Urbanism of Inclusion, Sunset Park

7/22/2019 Urbanism of Inclusion, Sunset Park

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URBANIS

JanaGrammens

AmberKevelaerts

Maa

rtenWauters

URBANISMOFINCLUSION


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Urbanism of Inclusion, Sunset Park

Submitted to the Department of Architecture, Urbanism and Planning,

Faculty of Engineering,

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

in partial fulllment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Urbanism and Strategic Planning

September 2012

Authors

Jana Grammens MaUSP Student, thesis

Amber Kevelaerts MaUSP Student, thesis

Maarten Wauters MaUSP Student, thesis

Supervisor

Bruno de Meulder Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven (Belgium)

Co-supervisors

Maarten Van Acker Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven (Belgium

Readers

Bruno De Meulder Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven (Belgium)

Els Vervloesem Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven (Belgium)

Kees Doevendans Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Eindhoven (Netherlands)

Miodrag Mitrasinovic Parsons The New School for Design, New York (United States of America)

Copyright 2012 by Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. All rights reserved.

All text, images, graphics and other materials in this publication are subject to the copyright and other intellectual property rights of the

authors, supervisor and co-supervisors, unless otherwise credited. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or modied in

any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing

from the supervisor. Permissions should be addressed to Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Engineering - Kasteelpark Arenberg 1,

B3001 Heverlee (Belgium). Telephone +32 16 32 13 50 and Fax +32 16 32 19 82.

A written permission is also required to use methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial

use, and for submitting this publication in scientic contests. All images are made by the authors unless mentioned otherwise.

The Atlantis program, of which this book resu

been an enriching experience. The program

us to take part in an exchange with Parsons tSchool of design to New York. This thesis work h

a great and stimulating journey and is the final w

two-year study.

This booklet could, however, not have been

without the support, critical feedback and enc

ment of many people. First and foremost, we exp

sincerest gratitude to our supervisor, professo

de Meulder, for his inspiration and guidance. W

to thank professor de Meulder for all his insig

continuous support during our process of this r

and the entire Master of Urbanism and Strate gic P

Subsequently, we would like to offer our grat

our American co-supervisors professor Miguel

Duran, Maarten Van Acker, Quilian Riano and An

Lara, who guided our New York studio and resea

We also wish to thank Miodrach Mitrasinovic

Acknowledgements


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Problem statement

Methodology

Sunset Park

Social needs

Sunset Park multi-etnicneighborhoodDemographics

Health statistics Education

Public infrastructure

Public space Sewage system

Stakeholders

New York city Community board 7 Civil Society

Civil society as an alternative

An alternative solution Working with La Union

Combined strategies

Towards an inclusive fabric

The global food system

The disconnection of food and the city

The global food system creating dispari-

ties

Local alternatives

Local alternatives and urban agriculture

The benets of urban agricultureManifestations of Urban Agriculture

Urban agriculture in New York

Urban agriculture in Sunset Park

Potential spaces for urban agriculture

Alternative food supply for Sunset Park

Total potential of Urban agriculture in

Sunset Park

Urban agriculture creating spaces of

opportunity

Bush Terminal rooftop farms

A new public space

From browneld to green infrastructure

Urban agriculture, an alternative pro-

duction

Historical Industrial Landscapes

Introduction

Environmental justice

Environmental Justice & Sunset

Garbage wars

Environmental justice in a

age of garbageWhere to go with all this waste?

Learning from other cases

New Economical Impuls

from waste burden to was

opportunity

Borough equity

Design proposal

Dynamics of New Social

Economies

Local assets

Browneld Opportunities

Browneld strategies

Site Proposal

Stakeholders

TASTE-THE-WASTE prog

Creating synergies

Conclusion

Analysis

General concept

Introduction

TABLE OF CONTENTS Growing in Urban LandscapesUrban Agriculture as an Alternative

WASTE(d)LANDDynamics of New Social Economi

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Introduction Problem statement4


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population, largely due to immigration. This reects in

a low-income community with high dropout rates and

health disparities. (Hum, 2010) The neighborhood is

stagnant in development, in contrast to the population

growth, a signicant number of properties are vacant or

underused. The investment in the residential part of the

neighborhood and waterfront is currently limited due to

the global economical situation. There is a willingness

of the city government to develop the sunset park

waterfront as has happened in other areas of the city.

With the disappearance of manufacturing industries and

the reduction of water based transport the Brooklyn

waterfront lost part of its activities. In some areas of

Brooklyn the waterfront has already been transformed

in residential areas with effects of displacement and

gentrication.

The aim of the research and design is to use the current

needs and visions in New York city and the neighborhood

of Sunset Park furthering towards a more inclusive urban

fabric. Education, Urban food production and Waste

recycling are themes for which the city of New York is

currently in need of alternatives and manifest themselves

within the urban fabric of Sunset Park. Is there a future

development in Sunset Park, which embraces bottom up

needs and processes, that reects the need for a more

inclusive city?

Location of case study (Based on Bing Maps, 2012)

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The aim of the studio was to explore broad r

themes. The overall goal of the studio was to und

negate and speculate on complex urban conditi

specific neighborhood of Sunset Park was selec

this allowed a focusing on the intricacies of low

neighborhoods and its delicate urban ecosystem

Another particular element of this studio w

emphasis on social-praxis, a social research per

that focuses on social movements and commun

already producing knowledge, methodologies, a

epistemic positions that are useful for social s

and the design disciplines. The research proc

supported by a socioligist Angel Luis Lara and fo

collaboration with neighborhood organization La

Interviews, socio geographic mapping and a nu

The research for this thesis has been part of several

different projects. The large overarching theme of

urbanisms of inclusion is a collaborative research project

between a network of European universities and universi-

ties in the United States. In the frame of the joint research

an exchange program has been set up for thesis students

that are encouraged to explore the theme urbanisms of

inclusion. As part of this exchange the initial research and

the case study have been first explored within the Urban

Ecology studio in the school of design strategies of The

New School in New York City.

The Urban Ecology studio was a research project with a

small design component, which was partaken by a broad

range of design students. The design teams were multi-

disciplinary and had students from a diverse background.

Driving group with La Union, participatory research (Authors, 2012) Guided tour through Sunset Park with La Union (

Methodology8


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Sunset Park is a vibrant neighborhood in Brooklyn,

New York. Sunset Park has been greatly transformed

over the last decades by a new wave of immigration.

The new immigration reflects in a part of the population

that has limited access to services such as healthcare,

education, The residents of Sunset Park are largely

Hispanic and Chinese in origin. A lack representation

and poverty have resulted in a level of self-organization

through community-based organizations. The residential

neighborhood of Sunset Park lies next to an industrial

waterfront. The waterfront had historically been the

economical driver of Sunset park, providing jobs and a

livelihoods. The industrial waterfront is now typified by

large underused spaces and buildings, which are vacant.

With the current economical crisis the area has few

perspectives for development, thus alternatives develop-

ments have a potential in Sunset Park.

The rich case of Sunset Park reflects global issues and

questions about the future of the city. However the

specific research topics embedded within the thesis are

derived from actively participating within the community

and discovering the issues that are of concern to the

community.

Sunset Park, a neighborhood of diversity

Map Sunset Park (Authors,2012)

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Analysis12


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BrooklynNew York City

Foreign born

Surface

Population

Citizenship

43.755

55,2 %

50.825

51,4%

1 214,4 km 251 km

8. 349. 788 2. 551. 964

$ $ $Median household income

Race/Ethnicity

38.7% 36.8%

x 5

x 3,2

x 1,16 x

x

x

WhiteWhite Black

Latino

Asian

Others

Latino

Black

AsianOthers

Demographics. (Center for the Study of Brooklyn, 2012)

Demographics

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Global fast food

Illegal landfill

Industrialbrownfields

*Combined sewage overflow

Health statistics

Health and well being is a profound issue in Sunset Park.

