UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MICROMORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SAPROLITES FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT

CHNG LOI PENG

FP 2002 3

EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MICROMORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SAPROLITES FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT

By

CHNG LOI PENG

Thesis Submitted in Fu lfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the Faculty of Agriculture

Universiti Putra Malaysia

May 2002

DEDICATION

To:

My mother; and my family members; and Ms Low Set Choo

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfi l lment of the requirement of the degree of Master of Agricultural Science

EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MICROMORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SAPROLITES FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT

By

CHNG LOI PENG

May 2002

Chairman : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hamdan Jol

Faculty : Agriculture

Saprolite is defined as soft, massive, friable, isovolumetrically weathered bedrock

that retains the fabric and structure of the parent rock (Pavich , 1 986). It is the

transitional material between hard rock and the solum and has characteristics of

both the parent rock below and the soil above it (Daniels et al., 1 984). Saprol ite

is currently being used for the on-site treatment and disposal of household

wastewater (Vepraskas et al. , 1 996) and storage of some radioactive wastes

(Vepraskas and Williams, 1 995). Due to extensive housing development, suitable

soils for septic systems are being depleted (Schoeneberger et al. , 1 995) . Thus, a

greater demand is being placed on the use of saprolite for wastewater disposal

purposes.

The objectives of th is study are (1 ) to study the physical and micromorphological

characteristics of different saprol ites, (2) to study the saturated hydraul ic

conductivity of different saprolites, and (3) to correlate the saturated hydraulic

conductivity with the physical characteristics and develop models to predict Ksat

for different type of saprolites for wastewater treatment.

IV

The hydraulic conductivity was carried out in the laboratory using metal core rings

(7.62 cm internal diameter x 4 cm long) and double-ring infiltrometer were used in

situ . To determine the physical properties, standard method is employed for the

particle size distribution, bulk density, particle density, total porosity, penetration

resistance, and water retention capability. Micromorphology and scanning electron

microscopy were used to observe the microfabrics. The pore size distribution

was analyzed using an image analyzer and pore shape was also determined .

The result obtained from this study shows that granite saprol ite has the highest

hydraulic conductivity, while basalt saprol ite has the lowest hydraulic conductivity

value in both laboratory and in situ methods. There are several factors that govern

the K , namely the clay and sand content, porosity, pore shape and pore sizes. sat

Both pore size and shape analysis influenced the Ksat' especially the mesopores,

Me (30 � 75 um) and macropores, Me (> 75 um) and vugh and channel shapes. A

l inear equation was derived from al l the data obtained from the saprolites. The

best model to predict the Ksat of saprol ites is:

Ksat = 1 6.859 - 0 . 1 82 etc - 0 . 1 83 ewp - 0 . 1 28 Si + 0 . 1 1 2 MOist

whereby, etc and ewp

is the moisture content retained at 9.8 kPa (field capacity)

and 1 500 kPa (permanent wilting point), Si is the silt content, and MOist is the air

dried moisture content, respectively.

The results obtained from the micromorphology, generally agreed with the results

obtained from the physical properties. Granite saprolites has a higher coarse

materials than other saprol ites. It has spongy to intergrain to intergrain channel

microstructure. The presence of weathering "resistant" minerals such as feldspar

and quartz are abundant. Basalt saprol ites, the reverse micromorphology

characterics of granite was observed.

v

From this study, shale and basalt saprolites can be used for on-site wastewater

treatment because of its slow to very slow rate (approximately 0.2 - 0.4 cm hr-1 )

that provides ample time for bacteria and viruses to be removed from the effluent

by filtration or adsorption onto particle surfaces and ample time for organic to

stabilize the wastewater. The granite and schist saprolite can also be used for on­

site wastewater treatment if modifications are made by adding a low permeabil ity

base (a composite l iner) and a protective filter layer over the high permeability

material (USEPA, 1 988).

The use of wastewater instead of distilled water and study of the chemical reactions

or chemical characteristics in future studies should be done. It is to determine the

true capability of these saprolites for wastewater treatment.

