Valerie Hope

A Roof Over the Dead:Communal Tombs and Family Structure

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The Living and the Dead

• Burials as a tool for interpreting social organization (the structure and functioning of society)– Cemeteries reflect aspects of life within the

city– The tomb’s internal and external features can

mimic the functions of a domestic space– Location, scale and decor (imply status of

interred individuals)

‘After all it’s a big mistake to have nice houses just for when you’re alive, and not to worry about the ones we have to live in much longer.’ Petronius, Satyricon 71

Role of the Tomb

• Housing the Deceased• United the remaining familia with the

ancestors– Appealed to the living by providing facilities

similar to one’s home– Inscriptions (legal protection against violators)

• Memorialized the name of the deceased– Epitaphs visibly named the individuals (done

post-mortem)• Communicated to the living

– Aspect of self-glorification

The Individual and the Group• Provisions for one’s own tomb

– Testamentary requests (Pliny – a mistake to trust others)– Trimalchio (self-glorification)– Many epitaphs have statements like ‘vivus fecit’ which

indicates the organization of one’s burial place before death

– Tomb as a reflection of the individual’s character/success in life

– Mausoleums of Augustus and Hadrian reflected their glory and prestige

• Communal Nature of Tomb Design– Collegia obtained a place in funerary structure,

columbarium, and also through payment (benefaction – supported by prominent figures)

– Collegia Funeraticum (Funeral Association)

Mausoleumof Hadrian

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Plan of Isola Sacra Necropolis

Isola Sacra Necropolis

• Variety of tomb types – simple burials marked by

Amphorae– Tile Graves– Cassone: small brick or concrete

structures

• House Tombs (Columbaria)– Built detached or as part of a row– Rectangular roofed rooms which

resembled houses– Dwelling for the dead but also

served the needs of the living by providing benches, wells, and cooking areas for the tomb cult

– People would visit for libations and common meals

House Tomb at Isola Sacra

Physical Design of Tombs

• The Exterior– Decorated with architectural

elements: pillars, etc.– Terracotta plaques:

depicted workshop scenes or something to indicate the occupation of the deceased (highly visible)

– Inscription (over doorway) decorated to draw attention

– Door as symbol of transition from the world of living to that of the dead

Physical Design of Tombs

Titular Inscriptions

• Normally named to an individual but the relationship was not always explicit (Verria Zosime and Verrius Euhelpistus)

• One generation image– Exceptions, Suis Liberis (tomb intended for remains

of free-born children), Liberis (commemoration of unidentified children), Libertas Libertabusque (freedman/woman) they and their descendants could have been buried in the tomb

– The anonymous while not named were provided for within the concept of the tomb design

Epitaphs

• Epitaphs reveal the flexibility of the household and the uncertainty of its size and members

• Show ownership and rights to burial • Does not represent the number of household

members simply because the tomb had to adapt to a family evolving over time

• Initial occupant is at the centre of a constantly shifting nexus of relationships

• Representation not a direct reflection• Symbol which links household members to

deceased

Example of a Changing Epitaph

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Interior

• Chamber with walls lined with square and semicircular niches– Niches used to house funerary urns or

inhumations• Tombs imitate design, decor, and articulation of

the Roman house• Internal inscriptions

– Some niches would be personalized (rare cases)– Neither titular or internal inscriptions record all

the relationships and associations represented in the tomb itself

– Some of those interred are not identified

Mosaic at Isola Sacra(Antonie Achaice)

Niches• Manipulated by location, size and adornment• Aspect of Visual Penetrability similar to the

Roman Domus• Superiority of Main Niches• Space reinforced relationships and hierarchical

order

http://www.flickr.com/photos/peterstewart/768089102/in/photostream/

Columellae of Pompeii

• Range of memorials varied: alters, aediculae, round tombs– Roofed house tombs (later in Pompeii’s history)– High walled areas, facades with triangle gables and

rectangular doorways

• Titular Epitaphs– Few recovered: located over doorways– Tend to be brief (Aulus Veius Atticus)

• Stelae Columellae distinct feature– Location of burials indicated by small stele of head and

shoulders with reserve cut to resemble hair– Thought to represent spirit or genius of the deceased

• Columellae indicate divergence between number of people named in titular epitaph and actual number buried

Columellae at Nocera

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More From Nocera

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Enclosure Tombs of Aquileia

• Communal burial fulfilled by funerary enclosures organized by collegia and familia

• Epitaphs– Erected often (Libertus Libertabusque but

not Suis Liberis)– Divergence between number of people

named/buried (Lucius Fructus)• Spatial relationship (Via Annia enclosures)

Passage of Time

• These changes in organization of tombs reflect their continued use

• Inability of titular epitaphs to anticipate (Marcus Daphnus)

• Tombs were not static– Isola Sacra tombs accommodated new burial

method of inhumation in the later 2nd century– Epitaphs/Tombs reflect broadly defined groups

not static familia• Just as a room of a house had many functions so

did the Tomb

Conclusion• Tombs of Isola Sacra, Pompeii and Aquileia are

manifestations of the group (implied in the epitaph but more apparent in organization of the burial space itself)

• Titular epitaphs included different info than inscribed niche epitaphs– Knowing the original role of the epitaph is key

to interpreting its role• Latin epitaph generally static (once composed

rarely altered)– Does however look to the future, composer

tries to make appropriate provisions despite being uncertain of future

• Planning for the future is represented in tomb structure

Conclusion Continued• Space provided is often substantial (not aimed at one

generation or even one family)• Impression created is a tomb organized around the

household and not just the familia (relatives, freed slaves, friends, etc.)

• Important to remember that not all roman tombs are house tombs and enclosure tombs

• Inherent differences emphasize diversity• Between 2nd and 3rd century AD there is evidence of a

change as to how people were represented in death– Group membership and shared burial space come

to be of greater significance than individual self-aggrandizement