A lack of health insurance and a polluting environment

and condition of poverty are leading to poor health of

the Sunset Park residents. Obesity, diabetes, asthma

and heath failure are statistically higher in Sunset Park as

compared to Brooklyn and New York.

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Diagram health status. (NYC Health, 2006)

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The initial study around education already revealed a

web of different issues inhabitants of Sunset Park have

to deal with.

Furhtermore, it became clear that education can not be

specified only on the formal system of public and private

schools but that education concerns the community as a

whole. As such different layer of formal as wel informal,

additional education can be explored in the educative

landscape of Sunset Park.

Formaleducation

Additionaleducation

Road network

Sunset park border

12

4

3

1

2

4

53

67

Education

Education is an important aspect in the individuals,

community, city and state level to achieve economical

success, success in the labour market and success in life

in general. For the majority of people your education level

will determine your income level, your place in the class

system, your health and your future.

PHYSICAL

PROBLEMS

ACCESS

health/foodadult education

yearlystate exams

How can solving small physical problemsbe acatalist forproblemsin biggerscales?

How can trustbe strengthened inorganizationsthrough education?

How can we provideappropriateducationalsupporton each level?

Whatisourtaskin thispart?

(un)documented

cutting funds onspecial education

unsupportingenvironment

property

labour

culture(identity)

HIGH DROPOUTS

LANGUAGENON PROFIT

ORGANIZATIONS

lack inOUTDOOR

space

lack inINDOOR

spaceLACK IN AFTER

SCHOOL PROGRAMS

FORMALEDUCATION SYSTEM

?

?

?

? INFORMALEDUCATION

Formaleducation

Additionaleducation

Road network

Sunset park border

1

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Bus

Playground Three-Forty 1.25 a.

Public infrastructure26


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people cannot be buried here.

Public Space versus open space

Apart from the limited amount of public space,

a scarce amount of unutilized space or under-

space that can be defined in different categories

lots, parking space and dumping spaces. Als

building blocks there are often spaces that are

of the ownership just used as parking space.

Brownfields

In sharp contrast with the spaces in Sunset Par

borhood there is a large amount of open space w

defined by former industries. In the waterfront ar

acres of concrete space, predominantly city ow

left abandoned after their indutrial purposes.

Sunset Park with view over Manhattan (Authors, 2012) Browneld at the water front (Authors, 2012)

Public Space

Since the starter of the industrial era Sunset park neigh-

borhood started to grow exponentially. As the neighbor-

hood began to overcrowd Sunset Park was the only open

space left untouched to counter the densely urbanizing

area. Now after many years it is still marked as the only

green open space you can go for recreation, indoors as

well as outdoors. Still in terms of population density it is

the only place mentionable in size.

Other clearly smaller recreational spaces are charac-

terized by their presence near a school, or as leftover

spaces which due to regulations where not built up.

They predominantly exist of non-permeable surface

and are often determined with restrictions, such as age

categories, and time bounded due to school properties,

but they serve as a welcome place and tend to be

overcrowded.

Greenwood Cemetary

The cemetery that serves a large part of Manhattan and

Brooklyn, functions as both an oasis and a boundary for

the inhabitants of Sunset Park Neighborhood. Due to the

former rail yard it is topographical disconnected from the

neighborhood.

For the illegal neighborhood dwellers the cemetary

contains an emotional disconnect since undocumented

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30

l i l .


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Owls head water

treatment plant

- . .

?

SIMS recycleBrooklyn

S. Carolina

Hamilton exportBrooklyn

CSO discharge

On a dry day: Wastewater and street runoff collected in

sewer is blocked by a partial dam in the collection pipe

ows by gravity to the treatment plant.

Map: Combined sewage outfalls and waste water treatment plants (Duhigg, 2009)

Each year in New York, billions of gallons of sewage and runoff overflow

through 490 points, or outfalls, into the harbor and rivers when it rains

heavily, because sewage treatment plants cannot hold the capacity.

Estimanted annual average sewage

overow through each outfall

2.0 billion gallons

1.0 billion gallons

100 million

Waste water treatment plant

Sewage system

New York City has a combined sewer system, a mixture

of stormwater and waste water is processed and

expelled at a waste water treatment plant. A combined

sewer system collects both wastewater from demestic,

commercial and industrial sources with runoff water from

streets and buildings. The collected wastewater is then

treated before it is released to streams, rivers or lakes.

Problems arise when the system is overloaded after a

big storm.

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New York City

Firstly it is interesting to understand the past planning

processes of top down policies, which have led to

the current neighborhood structure. These policies

addressed benefits for the greater New York, neglecting

its neighborhood residents. Leading towards a distressed

landscape with stigmatizing uses such as garbage

transfer stations, sewage treatment plants, bus depots

and fossil fuel power plants.

The waterfront development plans are currently still

pursuing the trend neglecting the neighborhoods needs

with project proposals such as Sunset Energy Fleets

proposal for a power plant at 22nd Street, instead of

the implementation of a public high school, which has

currently been removed from the citys budget.

The citys current interest in post-industrial waterfront

neighborhoods has lead to gentrification in neigh-

borhoods such as Williamsburg and Park Slope. By

reaffirming the position of industrial waterfront for Sunset

Park this has been the only counter lever to the displace-

ment trends.

In our research we investigated on the role of a divers

amount of stakeholders, which are defined by different

power structures. Our aim is to equally give voice to each

stakeholder individually and re-imagine which are the

collective needs.

Community board 7

Brooklyns Community Board 7 represents the ne

hoods of Sunset Park, Windsor Terrace, East

Terrace, South Park Slope, and Greenwood Heig

New York has 59 Community Boards citywide o

18 in Brooklyn.

Community Board 7 is a local level of City gov

comprised of 50 volunteer Board Members w

appointed to two-year terms by the Borough P

and the local City Council members. The Com

Boards allow communities to have a say in local d

Stakeholders

Jeremy Laufer (Authors, 2012)

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Civil Society

An important aspect in a neighborhood as Sunset Park

is the network of organizations that form the civil society.

They form the key element between the voice of the

citizens and the power of the decisions makers. In the

US this kind of community- organizations is very present

and there existence is often crucial to become change

towards a more socially equal environment.

In Sunset park a strong connection between the historical

needs and problems of the neighborhood, the settlement

of new groups of immigrants and the emergence of

different community based organizations is visible.

civil society as mediator to address needs and poential

for development

CENTER FOR FAMILY LIFE is the organizat

has probably the strongest connection with

programmes in collaboration with public schools

Sunset park. These programes include afte

or art projects. Besides this the organization a

educational programmes that concern youth a

employment.

SUNSET PARK ALLIANCE provides educat

services for disconnected youth to return t o the cla

TURNING POINT mainly addresses the ne

adolescent boys, particularly those at risk for

gang related activities, expanded their services to

crisis intervention, tutoring, after school and

programs.

Generally almost all organizations offer in a wa

of education. A lot have educational programs

specified on certain topics.

EducationFood

BROOKLYN FOOD COALITION is a grassroots organi-

zation dedicated to the vision of a just and sustainable

food system in Brooklyn. The organization is involved in

neighborhoods in three areas: Community organizing,

education and public awareness, research and advocacy.

The coalition organizes food workshops for urban

farmers, as well as being involved in national lobbying

for more just food systems. The diverse actions of the

organization aim at building an inclusive, multi-racial,

multi-cultural alliance of residents and community-based

groups from all parts of Brooklyn, reflecting the boroughs

rich diversity.

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LUTHERAN MEDICAL HEALTH CENTER is th

stakeholder in providing health services in Suns

They played an important role in the revitaliz

the neighborhood and today you can find the L

hospital and more Lutheran family health centers

over the area of Sunset Park.

