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This special supplement to Physics World looks at how vacuum technology is breaking new ground. None more fertile, it would appear, than in the developing nations of Brazil, Russia, China and India. Collective dubbed BRIC, these emerg-ing economies are the latest frontier for many suppliers of vacuum equipment and services. Pfeiffer Vacuum is just one company that has enthusiastically embraced the opportunities on offer by taking a local approach to doing business there (p5). J J Pireaux also has an eye on global developments (p9). In his role as president of IUVSTA, a federation of national vacuum societies, he hopes the organization can reach out to vacuum users from the developing countries to offer support and training. Another key development area for the future that he identifies is space. With missions and satellites costing millions of pounds and with no easy means of carrying out repairs after launch, testing is vital in the space business, including simulating its harsh vacuum environment (p17). Meanwhile, closer to home, the mantra of “recycle, reuse” is gaining momentum when it comes to vacuum tech-nology (p13). We reveal a burgeoning market in reconditioned hi-tech components to satisfy increasing demand for used vacuum equipment. Not just good for the environment, it seems this trend makes sound business sense too. If all that has left you wanting to learn more, then perhaps a visit to a conference or exhibit is in order. Take you pick from three major upcoming events (p21) or plan ahead with more dates for the diary (p22). The world of vacuum is your oyster.

Vacuum challenges and solutions

ContentsBuilding the vacuum industry one BRIC at a time 5Matthias Wiemer and Wannong Eckhardt share Pfeiffer Vacuum’s experiences of moving the vacuum industry into emerging nations.

Vacuum chief looks to new horizons 9IUVSTA president J J Pireaux discusses the challenges and opportunities ahead for the federation of national vacuum societies.

Reuse, recycle and thrive: used-equipment businesses keep growing 13The market for reconditioned and used vacuum kit is thriving. Hamish Johnston discovers benefits for both seller and buyer.

Testing equipment for space 17Simulating the atmosphere of space using vacuums created on Earth is essential in ensuring the success of missions, as Giles Case explains.

It’s show time 21Physics World helps you decide which vacuum event will get your attendance, whether you are looking to buy equipment or learn about the latest research.

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© 2011 COMSOL. COMSOL and COMSOL Multiphysics are registered trademarks of COMSOL AB. Capture the Concept is a trademark of COMSOL AB. Other product or brand names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders.

Diagram of the solar thermal collector is published with open-source permission from Andrew Buck.

© 2011 COMSOL. COMSOL and COMSOL Multiphysics are registered trademarks of COMSOL AB. Capture the Concept is a trademark of COMSOL AB. Other product or brand names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders. © 2011 COMSOL. COMSOL and COMSOL Multiphysics are registered trademarks of COMSOL AB. Capture the Concept is a trademark of COMSOL AB. Other product or brand names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders.

Diagram of the solar thermal collector is published with open-source permission from Andrew Buck.

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“It’s hard to make predictions, especially about the future,” noted the US author Mark Twain. This quotation especially comes to mind when considering the emergence of the so-called BRIC countries – namely Brazil, Russia, India and China. By 2050 these countries are expected to become the four most dominant economies in the world. Together with other developing countries in Eastern Europe, Asia and South America, such nations are undergoing a dramatic technologi-cal revolution towards hi-tech industries. In doing so, they are creating a huge demand for vacuum solutions that need to be met by suppliers.

Pfeiffer Vacuum has operated in Asia for more than 15 years

and has built up strong sales and service networks in countries such as India, South Korea, Japan and China. Vacuum compa-nies need to understand which applications of vacuum tech-nology are required by industry, the demand from the market and the needs of customers. In this fast-moving environment, timely solutions, commitment to quality, excellent technical expertise and well-established service networks close to cus-tomers are needed to be successful in the market.

Understanding the significance of these growing markets, Pfeiffer Vacuum launched a dedicated “Asian Initiative” last year, not only to expand its presence and business in Asia, but also to strengthen the company’s entire sales and service team to help provide customers with solutions to their vacuum needs.

