in he old adage: W here heres awill, heres a way.

While opimisminvolves ones perspecive on circumsances and he subsequenbehavioral response, resilienceis hough o involve boh he risks and he capaciy

o adap despie adversiy. Compeence and growh are he hallmarks o resilience(Masen e al., 1999; Garmezy, 1993; Garmezy, Masen, & ellegen, 1984). akenogeher, hese consrucs orm a poenial explanaory model or undersandinghe ways in which children and amilies may are well despie adversiy. In addi-ion, i is my conenion ha hope, opimism, and resilience poenially give riseo well-beinga general sae o saisacion, healh, happiness, and success in lie.Tis is ulimaely wha we srive or; however, we define and perceive o i. In hesecions ha ollow, I discuss he disincive elemens o each concep and how

hey are relaed o each oher. I also discuss he noion ha he degree o whichone has hope or opimism, or is resilien o cerain adversiies, is shaped by heproecive influences o he social and physical environmen. Te explicaion ohese ideas will serve as he basis or exploring, in subsequen chapers, acors hapromoe hope and opimism and oser resilience in children and amilies experi-encing adversiies associaed wih economic disadvanage.

Hope: Where Teres a Will, Teres a WayHope as a Cogniive Process

Te sudy o hope has origins in a variey o disciplines and is well esablished in helieraures o psychoherapy, menal healh, and posiive psychology. Te scholarly


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h r i v i n g i n A d v e r s i y 15

work o Snyder and colleagues (1997, 2002) validaes hope as a cogniive consrucand heorizes abou hopeul hinking in children and aduls. In much he samemanner as Rogers heorized abou he human endency oward sel-acualizaion,Snyder propounded he idea ha humans are innaely moivaed o undersand he

world in which hey live and o manage heir environmen o ensure predicabiliyand amiliariy (Snyder, Feldman, Shorey, & Rand, 2002). Inans come ino heworld experiencing a variey o sensory simuli and, over ime, hey learn o makemeaning o hese early experiences. Snyder and colleagues (2002) conended ha,hrough he processes o making meaning and anicipaing environmenal predic-abiliy, he undamenal cogniive processes underlying hope are ormed. In inansand young children, a posiive and nururing bond wih he caregiver is impor-an in he developmen o hope. Tis bond gives he child a sense o securiy andconfidence ha he or she can overcome obsacles and accomplish his or her goals(Snyder, Feldman, e al., 2002). Such confidence is imporan as children develophrough middle childhood and ino adolescence. Peer relaionships ake cenersage a hese juncures, and youh are conroned daily wih he need o make ahos o healh-risking or healh-promoing decisions. Confidence in he abiliy omake decisions in heir immediae and long-erm bes ineress is a componen ohope. Tus having a secure base o atachmen wih heir primary caregiver in earlychildhood as well as a sense o sel-confidence and sel-concep are developmenalachievemens ha can lead o hopeul hinking in middle childhood, adolescence,

and on ino early adulhood.Snyder and colleagues (2002) defined hope as ha which enables people o

se clear and valued goals, o conceive o he means o achieve hose goals, ando have he wherewihal or drive o make hose goals happen. Tey concepual-ized hope as a cogniive or hinking consruc raher han an emoion. Seen hisway, hope is no wishul as is commonly hough, bu raher an acive hinkingprocess ha is goal direced and involves planning and belie in personal abiliyo achieve he goal. Tese ideas are based on he assumpion ha specific behav-

iors or menal-acion sequences are direced oward achieving specific and val-ued goals, wih hese behaviors being boh purposeul and inenional (Snyder,Rand, & Sigmon, 2002).

o iniiae such goal-direced behaviors, wo ypes o hinking mus occur:pah-waysand agencyhinking.Pahways hinkingreers o a persons sel-perceivedcapac-iy o develop cogniive roues o he desired goal. In oher words, individuals mushink hey are capable o designing easible sraegies or accomplishing heir goals(Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002; Snyder, Feldman, e al., 2002). In pahways hink-

ing, individuals ypically develop muliple roues or sraegies or achieving heirgoals o ensure ha any obsacles encounered will no preven heir accomplishinghe inended goals. Saemens o affirmaion ha characerize pahways hinkinginclude I will find a way o ge his done (cied in Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002,p. 258). However, ong and colleagues (2010) suggesed ha hope is associaed


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wih a belie ha goals are somehow atainable regardless o wheher he personknows how o achieve hem. Tey argued ha hopeul people end o hink hadesired goals are atainable even i heir personal resources are exhaused. As longas people eel ha a specific and concree goal can somehow be atained, regardless

o wheher hey consider hemselves able o generae ways o achieve ha goal, heyare likely o eel more hopeul (ong, Fredrickson, Chang, & Lim, 2010).