Health

NEIGHBORS HELPING NEIGHBORS main aim is to

empower low and middle income residents in Brooklyn

to secure quality housing and build financial assets.

SUNSET PARK REDEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE acts

as a developer but is a non-profit organization that

is concerned with restoring apartment buildings and

keeping rents affordable. For the moment they continue

a redevelopment and acquisition mission for vacant

buildings throughout Brooklyn. They manage buildings,

provide technical assistance and organize tenants asso-

ciations.

5th AVENUE COMMITTEE Through the development

of affordable housing and property management, 5th

avenue committee tries to improve the living environment

for inhabitants in different neighborhoods in Brooklyn.

SOUTH WEST BROOKLYN DEVELOPMENT COOR-

PORATION is an organization that provides programs

and advocacy to help business in Sunset Park and

surrounding neighborhoods.

Housing Labour

38

1966 1969

1975 1978 1979 1981 1983 1987 1987 1990 1995 1996


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HISPANIC COMMUNITY

CHINESE COMMUNITY

SUNSET PARK

SOUTH - WEST BROOKLYN

BROOKLYN

1 2 3

UPROSE

1966 1969

Lutheran Health Center

1975 1978 1979 1981 1983 1987

Sunset Park BusinImprovement Dist

Just Food

1987 1990 1995.

1996

Neighbors Helping Neighbors

Brooklyn ChineseAmerican Association

Sunset Park Redevelop

Committee

Center for Family Life

SouthWest Brooklyn

Development Coorporation

Chinese Staff and

Workers Association

Children of the City

Turning Point

5th Avenue Committee

Opportunities for a Better

Tomorrow

41

Economic decline of the neighborhood and

the industrial watefront together with an ethnic

reversal through the arrival of a low low income hispanic

community made condistions in Sunset park detoriate.

The start of revitalization through the upswing of

community-based organizations that organized

strongly under the lead of Lutheran Family health centers

and Uprose. A second major ethnic chinese community

integrating in Sunset Park.

Sunset park still knows as tremendiously

with a new chinese population coming up.

that made new organizations arise to fight for the

and to nourish the awareness of the inhabitants.

(sources for stakeholder analysis based on: Winnick, 1990; Brooklyn Community Board 7, 2007)

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to start the revitalization of the Sunset Park n

hood. The proposal for a major meatpackings d

tion plant in Sunset Park at the same location

Lutheran medical health center was considering

a new hospital was the turning point for the com

In 1969 this resulted in a huge protest which lea

development of the first community organization

neighborhood wich was called the Sunset Pa

velopment committee and who became the

instrument for urban renewal in the neighborho

organization covered connections to a main pa

neighborhoods churches, local business, ethn

nizations,... The role of Lutheran medical healt

in the further revitalization of Sunset Park is no

undervalued. They became much more then p

health care in the area and the construction of a

They were the leading organization that was co

abouth the disadvanteged members of its com

and the wider interest in the neighbourhood, its po

and possibilities. They were resoluted to br

state, federal or city funds that were possible

community. Uprose, an independent ethnic o

tion, was as well one of the main pioneers that s

couple of years earlier to defense the hispanic po

in Sunset Park. The community partly succeede

political system Sunset Park became an indi

entity within Brooklyn that was eligable for and

During the 60s and 70s Sunset park knew a period

of strong decline caused by several circumstances.

On the one hand, whole New York was suffering from

economical trends and the upswing of cheap labor

which made economies detoriate. On the other hand,

more specific for Sunset Park were the closure of the

American Machine and Foundry building and deactiva-

tion of the Brooklyn Army Terminal. In this period not

only the economy of Sunset Park was in change but the

neighborhood also knew a remarkable cultural reversal.

The current mostly norwegian population began to leave

Sunset Park to go to better abodes in the suburbs. The

dwellings of these departed were replaced through a

mainly Puorto rican - population. A lower income- group

that through deficiency in skills and language was not

able to improve the situation. Besides this, the construc-

tion of the Gowanus expressway along third avenue

-that cuts the neighborhood in two- was no good for

the neighborhood as well. It discouraged investments

in Sunset Park and a lot of people and business were

displaced to go to more flourishing areas.

An important factor in the revitaliza tion of the area are

due to the efforts of the inhabitants and the commitment

of them into community - based, non- profit organiza-

tions.

Here the Lutheran Medical Health Center was a pioneer

43Civil society as an alternative42

Working with La Union


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Self analysis of La Union.

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City-owned land

P r ivatl y-owned l ots

Feder all y-owned l and

New York City and Sunset ParkWaterfront development

Sunset Park is a small part of Brooklyn. This ch

the analysis aims to frame Sunset Park in relatio

of the city. Currently the city of New York has

redevelopment goals of the waterfront. A nu

plans have been created for Sunset Park by d

organisation in the city of New York. These plan

the importance of Sunset Park and its waterfron

rest of New York city. The Sunset Park waterfron

of interest as part of the larger waterfront redeve

that is taking place in the city. The current pr

plans are aimed specificly on the industrial a

provide little relation and interest in the residen

of the neighborhood. A very significant portio

waterfront is NYC government owned land.

the fact the that it is an immigrant neighbor

lack of official representation and available lan

waterfront, a significant amount of city infrastru

located in sunset park. The power, waste and d

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Community Board 7 Plan

with greenway developed by UPROSE

The current NYC Development Plan has reaffirm

Sunset park waterfront as an industrial area. Pa

plan has been the addition of waterfront access

creation of the bush terminal park. In addition a g

(cyclingpath) provides an extra link in the

cyclingnetwork. An attemp was made to crea

between the waterfront and the residential par

neighborhood. The definition of these corridors is

and no initiative is taken to provide a clear relatio

opportunities that are created in the industrial a

Waterfront development plan. (Brooklyn Community

Board 7, 2007)

Rising Currents. (Bunge, 2012)

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General concept

Combined strategies

In general we can state that in Sunset Park there i

for a deeper more inclusive city. Therefore we pro

new forms of production into the city, where ne

citizens can become actors within the public rea

community

The formerly thriving waterfront, which fun

as the center of public activity, has been co

disconnected from the neighborhood throu

deterioration of the economic impulses. T

proposed strategies will enhance the con

between the neglected waterfront and the neighb

This can give an answer to the rapidly growing re

population and increasing multicultural society a

needs for jobs and dynamic public spac es for enc

and learning opportunities.

The oversized street pattern of the Suns

neighborhood is used as carrier of the public

Strategically selected streets are downgrad

remodeled as avenues for stronger public exp

and safer and greener connections towards the w

and within the neighborhood.

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the legacy o

PRODUCTIVE P

from gl

from g

from global p

stimu

from g

Dynamics o

Growin

Urban Ag


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Growing in Urban LandscapesTowards an inclusive fabric

Urban agriculture in essence is the production

in an urban context. In the field urban agric

becoming integrated with a large number of

issues and is fuelled by alternative needs of th

dweller. The goal of the research is to explor

agriculture as a practice that can foster a more iurban fabric. The first step is to understand the

in which urban agriculture is becoming an ever

phenomenon. The second part of the research

on the practices, benefits and relationship tha

agriculture can create in the city. The research

on the experiences in New York.

In a final part the potential of urban agricultur

alternative generator of the urban fabric is exp

the neighbourhood of Sunset Park. How can urb

culture become a practice that is embedded in

borhood?

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The global food system

The disconnection of food and the c

Food is embedded in our everyday routines. A

creatures we need nourishment on a stable b

sustain ourselves and to remain healthy. For mos

it is relatively easy to get three square meals a day

having to concern about the growing and proce

food. Todays urban dweller is only a small end

a large production gain that feeds our cities.

ways most people are only involved in a smal

the food chain, namely the consumption of food

historically strongly linked to the urbanized soci

majority of the world now lives in urban or sem

conditions and is no longer producing its own fo

urbanized population has changed how the fo

people needed is produced. A smaller number o

produce food for an expanding world popula

globalised food system now supplies cities with

greater diversity of food.