Part of the initiative was Pfeiffer Vacuum’s acquisition of Adixen, formerly part of Alcatel-Lucent, at the end of last year. This meant we could combine the companies’ strengths in dif-ferent products, markets and regions. Indeed, our expertise in thin-film manufacturing is complemented by Adixen’s silicon-wafer-based processes. On a product level, Pfeiffer Vacuum’s turbo pumps are well established in the market for thin-film production, while backing pumps from Adixen lead the mar-

Building the vacuum industry one BRIC at a timeWith vacuum products and services increasingly in demand from emerging countries, Matthias Wiemer and Wannong Eckhardt say that businesses need to get closer to the customer.

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ket in the production of silicon-based wafers. The enlarged product portfolio creates new market opportunities and is also an advantage for customers. Moreover, we have been able to significantly expand our sales and service network to increase market share globally. Our presence in the fast-growing Asian markets has increased greatly, positioning us where demand is increasing most.

This demand for vacuum equipment is not only restricted to nations in Asia. Russia and its neighbouring countries have seen a huge increase in the number of domestic vacuum man-ufacturers and other production facilities. This rise is partly because vacuum firms need to be closer to customers. The determination of the BRIC countries to become technology-leading nations is apparent in an increase in R&D spending, with vacuum equipment playing a big role in all R&D sectors in these countries. In South America, national innovation poli-cies have strongly encouraged businesses to support R&D by linking industry with research institutions, resulting in a strong demand for vacuum products in all fields of R&D.

To maintain competitiveness in such booming markets, firms have to build up strong sales and service networks that are closer to customers and be capable of providing the market

with technical expertise. Companies also need to show a com-mitment to innovation.

In 2010, the year after the global economic crisis, the indus-try experienced a significant increase in demand for vacuum equipment from the BRIC region, as well as from Asia in gen-eral. This trend is expected to continue and the vacuum indus-try needs to keep ahead of such developments. Matthias Wiemer is chief operating officer and Wannong Eckhardt is sales and marketing manager of the Asia-Pacific region at Pfeiffer Vacuum (www.pfeiffer-vacuum.com)

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IUVSTA provides a global platform for the promotion, proliferation and education of vacuum science, techniques and applications. As an international federation of 30 national vacuum societies, it represents some 15 000 scientists, engineers and technicians world-wide. J J Pireaux was elected president of IUVSTA in 2010 for a tenure of three years. He is a surface scientist who for the last dec-ade has been director of the Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Electron Spectroscopy (LISE) at the University of Namur in Belgium.

What is IUVSTA’s role within the international vacuum community?IUVSTA aims to stimulate international collaboration in vacuum science, including related multidisciplinary topics such as the solid–vacuum interface. It focuses on educational activities (organizing technical training courses and publish-ing educational material), on scientific activities (organizing thematic workshops and international conferences) and on

awarding prizes and scholarships. Its actions are all related to one of the research themes covered by its divisions, namely applied sur-face science, electronic materials and process-ing, nanometre structures, plasma science and techniques, surface engineering, surface science, thin films, vacuum science and tech-nology, and the newly created biointerfaces section. IUVSTA focuses a significant part of its activities in developing countries, helping to educate technicians and scientists in those areas of the world about the modern technolo-gies relevant to materials science.

How would you assess the current state of vacuum science and technology?It is obvious that the areas of research covered by IUVSTA are extremely broad, from very fundamental science to applied science to research and development. Indeed, these fields are much broader than just vacuum science and technology. This includes the development of methods of

Vacuum chief looks to new horizonsJ J Pireaux explains how IUVSTA is reaching out to developing nations.

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fabricating new materials, and the techniques to characterize them. Without vacuum science and technology, there would be no transistors, microprocessors, mobile phones, hybrid cars or alternative-energy devices. As it is so intimately connected to materials science, vacuum science and technology is a central pillar of modern academic and industrial research.

What do you see as the main challenges facing IUVSTA?The challenges are to keep abreast of research and development, and to help focus enough energy and resources on fundamental research in the mid to long term while devoting expertise to new applications and production processes based on existing knowledge. A significant amount of quality research, together with the production of materials and devices, is now caried out in Asia and the Far East, so contact and communication have to be improved with these scientists and engineers.