Hope as a Moivaional Process

A cenral heme o hope is a persons moivaion o ache willpower o engagein coninuous goal pursui. Hope also ocuses on a general belie in ones abiliyo achieve a goal. Concepualizing a goal (goal hinking) and developing sraegieso reach ha goal (pahways hinking) are necessary cogniive processes, ye heyare insufficien wihou anoherand perhaps mos imporancomponen ohope: agency hinking. Agency hinking is he mobilizing aspec o hope, whichconsiss o individuals houghs regarding heir abiliy o begin he process o move-men along seleced pahways and coninue oward achieving heir goals (Snyder,Feldman, e al., 2002). Saemens o moivaion characerisic o agency hink-ing include I will no give up (Lopez, Rose, Robinson, Marques, & Pais-Ribeiro,2009) or I will no be sopped (cied in Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002, p. 258).

Such saemens are ypical o high-hope individuals. Tis agency hinking isrelaed o a similar concep called sel-efficacy. Tis is defined as a belie in ones owncapaciy o accomplish a paricular ask in a specific siuaion, as opposed o a global

belie in ones overall abiliy (Bandura, 1977). In describing he differences beweensel-efficacy and agency hinking, Helland and Winson (2005) sugges ha effi-cacy becomes acivaed when a person is aced wih a significan siuaion-specific,goal-relaed oucome ha is valuedby ha individual. o pursue his oucome, heperson mus believe i can be atained.

In an effor o undersand he moivaional acors common o high achievers,Curry, Snyder, and Cook (1997) examined he role o hope in he academic andspors achievemens o college ahlees. Tey observed ha ahlees had higherhope han did heir non-ahlee counerpars. Curry and colleagues believed hahis is due, in par, o he ac ha ahlees are generally augh pahways and agencyhinking oward goals as imporan means o coping in a compeiive, perormance-based environmen. Alhough hope is conceived o as a cogniive raher han anemoional process, he successul achievemen o a valued goal can elici posiive

emoions ha may, in urn, be moivaional in seting new and more challenginggoals. Ahlees who achieve in a highly compeiive environmen may well be rein-orcing cogniive processes ha enable success in oher domains (Curry, Snyder,& Cook 1997). Generally speaking, youhs who are involved in compeiive,


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high-perormance aciviies may have a srong sense o personal agency and learno apply hese moivaional mechanisms in daily sressul encouners. Tis may bean imporan consideraion or economically disadvanaged youh who experiencesressul encouners as a ac o daily lie. Paricipaion in spors and oher ypes o

high-perormance aciviies is imporan, bu perhaps even more criical is havingcoaching o help develop and reinorce agency hinking in hese youh. Tis couldpoenially help poor children learn o se challenging goals and o devise muliplesraegies or achieving hose goals. As a resul, he process o successully accom-plishing goals may generalize o oher imporan areas and engender a sense o con-fidence and agency in coping producively in real-lie sressul and high-demandconexs.

Moivaional aspecs o hope have also been sudied in he conex o aca-demic achievemen and career developmen. Kenny e al. (2010) heorized abouwork hope, suggesing is imporance in undersanding he moivaional saeo economically disenranchised groups, who may find i challenging o susainhope in a conex offering limied economic resources and muliple obsacles oschool and work success. Work hope encompasses he goal and pahways com-ponens o Snyders hope heory. Assessmen iems such as When I look inohe uure, I have a clear picure o wha my work lie will be like (goal); I havea plan or geting or mainaining a good job or career (pahways); and I amconfiden ha hings will work ou or me in he uure (agency) were used

o measure work hope in sudy paricipans (p. 207). In addiion, Kenny andhis colleagues, waning o explain he relaionship beween career experienceand achievemen moivaion, argued ha school programs offering work-basedlearning and career experiences may oser a sense o hope by helping youh oideniy work goals, expand heir undersanding o how o reach hose goals, andoser confidence in he likelihood o achieving hose goals. Wha is imporanabou his sudy is he researchers asserion ha achievemen-relaed beliescan be inernalized hrough a supporive conex. Tese expecaions or educa-