The forming of cities and civilization has been

cally strongly related to the p roduction of food. A

in the production of food was what first resulte

possibility for mankind to pursue different activi

cities to form. Uruk, a Sumerian city in Mesopot

a great example of one of the earliest cit ies where

62

t f l t th ht b t th hi f Mid t f A i Th b ildi f il li th d N th A i h d i l h


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arguments formulates thoughts about the ownership of

land. Locke concludes that an individual can lay claim to

land through the investment of labour. It follows that if a

farmer tills the land he owns the land. Locke makes one

note here, that this is only true if every man only takes

what he needs. The changing of land into agriculture w as

the first major shift in the way mankind provided their

food and the land was used. (Steel, 2008, p26-27)

The theories formulated by Locke in the late 17t h century

were applied in the colonization of America. Settlers

considered the new world endless, the liberal ideals of

Locke were applied and even included in the Decla-

ration of Independence through Thomas Jefferson.

Lockes theories were based on productive agriculture

and thus excluded the hunter-gatherer culture of Native

Americans. The d evelopment of agriculture in America

and the industrial revolution led to the first disconnect of

city and agriculture. The innovation of new farming tech-

niques and transportation by rail created a new freedom

for cities. The American Midwest had been turned from

prairie into agriculture land, a vast potential in grain

production existed here, this land was however stil cut

off by the Appalachian mountains. In 1825 this new grain

basket was connected to New York by the Erie Canal.

This made New York boom and showed the potential of

a stronger connection between the east coast and the

Midwest of America. The building of a rail line across the

mountain range in 1850 finally opened up the Midwest

to the world. The stable production of food on a large

scale and the ability to transport it, led to the liberation of

cities from agricultural hinterlands. The size of a city was

no longer limited by the food production surrounding it.

(Steel, 2008, p26-27)

Grain prices plummeting lead to a depression in Europe

and the surplus in feed allowed for the first time the

mass production of meat in America. The food system

globalized for a first time, massive quantities of food

where transported from America to Europe. The scale

of production shifted towards mass production both in

Europe and America. The mass production of food led

to an important shift in thinking about food and the city.

No longer was the question the possibility of feeding

the growing industrial cities, but the cost to do so. The

question of price has resulted in innovation such as fertil-

izer and pesticides, which have led to great increases in

productivity. Technical innovation in farming tools and

battery farming are also responsible for great inc reases in

productivity, yet one can ask questions about the ethical

and environmental consequences of these farming tech-

niques. (Steel, 2008, 31-35)

The historical evolution of food and urbanization in Europe

and North America has undergone a crucial sh

urban centers that were very connected to the

tion of food, an evolution took place to a global in

agricultural complex that is disconnected from

The struggle to feed the urban centers has distan

food production from the urban core. The industr

lution has given us a highly efficient agriculture

and replaced agriculture in the city by industry.

change in the food system has been a corpora

over. The food system is now controlled by a ha

corporations that have taken monopolies on cert

of the food chain and influence the practices and

in the whole system. The often long supply cha

are controlled by corporate businesses, allow fo

ities to exist and the negative side effects to be h

64

chickens The relatively small company expandTh l b l f d t ti di iti


35/104

chickens. The relatively small company expand

industrialised its activities. This resulted in c

being raised in windowless spaces barely able t

and continuously fed antibiotics. To maximize the

Tyson also capitalizes on its market monopoly

subcontracting to farmers, which are paid the m

and have to comply with strict standards. The p

Tyson Foods delivers are ready cut or processe

products; one finds these in the large supermar

fast food restaurants. Tyson supplies familiar ho

brands such as McDonalds, Wal-Mart and ma

large food retailers. (Gottlieb and Joshi. 2010,p3

Slavery in the field

The animal abuses are relatively well known an

been exposed by the media many times. How

disparities that are created for farm workers a

forgotten. The farmers are being forced into co

which allow them barely to make a living. Farm

refuse to cooperate face difficulties in a food

controlled by large corporations. Everywhere, b

cially in the USA, the agriculture system is b

the labour of cheap farm workers. Migrant wor

exploited to the point of slavery. Seasonal farm

have become faceless, nameless units of produ

the USA there are over three million people emp

agriculture. About one third of the farm workers ar

Mexican farm worker in lettuce eld, California (C. ORear, 1972)

The global food system creating disparities

The development of urban agriculture is embedded in

the disparities that are created by a global, industrial and

corporate controlled agriculture system. Urban agricul-

ture can be viewed as a practice t hat reflects the injustice

created by the global food system.

Distancing as a strategy

The distance between growing and consumption in a

long linear production process is named as one of the

main reasons that allow for the unethical practices to

be so present in the production of food. In many cases

unhealthy practices are used to maximize production

quantity and reduce costs. Large-scale production has

fostered the use of chemicals in agriculture. The use

of certain chemicals has been linked to increased risk

of diseases such as Parkinson. The over-use of fertil-

izers pollutes water supplies and destroys ecosys-tems worldwide. One of the more famous examples

concerning the effects of the global companies on

the way food is produced, is the factory style produc-

tion of chicken by Tyson. Tyson Foods supplies most

of the chicken consumed in the USA. Tyson started

as a middleman buying from local farmers and selling

66

and Europe to developing countries The Green Revolu- changing from food production to crops for the


36/104

and Europe to developing countries. The Green Revolu-

tion has influenced the nature of food production in the

developing world, exporting modern techniques and the

products involved such as pesticides and hybrid seeds.

The American policies have made that agriculture in the

whole world has industrialized, often with the excuse of

raising productivity. (Gottlieb and Joshi. 2010,p 105-107)

Food and energy

In essence, food is stored energy to be consumed by

people to fill their basic need for nutrition. The long

supply chain and globalised food system have added

another important ingredient to agriculture. The food

system is highly reliant on oil, to such a degree that

we are investing enormous amounts of energy into the

production of food. In the USA between 14-19 per cent

of energy-use is consumed for food production. The use

of energy has to do with both the scale of agricultural

businesses as well as the distance between production

and consumption. The raising of crops creates the first

consumption of energy. Farmers use a range of machines

to raise the productiveness of their fields. Furthermore,

the size of agricultural operations require larger and more

energy consuming techniques. In addition to considering

the energy used by the food system, is the ability of crops

to produce energy. The global need for oil puts pressure

on the agriculture system; vast pieces of land are now

Irrigation Fields(R. Kendrick, 2003)

changing from food production to crops for the

tion of bio fuel. Crops such as sugar cane and c

now, instead of feeding livestock for people, tur

bio fuel on extreme scales. The land allocated

production in the USA is constantly growing an

land is used for the growing of energy instead

(Dougherty, 2007), (Steel, 2008, p48), (Viljoen, 200

(NYC council, 2009, p6)

Access to food

As varied as the accessible food is in general in

this is sometimes not the case in the poorer area

city. Food deserts are areas of the city where the

access to nutritious food. As supermarkets are co

businesses that are profit driven, they often d

quit the stores that are not generating large p

poor areas. In addition to having a lack of superm

food deserts are often characterized by having

number of fast food restaurants. (Alkon and Ag

2011, p 89)

Fastfood restaurant in Sunset Park(Authors, 2012)

68

Local alternatives and urban agricult


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Local alternative food systems

Local alternatives and urban agricult

Alternatives to the global food system are a r

to the globalisation and to the disconnect t

been created between the production of crops

consumers of food. Mares and Pena write, W

a time of neoliberal globalization and mass d

ment of rural place based people who have beenaway into what was been aptly described as a P

Slums (Davis 2006). This is a world that invokes

of the local and place-based (Appadurai, 1996)

and Agyeman, 2011, p 201)

The disparities created by the globalisation and

food system are finding local reactions that foste

and more sustainable city.