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains

PENILAIAN CIRI-CIRI FIZIKAL DAN MIKROMORFOLOGI SAPROLIT UNTUK PROSES RAWATAN AIR BUANGAN

Oleh

CHNG LOI PENG

Mei 2002

Pengerusi : Prof. Madya Dr. Hamdan Jol

Fakulti : Pertanian

Saprolit ditakrifkan sebagai lembut, rapuh , isoisipadu batuan terluluhawa yang

mengekalkan fabrik dan struktur bahan induknya (Pavich , 1 986). la merupakan

bahan transisi di antara batuan dan solum dan mempunyai ciri kedua-dua bahan

induk di bawah dan tanah diatasnya (Daniels et a/. , 1 984). Saprolit kini sedang

digunakan untuk proses pembuangan air buangan perumahan secara setempat

(Vepraskas et a/. , 1 996) dan penyimpanan bahan radioaktif (Vepraskas dan

Wil l iams, 1 995). Disebabkan oleh pembangunan perumahan yang pesat, tanah

yang sesuai untuk sistem septik adalah berkurangan (Schoeneberger et a/., 1 995).

Maka, bertambahlah permintaan untuk rawatan air buangan pada bahan saprolit.

Objektif kajian ini ialah ( 1 ) untuk mengkaji ciri-ciri fizikal dan mineralogikal ke

atas jenis-jenis saprolit (2) untuk mengkaji konduksi hidraulik tepu (Ksat) ke atas

jenis-jenis saprolit, dan (3) untuk menghubung-kait di antara konduksi hidraul ik

tepu dengan ciri-ciri fizikalnya dan menerbitkan persamaan untuk jenis-jenis

saprolit untuk rawatan air buangan .

VI I

Hidraul ik konduktiviti tepu ditentukan di makmal dengan menggunakan gelang

besi (7 .62 cm diameter dalaman x 4 cm panjang) dan double-ring infiltrometer

digunakan in-situ . Untuk mengkaji ciri-ciri fizika l , cara piawaian digunakan untuk

menentukan tekstur, ketumpatan pukal , ketumpatan jisim, jumlah liang-liang, dan

tahap pemegangan air. Mikromorfologi dan elektron mikroskop digunakan untuk

menghayati mikrofabriknya . Tabu ran saiz l iang-l iang dija lankan dengan

menggunakan penganalisis imej dan bentuk l iang-liang juga ditentukan.

Keputusan diperolehi dalam kajian ini menunjukkan granit saprolit mempunyai

tahap Ksat yang paling tinggi , manakala basalt saprolit mempunyai Ksat yang

terendah di dalam ujikaji di makmal dan in situ . Terdapat beberapa faktor yang

mempengaruhi Ksat' iaitu peratusan lempung dan pasir, jumlah liang-liang, bentuk

dan saiz l iang- l iang . Ked ua-d ua saiz dan bentu k l iang-l iang d i dapati

mempengaruhi Ksat' terutamanya meso-l iang, Me (30.$ 751lm) dan makro-l iang,

Me (>75 Ilm) , bentuk vugh dan channel. Satu persamaan l inear telah diperolehi

daripada kesemua data-data daripada saprolit. Persamaan yang terbaik untuk

menjangka K t saprolit ialah: sa

Ksat = 1 6 .859 - 0. 1 82 etc - 0 . 1 83 ewp - 0 . 1 28 Si + 0 . 1 1 2 MOist

di mana, etc dan efC ialah kandungan kelembapan pad a kapasiti muatan , 9.8 kPa

dan 1 500 kPa (takat kelayuan maksima), S. kandungan kelodak, dan M I oist

kandungan kelembapan kering udara.

Pad a amnya, pemerhatian dari segi mikromorfologi adalah selaras dengan

keputusan yang diperoleh daripada sifat fizikal saprolit. Granit saprolit mempunyai

lebih banyak bahan kasar berbanding dengan saprolit yang lain. la mempunyai

ciri sponge ke intergrain channel mikrostruktur. la juga mempunyai mineral yang

"tahan" lu luhawa banyak seperti feldspar dan kuartz. Untuk basalt saprolit ,

pemerhatian mikromorfologi adalah terbalik berbanding dengan granit saprol it.

VI I I

Daripada kajian in i , saprolit syel dan basalt boleh digunakan untuk proses

perawatan air buangan secara on-site kerana mempunyai nilai �at yang perlahan

kepada amat perla han (Iebih kurang 0.2 - 0.4 cm jam-1) yang memberi lebih masa

kepada penyingkiran bakteria dan virus daripada efluen secara penapisan atau

penyerapan ke atas partikel. Granit dan schist saprolit juga boleh digunakan untuk

proses perawatan enapcemar secara on-site jika modifikasi secara penambahan

satu bahan asas yang mempunyai permeabiliti yang rendah pada bahagian dasar

(a composite liner) dan lapisan fi lter perlindungan ke atas permeabiliti yang tinggi

(USEPA, 1 988) .