ional success, along wih moivaional suppors and he anicipaion ha schoolwill pay off in he uure, all provide sudens wih imporan psychologicalresources and reinorce cogniive processes insrumenal in helping hem per-sis and achieve heir educaional goals. Te researchers esed hese ideas wihan ehnically diverse sample o high school sudens enrolled in a work-basedlearning program. Tis program included an academically rigorous schedule andplaced sudens in work sies or one day each week hroughou he our years ohigh school. Te findings rom heir sudy revealed srong relaionships beween

work hope, achievemen-relaed belies, and learning environmens characer-ized by suppor and auonomy. Work hope appeared o be a meaningul con-sruc in undersanding he school moivaion o low-income youh o color,whose hopes or he uure are challenged by numerous economic and social


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barriers. Te researchers concluded ha paricipaion in a work-based learningprogram may have enhanced he imporance o work hope as a predicor o adap-ive achievemen-relaed belies.

Finally, hope heory has also been applied o he sudy o leaders and leadership

developmen. Leadership is an imporan aspec o well-being, especially duringadolescence. I is imporan ha youh have confidence in heir abiliy o makeappropriae decisions despie remendous pressure o do oherwise. Helland andWinson (2005) heorized ha he hree componens o hopegoals, pahways,and agencyare presen in organizaions, as leaders and ohers pursue valuedpersonal and organizaional oucomes. While Hellend and Winson (2005) werereerring o proessional organizaions and business leaders, heir hypohesis couldequally apply o schools, as hey are also organizaions. Sudens serving in leader-ship capaciies in heir classrooms, clubs, or oher school-wide organizaions arepresumably moivaed o pursue goals or hemselves and or heir school. Hellendand Winson conended ha hope requenly resides wihin leadership, and effec-ive leadership could awaken hopeul hinking. In his vein, i seems imporanor schools serving low-income youh o provide as many opporuniies as pos-sible o culivae leadership abiliies and o provide orums or hese abiliies obe consrucively uilized. Ciing posiive psychology lieraure, he researchersreerred o hope as an acivaing orce ha enables people, even when aced wihhe mos overwhelming obsacles, o envision a promising uure and o se and

pursue goals.

Hope as a Proecive Mechanism

Hope is also regarded as a proecive mechanism ha influences an individuals abil-iy o overcome disappoinmens, pursue goals, and avoid perceiving he uure asruiless (Snyder, 1994; Guhrie, 2011; Harley, 2011). As discussed hroughou hisvolume, he proecive aspecs o hope are criically imporan or amilies expe-

riencing he challenges o economic disadvanage. In a qualiaive sudy o hopein low-income, inner-ciy, Arican American youh Harley (2011) idenified fivehemes regarding he percepions o hope: (1) caring connecions, (2) educaion,(3) spiriualiy, (4) he basics, and (5) a gonna make i menaliy (p. 128).Regarding caring connecions, he youh in Harleys sudy discussed such prosocialbehaviors as lisening o parens, obeying rules, doing chores, hinking posiive,being respecul, and compleing homework. Youhs in he sudy overwhelminglyraed he suppor received rom amily members and significan ohers as hope-

ul and envisioned hemselves becoming wha significan aduls in heir lives hadalready become. Tus aduls and amily members were models o success ha heyouh could poenially srive o emulae. In addiion, youh idenified spiriualiyasa source o hope and described how amily members used prayer and church aten-dance as means o mainaining hopeulness.


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Adolescens also conneced hope wih having basic physical needs me, includ-ing ood, clohing, shoes, sheler, oileries, and ransporaion. Harleys findingo a relaionship beween hope and he basics harkens back o Maslows classicHierarchy o Needs heory (Maslow, 1943) in which sel-acualizaion could beachieved only afer a basic se o physiological and psychological needs was me (seeFigure 2.1). Clearly, or youh experiencing he challenges o economic adversiy, i

is no surprising ha heir hopeul goals would ocus on hese undamenal needs.Finally, Harleys gonna make i menaliy heme reers o he posiive affirma-

ions associaed wih agency hinking o high-hope individuals. Te adolescenswere hopeul abou heir uures and expeced posiive oucomes in ataining heirgoals. Respondens were aware o poenial barriers ha could impede heir progressoward achieving personal goals bu held posiive belies ha, wih perseverance,such barriers could be overcome. Tis finding suggess ha perceived obsacles dono necessarily decrease he levels o hope in minoriy adolescens.