Urban agriculture is such an alternative and is f

in local action and a collection of actions that

to form an alternative to the global food syst

creates local disparities. The notion of urban ag

is rooted in environmental and social justice pr

One will find that there are as many motivations f

ticing urban agriculture as there are people e

with it. The main difference between urban ag

and rural agriculture is the connection to a m

consumers that is found around it and to create a

70

of agriculture that also foster a more inclusive society. InGardens during World War II: twenty million gardens land around their village. The profits are used to


38/104

g y

Spain, in the village of Marinaleda, an extreme alternative

is created to the global food system. The economics of

the village are based on an agriculture cooperation that

grows agriculture produce and a second cooperation

that processes the crops. These organizations are part

of the municipality. The profits are used amongst them

to create a supportive system in the village. The land

that is now owned by the municipal co-ops, was previ-

ously owned by the local Duke and attained only after

a long legal struggle with the national government. The

local workers and villagers are now the owners of the

g y g

produced 40 per cent of vegetables consumed during

the war. During these periods, the government educated

and assisted people in the production of food. The

Victory Gardens were key in stabilizing the national food

requirements, but apart from their food production, they

provided returns beyond the production of food. The US

government found that there were social and psycholog-

ical benefits for people involved in the gardens. (Nordahl,

2009, p17-18)

Even today one can find examples of alternative forms

g p

social services and affordable housing for the

The process of budgeting in the community h

in open council meetings, in which every me

the community has a direct vote. Houses in M

cost far less then the average houses in Spa

residents are however required to work for a lon

at the construction of the towns houses. To dete

from taking advantage of this alternative system

is no ownership of housing. It were the exploit

culture workers of the village that formed the b

this alternative model of a community. Altho

example is extreme and rather difficult to rep

a more urbanized context, it illustrates how ag

organized around a community can be the bas

more inclusive city. (Terzake, 2012), (Gottlieb an

2010, p18)

In a more urban sett ing like New York, examples

initiatives can be found as well. The Corbin H

Farm project is one such attempt of creating foo

by creating an alternative to the global supply

food. The Corbin Hill Road Farm is a farm share

which aims at linking local New York farms to ne

hoods in the city that have a lack of access to

food.

The initiative is set up as a for profit organization,

Farm workers in Marinaleda(Laura Leon, 2012)

72

relationship, from which benefits all parties involved. The of food production by a small number of companies ability and resilience against disaster. In most ca


39/104

first group is the neighbourhood partners that are used

as distribution points, produce provided is cheaper and

of a wider variety then available in the community. This

has both economic and health benefits for the neigh-

bourhoods involved. The second group are the farmers.

Through the system of farm share, they get financial

stability and an economic future. Their incomes are

no longer depended on price fluctuations in the global

market and as a consequence the farmers can plan a

stable development of their business. The last group is

the investors, who were able to invest in social entrepre-

neurial enterprises, contributing to their communities,

while still getting a return on their investment. (Cohen, N.,

& Derryck, D., 2011)

The Corbin Hill Farm Share project is an example of the

social nature that food can play in urban neighbour-

hoods. Healthy food is key to a healthy lifestyle, although

an image exists of abundance in large cities, often good

food is expensive and rather difficult to obtain. Another

element that Corbin Hill addresses is the disappearance

of small family owned farms. Smaller farms are gradually

disappearing and getting replaced by larger corporate

controlled farms. The distance of farms to city cores also

grows as urbanization spreads. In New York State the

population has been steadily growing while the number

of farmers has been reducing. An ever-greater control

is the case. Tyson effectively controls the produc-

tion of chickens in the USA, while Monsanto has an

enormous hold on the growth of crops by the distribution

of patented seeds. Corbin Hill creates an alternative to

corporate controlled agriculture and provides benefits for

all partners involved. Reducing the gap between produc-

tion and consumption could be a solution to the creating

of new relations between urban and rural. (Gottlieb and

Joshi, 2010, p35) ,(Alkon and Agyeman, 2011, p315),

(NYC council, 2009, p2)

Urban agriculture itself is more focused on the actual

production of food in the city. Urban agriculture can

become a driver of sustainable development for the ever-

growing urbanized territories. In the global south, food

security becomes an important issue when considering

urban agriculture. Urban food security can be seen as

the requirement and right to have access to sufficient and

nutritious food to sustain a healthy life. In some contexts

the issue is not so much about providing the quantity of

food, but securing the accessibility of food. Urban agri-

culture is often a way for people to become more self-

sufficient and gain a level of food security.

Urban agriculture is a practice that can be temporary but

permanent urban agriculture in Africa provides sustain-

reason for Urban Agriculture is not a temporary

but rather based on more permanent motivations

In her research on urban agriculture in the Town

Cape Town, Shirley Dunn summarizes the motiva

urban agriculture as:

Occupation keeping busy during the day

Love of farming and family culture of farming

Exercise and health

Interacting with others and sharing problems

Improving the community

(Dunn, 2008, p3)

74

of communities and organisations whose leaders haveprovide an alternative to drug use and criminality. Often systems. As highlighted in the case study of the


40/104

felt marginalized by white-dominated organisations and

communities (Alkon and Agyeman, 2011, p159)

The food justice movement and urban agriculture projects

which often carry the same ideology; are in some cases

conscious attempts to reduce racial discrimination.

(Viljoen, 2005, p57)

Economical benefits

One of the things that can be seen as a clear advantage

of urban agriculture is that it focuses itself on the local

needs. It allows goods that might otherwise be poorly

accessible to people to become accessible. A large

element of this is food sec urity, for some people nutritious

might be unaffordable and urban agriculture provides a

solution to obtaining a sufficient amount of food. A large

part of the economical benefit lies in the reduction of

costs of society that is creating by other benefits of urban

agriculture.

The focus of urban agriculture is also to stimulate t he local

economy. Urban farms provide jobs and skill training to

local residents. In many cases the urban agriculture is

linked to alternative forms of distribution, which often

include systems where the cost is relative to income.

In this urban agriculture provides a system that creates

viable local businesses and provides more socially just

young people end up on the streets, because of a lack of

occupation and no family structure.

Urban food production can play a major role in reducing

discrimination. Although urban agriculture is often seen

as a middleclass activity; there are many great examples

of urban agriculture being used to empower people and

counteracting discrimination. Gender, race and class

discrimination is present in cities all over the world.

Food production can be a way to express an identity;

this could be through the growing of culturally significant

crops. In an interview with an Mexican immigrant in New

York, Margarito stated I really like this garden, we grow

food here, it reminds me of Mexico where my grandpar-

ents used to have such a garden when I was young. I n

the garden in Sunset Park, a part Mexican, part Chinese

neighbourhood in New York he had found something

of his own country and a space where he could be

free in spite of being an illegal resident. (Interview with

Margarito, 12-04-2012)

Often led by people of colour, food justice organisations

see dismantling racism as part of food security. By taking

an explicitly racial approach, the food justice moves

away from the colour-blind perspective The food

justice approach aligns itself directly with the interest

Hill farm earlier there is a level of social inclusion

linked to the economical benefits of urban agr

In her research on the social benefits of urban

ture Dunn finds that it is fascinating that all of the

she interviewed give away produce to people

community on a regular basis. The products o

given to neighbours or family, but also to those w

the greatest need for them such as elderly and

children. (Dunn, 2008, p3),(Viljoen, 2005, p57-59

Health benefits

One of the benefits of urban agriculture is that it

knowledge about food to the city. In many ca

growing of food educates people about the sea

and the origin of products. Knowledge about th

and production process can foster a healthier an

nutritious diet.