How is IUVSTA addressing those challenges?IUVSTA has set up a working scheme with a dual approach: working (or better, thinking) groups organized in different committees and a scientific body based on the work of its the-matic divisions. The committees strive to adapt and improve the work of the union. For example, we recently revisited our educational materials. We also created a task force to initiate schemes for contacting non-member societies in developing countries. We have worked on the (still ongoing) creation of a new field of interest – namely a biointerfaces group – to address the emerging research and technologies of this area. We also try

to ensure that we organize our scientific events across different parts of the globe.

How does IUVSTA plan to develop?There are a few actions in the pipeline. First is attracting new membership from developing nations. We also aim to provide better expertise for training and learning via our educational materials and technical training courses, while there is a plan to refocus on excellence within the selection of our thematic work-shops. Soon we hope to launch the World Transfer Program. This will be a new grant scheme to help early-career scientists work in another laboratory for a short period of time.

What aspects of basic science will impact most on vacuum science and technology over the next 20 years?In my opinion, there are at least three areas of research, each with a significant fraction of very basic science, that have the potential to influence our everyday lives in the near future. The first is biotechnology, including genetic engineering. Physics, chemistry and mathematics will all have a significant role to play in the development of this field. The second is energy, including the materials and processes for solar-energy cap-ture and conversion, fuel cells and the materials required for fission and fusion reactors. Finally, humankind will resume exploration and begin the exploitation of space. There are still huge problems to solve for those working in vacuum science and technology.J J Pireaux is president of IUVSTA (www.iuvsta.com)

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You need new vacuum kit but your equipment grant is not what it used to be – maybe you could save precious research money by buying a reconditioned unit? Or perhaps you have just upgraded your vacuum system and you have a cupboard full of perfectly good equipment that needs to be cleared out. What should you do – throw it away, pass it on to a colleague, or perhaps try to sell it? Fortunately, there are a number of com-panies ranging from large corporations to one- or two-person operations that buy and sell used equipment – reconditioning it along the way.

Enter “ion gauge” into eBay and RBD Instruments in Bend, Oregon is selling just what you need. Or perhaps you are in need of a hemispherical energy analyser and a colleague points you towards PSP Vacuum Technology in Macclesfield, UK, which specializes in reconditioning electron-spectroscopy equip-ment. Indeed, even large manufacturers such as Germany’s Oerlikon Leybold Vacuum see used equipment as an important market that has enjoyed steady growth.

Clear strategic valueOerlikon Leybold Vacuum’s specialist in second-hand prod-ucts Michaela Eberz explains: “In the mid-1990s, we started to offer used products – at first we took tentative steps into this market in order to gain experience and avoid any detrimental influences on quality issues and our normal business.” Today, says Eberz, the firm has developed an international expertise in the used-equipment market, which it supports via its world-wide service network. Indeed, Eberz says that “sales of used products have a clear strategic value” to the service side of Oerlikon’s vacuum business.

At the other end of the business scale, with four employees, PSP Vacuum Technology got into the used-equipment market via its business of reconditioning equipment for customers. According to co-founder Nick Palmer, the firm’s main business is manufacturing and selling new electron guns and energy analysers, and usually does reconditioning work on ultrahigh-vacuum (UHV) instruments such as electron spectrometers, X-ray sources, electron sources and ultraviolet sources. It also sometimes refurbishes general vacuum components such as feedthroughs and bellows assemblies, manipulators, electronic controllers and other UHV-related equipment that resides out-side of the vacuum chamber.

According to Palmer, the firm often finds itself working on used equipment that has changed hands free of charge between academic researchers. He says it is often the case that univer-sities are not interested in getting into the business of selling

used equipment and instead the kit is passed around within the research community. For example, the firm is now refurbishing a hemispherical analyser built in the 1970s that was given to a researcher in Ireland by a colleague in the UK.