As noed earlier, he origins o hope lie in he caregiving relaionship esablishedbeween paren and child (Snyder, Feldman, e al., 2002). While a good deal o hislieraure ocuses on he relaionship beween moher and child, sudies are begin-ning o address he proecive role o ahers in he lives o children. Along heselines, Davis-Maye (2004) waned o explicae he relaionship beween percepion

Self-Actualization

e desire to accomplish everything that one can, to

become the most that one can be

Safety Needs

Need for safety, security, well-being

Esteem Needs

Need for respect om others (status, recognition)Need for self-respect (strength, competence, self-confidence,

mastery)

Basic and Physiological Needs

Needs for survival, food, shelter, sleep, clothing

Love and Belonging Needs

Need for iendship, intimacy, family

Figure 2.1 M H N.


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o paernal suppor and Arican American girls hopes or uure success. She exam-ined he significance o he paernal figure among Arican American girls ranging inage rom 9 o 19. Wih his wide developmenal band, findings rom his sudy carryimplicaions no only or he early caregiver relaionship bu or he role o hope in

promoing posiive oucomes in laer developmenal sages. For he purpose o hissudy, Davis-Maye defined hope as reflecing a persons belie in his or her abiliyo achieve cerain goals, hus affecing academic achievemen, healhy emoionaldevelopmen, and successul ransiion o adulhood. She proposed ha hope isa proecive mechanism ha influences adolescens knowledge abou and abiliyo perorm sel-care in he ace o sressul evens. O he girls in he sudy whorepored high levels o paernal suppor, slighly more han wo-hirds repored hav-ing moderae levels o hope, and nearly one-hird repored having high levels ohope. Te relaionship beween paernal suppor and hope was sronges or heyounger girls in he sudy, suggesing again he imporance o early atachmen rela-ionships beween paren and child.

Hope as a Coping Mechanism

Coping abiliies and he specific sraegies used o manage sressul lie circum-sances are cenral o psychological adjusmen and overall well-being. Te pahwaysand agency hinking oulined in hope heory enable one o acquire he ools and

resources necessary o cope in sressul condiions. As children grow and develop,so oo does heir coping abiliy. Roesch and colleagues (2010) sudied hope and hepropensiy o cope in a sample o Arican American adolescens, seeking o chal-lenge he assumpion ha minoriy youh would repor lower levels o hope andconsequenly have ewer coping abiliies. Tey argued ha adolescens who scorehigh on he pahways hinking componen o hope may display greaer use o cop-ing sraegies because hey are beter able o see muliple ways o reduce he impaco a paricular sressor. Te auhors hypohesized ha youh raed as having high

disposiionalhope would use more direc problem solving, planning, posiive hink-ing, and overall coping han hose raed as having low hope. Roesch and colleaguesound ha boh pahways hinking and agency hinking were significanly associ-aed wih specific daily coping sraegies: pahways wih direc problem solving,planning, posiive hinking, religious coping, and disracing acions; and agencywih suppor or acions. Tese effecs were eviden afer conrolling or gender, age,and perceived sressulness o he even. Roeschs work is imporan or undersand-ing hope and is relaionship o coping in low-income minoriy youh. In addiion o

using sandard research measures o undersand coping and hope, Roesch and hiscolleagues asked paricipans o use an open-ended orma o wrie he mos sress-ul or bohersome even ha had occurred o hem in he pas day. Tis allowedhe researchers o examine a broader range o perceived sressors conroning hesudy paricipans, as well as he range o coping sraegies employed o ameliorae


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he effecs o hose sressors. Tis process provides a broader undersanding o heways (ofen no codified ino sandard assessmens) in which low-income minoriyyouh respond o adverse siuaions, and could lead o developing more sensiivemeasures o coping abiliies and hopeul hinking in minoriy youh.

Similarly, Ong and colleagues (2006) examined he quesion o how varia-ions in hope modiy he everyday experience o sress and emoion in laeradulhood. He ound a noeworhy ineracion beween hope and daily sress,indicaing ha high-hope individuals, in general, reac less o sressul siu-aions han do low-hope individuals. Also noeworhy was a finding ha hesress-damping impac o daily hope on negaive emoion was mos pronouncedamong high-hope individuals.