Urban agriculture is an outdoor activity that

physical labour, which can be perceived as good

health. On the other hand there are also menta

benefits that come from actively participating in

activities. In the hearth of Detroit city there is

farming project that is linked to a recovery ce

homeless and alcoholics; here an urban farm is

a rehabilitation tool.

76


41/104

Manifestations of Urban Agriculture78

production. The right crops and techniques couldUrban agriculture in New York


42/104

produce a significant amount of food and provide

economically viable options.

New York has a range of existing productive spaces that

provide good examples of the benefits and potential of

productive urban spaces. In the city there are over a

thousand community gardens and around 30 farming

projects that all produce food. The quantity that is

produced by these spaces is very hard to determine,

there contribution to the city nonetheless hard to deny. A

number of cases have been chosen because they illus-

trate the links and benefits possible.

The potential of urban food production is questionable,

it will never be possible for cities to be self sufficient in

their food production. Urban centers will always depend

on rural areas that produce food. A city as densely

populated as New York is therefore an interesting case to

highlight what the potentials of food production in cities

could be. A recent study by the design lab of Columbia

University identified nearly 5000 acres of vacant land that

has potential for farming. In New York urban agriculture

is a hot topic and as in many American cities there is a

renewed interest in food production.

The study states: Urban agriculture is undergoing a

renaissance due to a confluence of factors. Most impor-

tantly, it lies at the nexus of a variety of issues which are

seen as critical to the ongoing sustainability and livability

of our urban environments: public health, healthy food

access, green space, air and water quality, economic

development, and community engagement. (Urban

Designlab,2011)

The spaces identified for urban agriculture range from

vacant land, both publicly and privately owned, to

rooftops, which have the potential of supporting food

(Peters et al., 2008. ) (New York City Depart

80

Brooklyn Grange garden being rented as an event space. Anothe


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Commercial Rooftop Farm

Brooklyn Grange is named as one the largest rooftop

farms in the world, 40,000 square feet of soil based urban

agriculture. The farm is located in Queens on top of an

office building, formerly an industrial building. Brooklyn

Grange leases the rooftop for a period of ten years, the

enterprise had their first growing season in 2010.

Analysis

The project has a range of environmental benefits in

addition to the greening of the city. The project creates a

year round vegetation with winter planting and in the rest

of the year a diversity of plants is allowed to flourish. An

interesting component of the garden is a side project of

bee keeping. An active raising and promoting of bees is

crucial for the pollination of plants in the city. One of the

clear benefits of a rooftop farm is the retention of rain

water, a part solution to the problems of the outdated

sewer system in New York.

Brooklyn Grange has managed to cover its operating

costs in their first year of business. One of the reasons

for its success could be the diversity of its activities and

the direct supplying of consumers. The farm supplies a

range of high-end produce directly to restaurants and

has a CSA distribution to the surrounding neighbor-

hood. The cooperation with restaurants extends into the

Brooklyn Grange (Authors, 2012)

the success can be found in the internship prog

students work on the farm during the summer a

urban farming skills.

Although providing the farm with extra help whe

is needed most, the educating of young stude

crucial contribution of the farm to the cit y. The kn

of urban agriculture is very limited in a city as N

and spreading of knowhow can be seen as an im

task. In addition the farm gives children fro

schools tours, aimed at teaching kids how food g

Conclusion

Rooftop Farms have a great potential, old in

buildings have a large footprint and structures

82

Red Hook Community Farm and Added The farm is an educational space as much as a


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Value (farm as community organization)

Added Value describes itself as a non-profit organization

promoting the sustainable development of Red Hook by

nurturing a new generation of young leaders. A socially

oriented farming project is used to empower the local

youth of Red Hook. The project began in 2000 as a

reaction against the lack of educational opportunities for

youth in Red Hook.

Analysis

Red Hook is a neighborhood in Brooklyn that is slightly

cut off from the metro system. This has resulted in an

area, which besides a lot of empty spaces, also has a

large number of green and public spaces. The farm

however provides an alternative space that is safe for the

youth of the neighborhood.

The farm provides a crucial access to healthy food in the

neighborhood. In the time the ten years they have been

operating the farm has produced food, which has been

sold, donated and consumed locally. Even more powerful

then the revenue that is generated, is the link that the Red

Hook Community farm forms between farmers and local

businesses and people. Through several projects such

as a farmers market, a CSA and restaurant partnerships

the farm has brought both health and economic pros-

perity to the Red Hook neighborhood.

Red Hook Community Farm (Authors, 2012)

tive space. Workshops are organized for more

thousand students annually and continuous edu

programs are provided for elementary school c

In addition to the educational values that are be

the farm works with a large number of volunteer

volunteers donate their time to the farm, but also

pate in neighborhood improvement.

Youth Farming (Added Value, 2012)

84

Urban Meadow a two day festival.


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(community garden linked to CSA)

Urban meadow is community garden located in Red

Hook on the corner of one of the blocks near the harbor

waterfront.

Analysis

Urban Meadow provides a unique space in the neighbor-

hood. A large part of the space is a grass field, only a

small portion of the garden is productive space, hence

the name of the community garden.

The garden functions as a CSA distribution point, this

provides members and participants with an additional

amount of produce on top of those that are produced in

the garden. This gives the residents access to cheaper

produce.

The environmental and economical benefits are that

Urban Meadows provides to the neighborhood are

limited, the greater its power as a social space. Parks

in the neighborhood surrounding the community garden

are all hard surfaces. The garden is the only semi-public

space with a permeable surface. In weekends the

garden is a pole of activity with people gardening, having

barbecues and kids playing. The garden is also the

location of the neighborhood festival, the Red Hook Jazz

Festival. A free festival that has been organized for the

past five years and features upcoming Jazz musicians in

Urban Meadow (authors, 2012)

Conclusion

The space that a community garden provides is

public, nor private. Urban Meadow shows tha

spaces often have the potential of hosting a

far more divers then those related to urban agr

Productive spaces are potential alternatives to pa

streets, spaces where activities that are not all

the official public realm can take place and are

important infrastructure for a community.

86

Robertas garden


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(urban garden/farm with restaurant)

Robertas is a popular restaurant in Bushwick. A few

years ago, the owner decided to start growing vegetables

on containers and is planters in the back of the restau-

rant. Robertas is an interesting case as it can be seen

as an effect or instigator of the change that is happening

in Bushwick on the edge of Williamsburg. The neighbor-

hood has been slowly changing from industrial ware-

houses to lofts and now is a mix of industry and young

hipsters. (Brooklyn, New York)

Analysis

The environmental component of this small space is

rather limited.

Economically having a garden linked to a restaurant

makes sense, some products are very expensive or

hard to source. The growing of specific products makes

economically sense. Furthermore, working with unique

products gives a restaurant an edge on the competition.

The way productive space could be viable in areas where

food is readily accessible, is by promoting the unique-

ness of the product and marketing this to a public which

is prepared trying alternatives.

One of the interesting things about Robertas is that it

hosts a radio studio. The heritage network is a internet

radio that is themed around food, in this way knowledge

Robertas farm (www.robertasgrows.com, 2012)

and information surrounding food and agricu

spread in New York city. An intern program in the

similar to that of Brooklyn Grange both provid

labour as well as spreading knowledge.

Conclusion

Chefs are always looking for fresh and unique p

In cities most restaurants rely on suppliers. The h

approach of Robertas, supplementing the norma

sition of food, is interesting and provides benef

the visitors of the restaurant. When considerin

agriculture it is important to find an embedded

the functions a space is linked to. In this way eve

residual spaces can become an asset in a net

urban food production.