While such arrangements ensure that less hi-tech equipment ends up on the scrap heap, Palmer laments the fact that UK gov-ernment funding bodies do not do more to promote the reuse and redistribution of vacuum equipment. “There is plenty of good stuff out there but a lot of it gets thrown away; many young researchers would like to get their hands on it,” he says. However, Palmer says that it is not easy for researchers in the UK to get funding approved for used equipment

Warranty includedOn the other side of the Atlantic, RBD Instruments takes a more proactive approach to used-equipment sales – a market that it has been in for more than 20 years, according to co-founder Randy Dellwo. “We specialize in surface-analysis instrumentation such as Auger, XPS and SIMS systems, but also deal with general vacuum systems as well,” he explains. The firm sources its equipment from both commercial and aca-demic users. Many of RBD’s customers are start-up companies and academic users that buy refurbished kit when they cannot afford the much higher price of a new system. “The fact that we completely refurbish the systems and include a warranty is important,” he explains.

Maintaining an ultrahigh-vacuum system is costly, but money can be saved by using reconditioned components. Hamish Johnston talks to three companies that have thrived by reconditioning and selling used equipment.

Reuse, recycle and thrive: used-equipment businesses keep growing

Technicians at Oerlikon Leybold Vacuum’s service facility recondition a piece of equipment: the firm sees the used-equipment market as an important part of its business.

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The obvious benefit in buying used equipment is price but Dellwo does not think that his customers are losing out on functionality. “Older systems can provide typically 80% of the functionality of a new system, at about 10% of the cost of new,” he claims. Dellwo also points out that like cars, older systems are easier to service than newer equipment because the older electronics are not based on surface-mount ICs.

Eberz agrees that price is an important issue. “The recent market crisis has led to increased demand for used products for all technical ranges and price levels,” she comments. Indeed, Eberz points out that used components have proven very popular in emerging markets in Eastern Europe and Asia. However, she adds that business in Western Europe, especially Germany, is growing.

According to Eberz, there are several other reasons why a customer will request a reconditioned product. When high demand or long purchasing times mean that a customer cannot receive a new product immediately, it may be quicker to ship a reconditioned unit to them. In other cases, a user may need to replace a component that the original supplier no longer makes.

Emergency poolReconditioned equipment may also be shipped by Oerlikon Leybold Vacuum to a customer to replace a unit that is either in the process of being repaired or is being returned under warranty. Used products even form the basis of an emergency pool of equipment whichcan be made available to customers with critical applications.

Once a used item has been acquired, it is reconditioned for sale. Dellwo points out that with components that have been used as part of a well-maintained UHV system – which by their nature are extremely clean – there is often little cleaning to be done.

However, if contamination must be removed, Palmer says PSP uses cleaning processes similar to those used when pre-paring new equipment for UHV use. Typically, this involves a thorough degreasing in an ultrasonic tank, followed by assem-bly in a clean room. “Certain items require specific surface coating after cleaning,” he says. For example, X-ray anodes are coated with aluminium and magnesium. The surfaces of elements for electrostatic hemispherical analysers are coated in a graphite-based material, which ensures that the electric field is not affected by surface oxides.

So where does this used equipment come from? Although Oerlikon Leybold Vacuum sometimes buys used equipment when contacted by a seller, Eberz explains that most equipment is received by the firm in part exchange for new equipment or after a leasing contract has run out. Other equipment may have been on loan to customers or be demonstration models.

As for the future of the used-equipment market, Eberz believes that “it is an increasing business in general”. Dellwo echoes this sentiment and suggests that the business is by its nature recession-proof: “The used-systems business tends to thrive in both good and bad economies.”Hamish Johnston is Editor of physicsworld.com, hamish.johnston@iop.org

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Where does space begin? The answer to this question is a little arbitrary because the Earth’s atmosphere does not abruptly end. In practice, the recognized start of space lies at an altitude of 100 km, known as the Kármán line, which is where the atmos-phere becomes too thin to obtain sufficient lift for aeronauti-cal purposes. The atmosphere at this altitude is still enough to create a significant drag on a satellite, which is why satellites must usually fly at some 250–300 km above the Earth’s surface.

At this altitude, the level of vacuum – about 10–6 mbar – means that the thermal performance of a satellite is domi-nated by radiative transfer rather than convective transfer, as on the ground. This fact, combined with the complexity and cost of servicing an orbiting satellite, means that anything

sent into space has to be rigorously tested in a simulated space atmosphere using a “thermal vacuum test chamber”.