Finally, concepualizaions o hope by Snyder and oher colleagues have beenvalidaed and used as a predicor variable in a variey o sudies, and he rameworko hope has been used o devise herapeuic, occupaional, and educaional iner-venions. While samples o economically disadvanaged minoriies were no alwayshe primary arges o Snyders empirical research, his heoreical ramework clearlyapplies o his populaionas shown by he work o Harley, Kenny, Davis-Maye,and ohers discussed in his overview. Findings rom hese sudies indicae heimporance o hope as a ramework hrough which o undersand how childrenand amilies living in economic disadvanage manage he complexiies o heir lives.Miller and Powers (1988) concepion o hope sums up he findings rom hese

sudies: an anicipaion o a uure ha is good and is based on muualiy, a sense opersonal compeence, coping abiliy, psychological well-being, purpose and meaning inlie, and a sense o he possible.

Opimism: Te Can Do Spiri

Mos people use he erms hope and opimism inerchangeably, bu heoriss

poin ou ha alhough opimism is relaed o hope, i is concepually disinc(Helland & Winson, 2005). Opimism involves he perceived abiliy o moveoward goals wih desired oucomes and o avoid undesirable oucomes (Carver& Scheier, 1999; Helland & Winson, 2005). However, researchers poin ouha he anicipaed and acual oucomes o he goal pursui, especially nega-ive oucomes, are ofen atribued o exernal (chance, luck) raher han inernal(personal agency, efficacy) orces (Helland &Winson, 2005). So, hope heoryocuses on seting goals o atain a posiive uure oucome, whereas opimism

ocuses on wheher he goal atainmen is atribued o exernal raher han iner-nal resources.Scheier and Carver (1987) use he erm disposiional opimism, which hey define

as he generalized expecaions ha end o generae effecive goal-direced behavior;briefly, i is a endency o expec posiive oucomes. Tese posiive expecaions may


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resul rom individuals belie ha hey are in conrol o good oucomes and a belieha good hings will happen (Gillham & Reivich, 2004). According o Carver e al.(2010), his expecaion o posiive evens is a relaively sable endency.

A body o research suggess ha opimism predics many posiive oucomes,

such as physical and psychological healh and well-being (Nes & Segersrom, 2006;Segersrom, 2007). Opimiss have been shown o have greaer success in school,work, and oher imporan conexs. Noably, hey repor less depression and anxi-ey, enjoy greaer marial saisacion, and end o live longer (Scheier & Carver,1992; Gillham & Reivich, 2004). Tese oucomes may be due in par o opimissapproach o coping and managing sressul siuaions. According o Segersrom(2007), opimiss have an acive approach o problem solving, which helps hemnegoiae challenging and sress-inducing siuaions, whereas less opimisic indi-viduals may adop avoidance sraegies in sressul siuaions (Murberg, 2012). Tework o hese researchers suggess ha opimiss are persisenparicularly whenasks become difficul or when hey encouner obsaclesand greaer persisenceincreases he likelihood ha a soluion will be ound. Opimiss may ake beter careo hemselves and are more likely han pessimiss o paricipae in prevenive healhcare, seek ou inormaion abou poenial healh risks, and change heir behavior odecrease risk levels (Gillham & Reiveich, 2004). Opimism also leads o changes inbehaviors ha may drive changes in mood, produciviy, perormance, and healh.For example, Murberg (2012) examined disposiional opimism as a proecive ac-

or or somaic healh problems and examined he links beween negaive lie evensand somaic sympoms (physical ailmens). In a sudy o Norwegian high schoolsudens, Murberg ound ha adolescens who scored high on he opimism scalehad significanly lower repors o somaic sympoms. She also ound ha, amongsudens who were exposed o sressul lie circumsances, an opimisic oulookmay have been beneficial in buffering he negaive effecs o sressul lie evens onsomaic sympomaology. Murberg concluded ha he proecive effecs o opi-mism on somaic sympoms provide suppor or promoing an opimisic view

among adolescens. Recognizing he buffering effecs o opimism on adolescensshould encourage proessionals o make greaer use o his inernal psychologicalresource o alleviae he adverse impac o sressul evens on physical healh. Alonghese lines, Segersrom (2005) examined relaionships beween immunologicallymediaed diseases (such as cancer or HIV) and disposiional opimism, and pro-posed wha she reerred o as an engagemen hypohesis o explain why opimismmay no always produce posiive oucomes. She hypohesized ha, under difficulcircumsances, more opimisic people remain engaged wih difficul circumsances,

whereas more pessimisic people disengage, avoid, or give up. Giving up can bephysiologically proecive, because sressor exposure is minimized in he shor ermby giving up raher han remaining engaged. Segersrom concludes ha in manycases, boh disposiional opimism and specific expecaions appear o buffer heimmune sysem rom he effecs o psychological sressors. However, a shor-erm