Robertas farm (www.robertasgrows.co

Restaurant party at farm (www.robertasgrows.co

88

Georgias Place

(S d t F d R ft F )

limited. The greening of the roof can be seen as the main

environmental contribution of the farm In a city as dense


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(Seed to Feed Rooftop Farm)

Georgias Place is permanent supportive housing for

formerly homeless, mentally ill adults. A farm is located

on top of the complex located in the Crown Heights

neighborhood of Brooklyn, NY. A rooftop farm is linked

here to the supportive housing.

Analysis

The environmental benefits of the space can be seen as

environmental contribution of the farm. In a city as dense

as New York every piece of green space can be seen as

valuable.

The Farm has a benefit for the supportive housing as a

space that is used for activities with residents. In addition

to the benefit that the farm gives to Georgias Place, the

housing complex also provides a space for a local CSA.

The Crown Heights farm share uses Georgias place as a

distribution point for the vegetables that are deliv

Sang Lee Farms.

The rooftop farm is used to teach the resid

Georgias place the art of food cultivation - from

harvest. The rooftop farm is a link between the su

Georgias place (seedstofeedrooftopfarm.tumblr.com, 2

Resident gardening (David Watts, 2010)

90

Urban agriculture in Sunset Park


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Navy Yard Farm (Brooklyn Gran

As in the rest New York urban agriculture is fo

number of different spaces. There are two com

gardens in Sunset Park and one urban rooftop fa

two community gardens have been around for

and are thriving public spaces.

The Navy Yard rooftop farm has only been activ

the end of spring in 2012. The farm is having

growing season and based on the limited info

available appears to be prospering. The capita

construction of the greenroof was attained by

infrastructure subsidy provided by the city of Ne

The space is leased for a 10 year period and prov

extra income for the owner of the building.

The amount of urban agriculture projects is

working with the urban gardens in sunset park

clearly see the enthusiasm and drive that the m

bring to gardens and the neighborhood.

92

La Granja Los Colibries

(gardenlinkedtoa communityorganiz


49/104

(garden linked to a community organizStarted in 2010 La Granja Los Colibries is

community garden in Sunset Park Brooklyn. Th

was started by the youth group of La Union, a ne

hood organization dealing with Social Justice. L

members wished to have a space where the

educate and be educated about food justice

effects in their neighborhood, while making a

contribution.

Analysis

Since the plot of the garden was previously a va

used by drug dealers and gangs, the transform

the garden into a community garden is significa

effect of the garden spreads beyond the plot

transformation of the backyards surrounding the

taken place.

The community garden provides healthy org

grown vegetables and eggs to the members

produce would otherwise not be affordable.

Neighborhood organizations bring together peo

similar necessities or visions, in the case of La

unites Mexicans around issues of social justice an

gration. The community garden provides a spac

the organization reaches out to the entire neighb

94

64thstreet community garden


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The 64thstreet community garden was created

and has since been a flourishing space. It is loc

a plot of land owned by the Transportation dep

along the Gowanus Expressway. The garden is

in Sunset Park, an immigrant neighborhood in B

New York. The garden is a sizeable plot betw

remainder of a block and the expressway, a

space.

Analysis

The environmental benefit of 64th street com

garden can be described as the transformati

polluted space into a productive garden. The p

used as a dump for car wrecks and a range of g

The garden now has a variety of vegetables g

garden beds. Apart from this the garden has a v

trees, bushes and flowers, which contribute to th

versity of the city. This is particularly importan

considers the limited green and public spaces

pollution in Sunset Park.

The garden works on a non-for-profit basis, the

doesnt provide any economic benefit, except

vegetables that the members are able to grow

funding has been acquired by the garden, b

expenses are covered by garden members.

96

Conclusion


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A community garden linked to extra curricular activi-

ties with local schoolchildren creates a volunteer based

space, which greatly contributes the surrounding city.

The combination of an afterschool program and a

community garden makes for a space that is very much

embedded in the neighborhood and contributes mostly

in social factors.

98

1 $ spentgAlternative food supply for sunset park shorter. In the current food system only nineteen centsfrom every dollar spent go to the farmer. Urban agriculture


52/104

Farm val

Farm va

value s

urban

farming

feedingco

mmunity

current

foodsystem

The different case studies illustrate the great diversity in

spaces of urban agriculture. There are two main types of

urban agriculture: the first is urban farms and the second

are community gardens. Urban agriculture is a viable

economic activity because it manages to reduce some

of the costs embedded in the corporate food system. By

producing food locally the supply chain gets significantly

reduces the cost of transportation, packaging and the

overhead costs. As a result farmers receive 35.5 cents

for every dollar spent on food. Additionally urb an farming

using local labour and distributing produce locally would

allow for 82.5 cents of every dollar spent to stay in the

community. The most benefits are realized when urban

farming and gardening are integrated. In this case we

have to ask where we can position urban farming and

community gardens.

100

Rooftop farms


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1 $ spentgoing to the communi

Lab

or

Packa

gin

g

Transp

ortatio

n

Energy

Profit

s

Adve

rtisin

g

Depreciation

R

I

Farm value19

Farm value 35,5

value staying in community 82,5 Value local labour 38 & 9

total surface: 201.4Yield per sqm: 5.3

urbanfar

ming

feedingcomm

unity

current

foodsystem

Yield Rooftop faharvest: 1.084.087 revenue: 1.415.748

the

102


54/104

Vacant land holds a great potential for urba

production. As earlier illustrated the vacant land

York is significant. The study for the Centre for R

in Brooklyn has revealed spread out vacant plo

fabric of Sunset Park. Many of these plots are ba

provide little to the surrounding residents or bus

A significant number of this land is found wit

dential blocks and holds the potential to be com

gardens. Communal green spaces could be

within the building blocks to produce fresh veg

and fruit for the residents around the plot.104


55/104

The brownfield sites form the biggest potential

urban agriculture in Sunset Park. Although the

front was once a thriving industrial area it has

decline for some years now. The industrial land s

a significant value for economic activities, but urb

culture could be integrated in the redevelopment

sites. The new industries that are being locat ed in

Park might not require the extensive infrastruct

immense plots that are now found at the waterf

the edges of the industry sites residual spaces

found. These have a green character yet are inac

and serve no purpose. Some parts of the w

are vulnerable to flooding, in these areas urban

could provide an alternative use of the land.

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The street infrastructure in Sunset Park, as i

parts of New York, is organised in a very strong g

avenues have the commercial functions and pro

connections within the city. The streets are re

and only allow unidirectional traffic. One could ar

the street infrastructure is oversized as New yor

very extensive public transport network. All the

have double lanes even though they are unidir

and parking space is provided at both sides of th

The sections illustrate the potential of reducing

oriented street sections. By reducing the am

lanes and parking, green and pedestrian space

enrich the urban fabric. The avenues in S unset P

provide a different potential.

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4th Av

6thAv 7thAv

3rdAV

2nd Av1st Av

8thAv

First Avenue (autho

Third Avenue (autho

The bus on Fifth Avenue (autho

110

research available suggests that community gardens can

yield about 1.2 pounds per square feet (12.9 pounds per Rooftops to farmstotal surface: 201.43

Total potential of Urban agriculture in

Sunset Park


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square meter). In practice, urban farms such as Brooklyn

Grange aim for a yield of 0.5 pounds per square feet (5.4

pounds per square meter).

The average person in the United Stat es consumes about

154.5 pounds of fresh vegetables and 103.3 pound of

fresh fruit per year. Considering that some fruit and vege-

tables are more efficiently grown in warmer regions or are

less suited to be produced in the city, the need for fresh

fruit and vegetables of one person is about 258 pounds

per year.

If the rooftops, vacant plots, street infrastructure and

brownfields were to be turned into productive land, urban

agriculture could produce a yield in Sunset park that

provides fresh fruit and vegetables for 12,900 persons.