Fixed ultrahigh-vacuum systems used in particle accelera-tors and other similar systems can be baked at high tempera-tures to drive off adsorbed water vapour and contaminants from chamber walls and test equipment. This is not possible with space-borne equipment because of the materials used and the highly sensitive nature of some of the components.

Testing equipment for spaceSending satellites into space is usually a long and expensive process, so it is essential to ensure things work first time. Giles Case looks at some of the testing techniques used to ensure a high likelihood of mission success.

The structural thermal model of the Mid Infrared Instrument (MIRI) for the planned James Webb Space Telescope being prepared for cryogenic testing in RAL Space’s test chamber.

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A typical bake-out of a complete spacecraft is instead usually limited to temperatures of 50–60 °C, which results in the out-gassing load still being very high during testing.

What this means in practice is that high-capacity pumping systems have to be used to reach and maintain the required vacuum levels. Typically, a vacuum level of between 10–7 mbar and 10–5 mbar is needed in a test chamber that may vary in size between that required for a relatively small “cubesat” (meas-uring 10 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm) and one needed to test a large satellite the size of a bus.

For smaller systems, a turbo pump is sufficient to overcome the outgassing load from the chamber and test item, with oil-free systems being used to minimize the contamination risk. For larger systems a combination of turbo pumps, 20 K cryo-pumps and 4 K helium cryo-panels are used to achieve the typical pumping requirement of 500 000 l s–1. Cryo-systems are preferred because they are relatively cheap and are good at pumping water and nitrogen (which are dominant in the cham-ber at that operating pressure) at high speeds.

Care has to be taken in preparing both the test item and the test chamber itself to ensure that both are clean from a molec-ular and particulate point of view. For optical instruments, molecular contaminants degrade the overall instrument sen-sitivity, which is exacerbated at individual wavelengths by specific absorption of particular materials, such as silicones. Particulate contamination contributes to a scattered back-ground, which reduces image contrast and can reduce the life and stability of mechanisms in the optical chain.

Identifying the presence of particulate contamination is rela-tively easy as clean-rooms can be used to assemble the instru-ments, with regular inspections helping to maintain cleanliness to the required standard. Preventing and identifying molecular contamination, however, is not so simple. Using known low-outgassing materials as well as proven cleaning and assem-bly techniques provides a good starting point, but with most items, a bake-out at the maximum temperature of a subsystem is required – as is proof of the outgassing level obtained under common predefined conditions – before the subsystem can be integrated into the spacecraft. Invaluable tools for this work are a residual gas analyser to identify the nature of contaminants and a thermoelectric quartz crystal microbalance to measure the absolute rate of outgassing.

Another key part of the on-ground testing is to simulate the expected thermal conditions the satellite may encounter. This is usually done using a combination of local radiator panels, with a temperature-controlled shroud providing a representa-tive global view. This allows the test item to be driven in a rep-resentative way between its expected operating temperatures. During this thermal cycling, functional and optical testing is performed to test and calibrate the onboard systems and ensure all the scientific requirements are met. For a small instrument, this may take just a few days, while a larger calibration cam-paign may take months of testing. The work may be painstak-ing, but it is essential to a mission’s success.Giles Case is at RAL Space, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK, e-mail giles.case@stfc.ac.uk

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It’s show timeLet Physics World guide you through the plethora of conferences, symposia and exhibitions on offer across the globe for the vacuum user.An impressive and diverse array of events is on offer for those who use and develop vacuum science and technology. The diary overleaf brings together the pick of upcoming meetings, while here we take a more in-depth look at what three of the major events will cover. First up on 18–19 October is Vacuum Expo. Currently the only one of its kind in the UK, this year’s event takes place in Coventry. Not only will Vacuum Expo include a comprehensive exhibition of the UK’s leading vac-uum-technology suppliers, it will also offer opportunities for learning and networking. Organized by the Institute of Physics’ Vacuum Group and the RGA Users Group, this year’s event incorporates the 2nd Vacuum Symposium. The two-day sym-posium will include free technical meetings for the more expe-rienced vacuum user plus free training seminars for those new to vacuum. Day one features a meeting with sessions focusing on vacuum pumping, while day two is set aside for presenta-tions on residual gas analysers. Available on each day of the symposium will be two half-day training seminars run by spe-cialist vacuum trainer Austin Chambers. One session will deal with the basic principles involved in creating and maintaining a vacuum, while the second will focus on vacuum in practice, covering is how vacuum is produced and measured.