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physiological cos mus someimes be paid or he opimisic sraegy o engagingdifficul sressors raher han disengaging and wihdrawing. However, his may beamelioraed in he long erm by problem solving and resolving he adverse siuaion(Segersrom, 2005).

Opimism and Self-Efficacy

Opimism is relaed o general sel-efficacy in he sense ha sel-efficacy involvesan individuals belie in heir own abiliy o perorm a specific ask (Bandura,1977), whereas opimism involves expecaions o good oucomes (Scheier &Carver, 1987) and belies abou ones abiliy o conrol or influence hose ou-comes (Urbig & Monsen, 2012). Findings rom research conduced by Urbigand Monsen (2012) linked disposiional opimism o individual behaviors hainvolved engaging in and succeeding a challenging goals. Tey conended ha iindividuals believe hey are in conrol and are opimisic due o higher sel-efficacy,hen more effor or acive coping migh help increase heir perceived chances osuccess. Te researchers also argued ha while acively coping (planning andproblem-solving) and passively coping (waiing or a lucky chance) individualsare persisen because hey are opimisic, heir coping behaviors differ due o hesrucure o belies associaed wih heir opimism. In oher words, an individu-als opimism can cause or be linked o very differen belies abou sel-efficacy.

Tis has implicaions or undersanding how people persis in he ace o adverseevens. Opimism may drive hem o persis, bu heir differen underlying beliesabou sources o efficacy and conrol may deermine wheher heir coping is aciveor passive.

Opimism and Adjusmen

Disposiional opimism is also a predicor o adjusmen in children (Kochanska

e al., 2007). Tis may be due o maernal warmh and auhoriaive andcompeence-promoing parening pracices (Jackson, Prat, e al., 2005; aylor,2010; aylor e al., 2012). We know ha he naure o he paren-child relaionshipis highly influenial in he way a child views he world and perceives his or her placein he world (Jackson-Newsome, Buchanan, & McDonald, 2008). Te psychologi-cal and emoional healh and well-being o he paren may affec his or her paren-ing syle, which may, in urn, affec a childs oucomes (McLoyd & Wilson, 1991;Shaw, Levit, Wong, & Kaczorowski, 2006). Tus children are likely o inernalize

he opimism or pessimism conveyed by parens and oher significan individuals inheir lives (Gillham & Reiveich, 2004).Kochanska and colleagues (2007) waned o learn wheher parenal per-

sonaliy rais could buffer he negaive impac o adversiy on he childrearingenvironmen. Noably, hey ound ha parens in high-risk environmens who


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repored an unhappy childhood, and who had a more pessimisic oulook onlie, ended o use more coercive and puniive parening pracices. By compari-son, parens in hese high-risk environmens who could recall a relaively happychildhood and posiive school experiences were likely o use more posiive par-

ening sraegies. Te high-risk environmen did have a derimenal effec onparens who repored litle sense o opimism, disrused ohers, and el sociallyalienaed. Tese parens showed less warmh, affecion, and posiive affec whenineracing wih heir oddlers. Adversiy, however, had no such derimenaleffec on parens who were opimisic, rusing, and well inegraed wih heirsocial world.

Similarly, a sudy conduced by aylor and colleagues (2010) ound ha maer-nal opimism among Arican American mohers was associaed wih greaer resil-ience o he negaive effecs o economic sress. Te mohers opimisic responseo adversiy may lead o posiive ineracions wih her children who, in urn, mayinernalize hose opimisic problem-solving approaches.

In oher research wih Mexican American mohers, aylor and colleagues(2012) ound ha economic pressures did no predic depression, disress, oranxiey or mohers who demonsraed high levels o opimism. Tis resul sup-pored he idea ha opimism is an imporan psychological resource ha buffersagains many adverse consequences o sressul lie circumsances. Is imporano noe ha opimism may be uncional or differen reasons or have differen

meanings in differen conexs. For e

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