Penggunaan air buangan patut digunakan selain daripada air sul ing, kajian ke

atas kesan kimia atau ciri-ciri kimia patut dijalankan pad a kajian pad a masa

depan. In i adalah untuk mengetahui kemampuan yang sebenar saprolit ke atas

air buangan.

IX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to acknowledge generous individuals whose valuable support made this

study a success and the completion of this thesis possible. I am immensely

indebted to them and my only means of repaying them is to express a heartfelt

gratitude and a sincere appreciation.

Foremost is to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Hamdan Jol, Chairperson

of the Supervisory Committee, who provided me scholarly insights, professional

guidance and knowledge, moral support and understanding when I needed them

the most. To Associate Professor Dr. Mohd. Mokhtaruddin Manan and Dr. Che

Fauziah Ishak, members of the Supervisory Committee, for their guidance,

understanding and constructive comments. Sincere appreciation also goes to

Associate Professor Dr. Siti Zauyah Darus, for her help, comments and guidance.

My sincere thanks.

Special thanks go to all lecturers, and laboratory staffs in the Department of Land

Management and especially to Pn. Pauziah in the Micromorphology laboratory,

for their invaluable help in the analyses of my samples. They well always be

remembered with gratitude.

To my friends, Mr. Neo Sye Peng , Mr. Tai Kin Leong, and other post graduate

students in the faculty, for their generosity and countless invaluable help which

made my work in the laboratory and field bearable and pleasant. I also wish to

thank all my friends especially, Mr. Lee Choon Keat, Mr. Yeoh See Hon , and Pak

Fauzi for their help, cooperation , support, and encouragement in my difficult and

depressing moment in finishing th is work.

X

I certify that an Examination committee met on 1 7th May 2002 to conduct the final examination of Chng loi Peng on his Master of Agricultural Science thesis entitled "Evaluation of Physical and Micromorphological Properties of Saprolites for Wastewater Treatment" in the accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1 980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulation 1 981 . The committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows:

JAMAL TALlB, Ph.D. Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman)

HAMDAN JOl, Ph .D . Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

MOHD. MOKHTARUDDIN ABDUL MANAN, Ph .D . Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

CHE FAUZIAH ISHAK, Ph .D . lecturer Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

SHAMSHER MOHAMAD RAMADILI, Ph.D. Professor/Deputy Dean, School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Date:

XI

This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as fulfil lment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science.

AIN I IDERIS, Ph.D. ProfessorlDean, School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Date: 12 SEP 1002

XI I

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which , have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.

CHNG LOI PENG

Date:

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

APPROVAL SHEETS

DECLARATION FORM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Tropical Geomorphology and Soils 2 .2 Peninsular Malaysia 2 .2 .1 Geomorphology of Peninsular Malaysia 2.2 .1.1 Introduction 2.2 .1 .2 Mountains 2.2 .1.3 Steep Hil ls 2.2 .1.4 Low Hills 2.2 .1.5 Coastal Plain 2.2.1 .6 Limestone Areas 2 .2 .1.7 Drainage 2.2.1.8 Deep Weathering 2.2 .1.9 Macro Landforms 2 .2 .2 Relief 2.2.3 Climate 2.2 .4 Temperature 2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 2.3 .1 Introduction 2.3.2 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 2.4 The Importance of Saturated Conductivity in Wastewater

Treatment Plant Design 2 .4 .1 Land Treatment of Wastewater 2 .5 Soil Physical Properties That Influences The Saturated

Hydraulic Conductivity for Wastewater Treatment

I I I VI IX X

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2.5 . 1 Texture 1 6 2.5.2 Rock Fragments 1 6 2.5.3 Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 1 8 2.5.4 Pore Shapes and Sizes in Relation to Water Movement 1 9 2.5.4 . 1 Classification of Pore Sizes 2 1 2.5.5 Effect of Wastewater on Soil/Saprol ite 22 2.5.5 . 1 Inorganic Compounds 22 2.5.5.2 Organic Compounds 24 2.6 Saprolite 25 2.6 . 1 Introduction 25 2.6.2 Morphology of Saprolite 26 2.6.3 Physical Properties of Saprolites 26 2.6.4 Saprolite Colour 27 2.7 Studies of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprol ites

for Wastewater Treatment 27 2.8 Multiple Linear Regression 28

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS 29

3 . 1 Location of Study 29 3.2 Sampling Procedures 30 3 .2 . 1 Morphological Zonation 30 3.2.2 Sampling of Saprolite Materials 30 3.3 Laboratory Analysis 32 3 .3 . 1 Preliminary Treatment of Bulk Samples 32 3.3.2 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 32 3.3.3 Particle Size Distribution 33 3 .3.4 Bulk Density 33 3.3.5 Particle Density 34 3.3.6 Total Porosity 35 3.3.7 Saprol ite-Water Retention Curve 35 3.3.8 Scanning Electron Microscopic Observations 36 3.3.9 Saprolite Thin Sections 36 3.3 . 1 0 Pore Size and Pore Shape Analysis by Using an Image