Later in the same month, running from 30 October to 4 November, is the 58th International Symposium and Exhibition of the American Vacuum Society (AVS) in Nashville, Ten nessee. With 140 oral sessions, 1300 talks and more than 250 invited speakers, the AVS’s annual meeting should have some-thing for everyone, whether you are interested in surface sci-ence, materials or nano-electronics. In addition to the event’s core programme, there will be 13 focus topics addressing spe-cific areas of research, with graphene, printable electronics and biofabrication each in the spotlight. Meanwhile, the “Energy Frontiers” focus topic will investigate how vacuum science and technology can help tackle the world’s energy problems.

If coatings are your specialism, then the 55th SVC Annual Technical Conference on 28 April to 3 May 2012 is one not to miss. The Society of Vacuum Coaters (SVC) annual meeting in Santa Clara, California will include symposia and technical meetings on, among other things, optical coatings, coatings for healthcare, large-area coatings and even coatings for decorative applications. This year’s event will also highlight new mate-rial and processes for the manufacture of photovoltaics, while sessions under the banner “lab to fab” will explore thin-film manufacturing processes.

Add to these the numerous conferences and exhibitions run by individual national vacuum societies, then you could even find yourself with enough air miles to be able to buy some new vacuum equipment.

22 V a c u u m c h a l l e n g e s a n d s o l u t i o n s a u g u s t 2 0 1 1

201120th International Materials Research CongressCancun, Mexico14–19 AugustPromoting leading-edge research on materials around the world. www.mrs.org

Euromat 2011Montpellier, France12–15 SeptemberA renowned forum for those working in materials science and engineering, both in Europe and elsewhere.www.iom3.org/events/ euromat-2011

Semicon EuropaDresden, Germany11–13 OctoberMatching the specific needs of the European semiconductor industry.www.semiconeuropa.org

Materials Science & Technology 2011 Conference & ExhibitionColumbus, OH, US16–20 OctoberBringing together scientists, engineers, policy makers, suppliers and more to shape the future of materials science and technology.www.matscitech.org

Vacuum ExpoCoventry, UK18–19 OctoberShowcasing the very latest vacuum and related technologies for applications in science and industry.www.photonex.org/ vacuum-expo.com

11th International Vacuum Exhibition, 2011Shanghai, China18–20 OctoberA biennial event hosted by the Chinese Vacuum Society offering visitors the chance to discover the latest vacuum

products and services.www. chinesevacuum.com

AVS 58th International Symposium and ExhibitionNashville, TN, US30 October – 4 NovemberAddressing the cutting-edge issues associated with vacuum science and technology in both the research and manufacturing communities.www2.avs.org/symposium

15th International Conference on Thin Films, 2011Kyoto, Japan8–11 NovemberA multidisciplinary forum on recent advances in basic research, development and applications of thin films and coatings.www.ictf15.jp

MRS Fall Meeting and ExhibitBoston, MA, US28 November – 2 DecemberAddressing leading-edge research and capturing the extraordinary progress made in materials science and technology.www.mrs.org/fall2011

2012

55th SVC Annual Technical ConferenceSanta Clara, CA, US28 April – 3 MayLearning, applying and advancing vacuum coating, surface engineering and related technologies.www.svc.org/

27th Symposium on Fusion TechnologyLiège, Belgium24–28 SeptemberExchange information on the design, build and operation of fusion experiments.www.soft2012.eu

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or a • Master of Science (MSc) in Plasma and Vacuum Technology. The former course requires a presence at Queen’s University only for a short period in the second semester and possibly for the summer research project. The latter course is part-time, specifically designed for those in full time employment and does not require attendance at Queen’s University. For research students or employees who need to quickly acquire a basic knowledge of plasma physics, there is a 4 week “Introduction to Plasma Physics”. Other modules are taught over 8 or 12 weeks. Full information on module content and course and application details can be downloaded at http://www.qub.ac.uk/mp/cpp/MScCourses/.For further information you may contact physics@qub.ac.uk.

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