Yield per sq m: 5.4 l

Vacant land to comtotal surface: 14.404Yield per sq m: 12.9

Brown fields to urbatotal surface: 937.85

Yield per sq m: 5.4 l

Street to communittotal surface: 1.399.Yield per sq m: 12.9

To consider the total potential of urban agriculture,

one should consider that the potential for urban food

production lies mostly in the growing of vegetables. This

is reflected in the current practices of urban farming and

gardening, where most productive spaces focus on the

production of vegetables. In some cases one can find

some poultry, in urban settings although this can provide

some noise and sent hindrance. In many cases the choice

for growing vegetables also comes from lack of fresh

and qualitative produce available at reasonable prices.

There is fairly little information available on the amount

of produce urban gardening can provide. The limited

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Urban agriculture creating inclusive

spaces

The design focusses itself on the itegration of

ture in four types of spaces. The four spaces ha

derived from the analysis of potential land: vaca

brownfields, rooftops and street infrastructure. Th

formation of these spaces into productive units

aim of creating an environment with more oppo

for the local redidents of Sunset Park. The deve

of the different productive spaces aim s at the fo

contributions described below. To a certain deg

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116


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costco

118

Bush Terminal rooftop farms residents in Sunset Park.

In addition to the transformation of rooftops, the urban

farms could provide an alternative for the underutilised


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The Bush terminal buildings hold a true potential for

urban rooftop farming. The buildings are large industrial

warehouses with big roof surfaces and strong solid struc-

tures. As is shown by other examples of rooftop farming,

there are government incentives to create rooftop

farms to reduce rainwater run off. The rooftop farms

add economic value to the buildings at the waterfront,

while potentially creating jobs for low skilled immigrant

farms could provide an alternative for the underutilised

space surrounding the industrial warehouses. The trans-

formation of the spaces around the warehouse creates a

connection between the neighborhood and the rooftop

farms, integrating food production in the urban fabric of

Sunset Park. The rooftop farms are valuable educational

spaces that allow the youth of Sunset Park to experience

the growing of produce.

120

A new public space


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Urban agriculture is a practice that can create sp

human interaction. In Sunset Park the street infras

reduction combined with the vacant lots can be

by the implementation of urban agriculture. Urb

culture can stimulate a first transformation, whic

tually could lead to the integration of rainwater ru

a stronger pedestrian network. Urban gardening

kick-start activity that eventually draws people in

instead of cars. One of the biggest continuing

transformed in the proposal is 3rd avenue, whic

be transformed into a connector between the w

and the residential part of Sunset Park. Additio

network of softer spaces in between the resident

could provide interaction space for the growing

tion of Sunset Park, who often have very limited

and living space.

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124

From brownfield to green infrastruct


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TThe waterfront site integrates urban agricultu

system of rainwater runoff canals and a dyke to

the site from flooding. The site acts as the distrib

the axis car rental company. The site is a huge

plane with a vast number of cars stored on the p

A new recycling plant is being installed on the ed

site and a railway line is being reinstated as a con

for both axis and the recycling plant to the city.

The site is located in the lowest part of the Suns

waterfront and is most vulnerable to flooding

agriculture is integrated in the site as part of th

management. Farming could take place on the e

the drainage canals and retention lakes, as we

dykes. Also, it could provide in the maintenanc

new water infrastructure in return for being able

crops on the edges of it.

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128


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Urban food production is an emerging practice

is aimed at countering the inequalities in the

city. The global food system creates local dispar

urban food production offers possible solution

are environmental, economical and social ben

be gained from productive spaces in the city. A

range of productive spaces could benefit the cvariety of ways. Urban agriculture provides the

bility to generate a positive change in areas ne

by traditional development. There is a p otential o

rich urban fabric, if we can integrate urban food

tion into spaces and relate it to other urban proble

The proposal has explored the possibilities of

urban spaces, such as large rooftops, brownfie

vacant plots and oversized street infrastruct

spaces were urban agriculture can be embedded

agriculture is a practice that is able to take l

spaces and turns them into valuable community

By occupying the residual and abandoned space

agriculture has the potential of producing mo

vegetables, it starts structuring the city fabric

agriculture can transform individual spaces, how

Urban agriculture an alternative

production130


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132

the legacy oPRODUCTIVE P

from gfrom g

from global pstimu

from gDynamics o

Dynamics


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134 Historical Industrial LandscapesIntroduction

The waterfront in 1989 a thriving waterfront (Winnick 1990)


70/104

136

the lack of other jobs within the area, has brought the

borough to get into deeper decline and impoverishment

(Winnick 1990 p.77-82). Nowadays the neighborhood is

still an attractive living place for current waves of legal

and illegal immigrants to the city.

Decades ago, industrial growth brought reputation of

economic development for the neighborhood, but along

with industrial development came a huge environmental

crisis for the entire New York city the environmental

impacts were evidently more severe for the inhabitants

of the industrial harbor area (Sze, 2007). Nowadays,

industrial legacies have left their marks on the surrounding

environment with increased levels of contaminants in

the air, soil, sediments and aquatic systems causing

environmental degradation and health problems.

Recognizing these environmental burdens necessitate

looking for more transformative projects and at the

same time community based solutions to reflect local

inhabitants demands. Moreover the industrial waterfront

is reconfirmed as industrial zone by the city of New York

During the booming economy of the mid-90s, increasing

rental costs pushed garment factories more to the city

edges and out of the Midtown garment district and (the

once comparably cheaper) Manhattan Chinatown. As

a consequent, these factories began to get settled in

Sunset Park where first and foremost the price of land

was cheaper and secondly they could have direct access

to the water for shipment of their goods and cargos and

finally the majority of the employees of the factories

were residing in Sunset Park (Winnick 1990 p.77-82).

At its peak, 300 garment factories provided occupation

for the local immigrant population. The area around

the waterfront was known for its employees within the

industrial area (Brooklyn Community Board 7, 2007).

Due to the backdrop of the garment industry and the

high costs to maintain manufacturing industries there has

been a decline in job opportunities, resulting in scarcity

of jobs and making employees vulnerable and dependent

to their current employers.

Although this backdrop of the industries, during the

Great Depression and after the Second World War, and

(Department of City Planning, 2011) on the oth

since its decline it is still struggling and searching

economical impulses. Considering economic

high dependency of the poor class neighb

workers to job-opportunities, lack of good living

of the neighborhoods in the vicinity of the wa

and its potentials, emerges a need to rethink/ re

the future of the waterfront. Now the current tre

bring new clean industries within the area with

on smaller offices (Department of City Planning

which will have the tendency to attract a new

urbanites from Manhattan, with a new potential re

shift, which could potentially start displacing the

inhabitants of Sunset Park and result in gentrific

The waterfont has had a major importance in t

because of its strategic location. Therefor

infrastructures were implemented in the vic

the waterfront (see map 1). Furthermore the m

describing the current importance of Sunset Pa

bigger New York City region and its railway co

which is now left neglected.

An industry in ruin (Winni

to albanyto albany to providence

Map 1: REGIONAL CONTEXT


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Sunset Park

New YorkContainer Terminal

Jersey - PortAuthority Marine

Terminal Red HookContainer Terminal

Port Newark

Elizabeth - PortAuthority Marine

Terminal

to allentown, paand points west

to trentonand points south

138

Significant Maritimeand Industrial Areas

Industrial Business ZonesMarine Container Terminals

Major roadbased transport networkNYC rail proposal on existing rail

NYC Freight rail proposal20 4

each ton of freight carried by rail produces at least 80% less carbon dioxide

than if moved by road, and a small train replaces roughly 30 truck trips.

(Map based on: Department of City Planning, 2011)

Environmental Justice movement has been taken into

account as the start point of the

Documents

Urbanism of Inclusion, Sunset Park