Analyzer 36 3 .4 Field Analysis 38 3.4. 1 Infiltration Rate 38 3.5 Statistical Analysis 38

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 40

4 . 1 4 . 1 . 1 4 . 1 .2 4 . 1 .3 4 . 1 .4 4.2 4.2 . 1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.3 4.4 4.5 4 .5 . 1

4.6 4.7

4.7 . 1 4.7.2 4.7.2 . 1 4.7.2.2

Morphological Characteristics 40 Granite Saprol ite 40 Schist Saprol ite 40 Shale Saprolite 42 Basalt Saprolite 42 Physical Properties of Saprolites Studied 44 Particle Size Distribution and Gravel Distribution 44 Bulk Density 46 Total Porosity and Moisture Content 47 Saprolite Water Retention Capabil ity 48 Pore Size and Pore Shape Distribution of Saprolites 50 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprol ites Studied 52 Micromorphology of Saprol ites 54 Qual itative Relationship Between Micromorphology and Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprolites 54 Scanning Electron Microscope Observations 60 The Relationship between Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity and Physical Properties of Saprol ite 60 Correlation Analysis 60 Regression Analysis 62 Regression Analysis of The Overall Saprolites Studied 64 Regression Analysis for Individual Saprolites Studied 66

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5 . 1

5.2

5.3 5.4

The Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of The Saprol ites Studied Influence of the Physical and Mineralogical Properties Towards the Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Multiple Linear Regression Recommendations

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

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LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

1 . Classification of hydraulic conductivity values (USEPA, 1 977) 1 4 2. Comparison of Site Characteristics for Land Treatment

Processes (USEPA, 1 977) 1 5 3. Terms for Describing Rock Fragments (Soil Survey Division

Staff, 1 993) 1 7 4. Different Classifications of Pores Based on Their Equivalent

Cyl indrical Diameter 23 5. Selected Physical Properties of Saprolites 45 6. Qualitative Relationship Between Micromorphology Properties

and Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprolites 55 7. Correlation Analysis Between The Physical Parameters and

Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Different Saprolites 63 8. Regression Model Summary of The Overall Saprolites Studied 65 9. The Summary of the Models Developed for Saprolites Studied 66

1 0. Regression Model Summary of The (a) Granite Saprolite, (b) Schist Saprolite, (c) Shale Saproltie, and (d) Basalt Saprol ite 67

Figures

1 . 2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

8(1 ) .

8(2).

9.

1 0 .

1 1 . 1 2.

1 3 .

14 .

1 5.

1 6.

1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9.

20.

LIST OF FIGURES

Rel ief of Peninsular Malaysia (Law, 1 970). Model of the micro-landforms in four test areas in Peninsular Malaysia (De Dapper, 1 985). Soil Water Characteristic Curves for Several Soils (Taylor and Ashcroft, 1 972). Schematic Diagram of Pore Shapes; i . Vughs; ii. Channels; iii. Planes (Ringrose-Voase ad Bul lock, 1 984) Morphological Zonation of a Weathering Profile (Zauyah, 1 986) Schematic diagram of the constant head method (Klute and Dirksen , 1 986) Shape measurements made on objects in ImagePro® Plus: (A) area shaded), (B) perimeter (dashed l ine), and (C) length (feret diameter: along major axis of object. The Locations of the Studied Saprolite; (a) and (b) Granite Saprolite, and (c) and (d) Schist Saprol ite Locations of the Studied Saprolite. (e) and (f) Shale Saprolite, and (g) and (h) Basalt Saprol ite The Pattern of Moisture Retention Characteristics of Saprol ites Studied The Mean Distribution of (A) Different Pore Size Classes, (B) Different Pore Shape Classes Infiltration Rate of Saprolites Conducted Insitu Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprolites in the laboratory Micromorphology of Granite Saprolite: (A) and (B) Spongy Microstructure at 1 0X; (C) and (D) Pedofeatures of Ferruginous Amorphous Materials of Pores at 63X. Micromorphology of Schist Saprol ite: (A) and (B) Spongy Microstructure at 1 0X; (C) and (D) Unaltered Quartz Grains and Some Black Nodules at 63X Micromorphology of Shale Saprolite: (A) and (B) Fissure Microstructure at 63X; (C) and (D) The Fine Materials are Dark Brown and Presence of Opaque Minerals at 63X Micromorphology of Basalt Saprol ite: (A) and (B) Fissure Microstructure at 1 0X; (C) and (D) The Opaque Minerals are Probably Hematite and Fe-gels, and The Pores are Sometimes Interconnected The Microfabric Characteristics of Studied Saprol ites at 500X "Booklets" of Kaolin ite in Basalt Saprol ite Variabil ity of The Observed Ksat and The Predicted Ksat of the Saprol ites Studied The Variabil ity of the Observed and Predicted Ksat of (a) Granite Saprolite; (b) Schist Saprolite; (c) Shale Saprolite; and (d) Basalt Saprol ite

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Soil is the weathered and unconsolidated outer layer of the earth's surface and is

one of the three natural reservoirs where toxic and refractory pollutants can

accumulate. The potential of a soil site for waste treatment may be determined in

part by the soil's physical and chemical characteristics. A soil is a complex

arrangement of primary minerals and organic particles that differ in composition ,

size, shape and arrangement. The pores or voids between the particles transmit

and retain air and water. The soil is capable of treating organic materials, inorganic

substances and pathogens in wastewater by acting as a filter, exchanger, adsorber

and a surface on which many chemical and biochemical processes may occur.

The combination of these processes acting on the wastewater as it passes through

the soil produces water of acceptable quality for discharge into the groundwater

under the proper conditions.

Approximately 18 million housing units or 25 % of all housing units in the US dispose

their wastewater using on-site wastewater treatment. These systems include a

variety of components and configurations. The most common is the septic tank or

soil adsorption system. Federal , state and local govemment have refocused their

attention on rural wastewater disposal and more particularly on wastewater system

affordable by the rural population. On-site systems are gaining recognition as a

viable wastewater management alternative that can provide excellent, reliable

service at a reasonable cost, while sti l l preserving environment quality (Soil

Conservation Service, 1 95 1 ) .

As the soil available for conventional septic systems decreases, onsite wastewater

disposal on saprolite is gaining popularity (Vepraskas and Will iams, 1 995). The

2

evaluation of saprolite for wastewater disposal includes measuring its saturated

hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) (Amoozegar et al. , 1 991 ) . The Ksat values can be used

to estimate the amount of land area needed for the disposal and treatment of

sewage. It is also used by hydrologists , water resources engineers and

environmental soil scientists to estimate the intemal drainage of soils, for designing

subsurface drainage and liquid waste disposal systems and for assessing non­

point source pollution (Mbagwu , 1 995) . Studies of hydrological properties and

erodibility of soils have, for long, been objectives of pedological research and are

available for soils from most parts of the world . In contrast, similar investigations

for saprolites and , particularly, of the whole regolith , referred to as a soil-saprolite

complex, are few (Scholten et al. , 1 997).

Saprolite is defined as soft, massive, friable, isovolumetrically weathered bedrock

that retains the fabric and structure of the parent rock (Pavich , 1 986) . It is the

transitional material between hard rock and the solum and has characteristics of

both the parent rock below and the soil above it (Daniels et al. , 1 984) . It retains

the original rock's structure, foliation and jointing , but its bulk density can be as

low as one-half that of the original rock (Pavich et al. , 1 989). Saprol ite is easily

crushed to sand , silt and clay sized particles (Schoeneberger and Amoozegar,

1 990).

In Peninsular Malaysia, saprolite is exposed near to the surface as a result of

water erosion and occasional landslipping (Whitmore and Burnham, 1 969;

Burnham, 1 989) and mechanical land clearing and deep terracing during the early

stages of steep land preparation for perennial crops cultivation (Burnham, 1 989).

Eswaran and Wong ( 1 978) observed that the roots of perennial crops such as

rubber and oil palm, planted on bench-terraces, are frequently growing in the

saprolite.

3

Saprolite is currently being evaluated for the on-site treatment and disposal of

household wastewater (Vepraskas et al. , 1 996) and storage of some radioactive

wastes (Vepraskas and Williams, 1 995). Due to extensive housing development

with on-site wastewater disposal systems in the rural areas (Hoover and

Amoozegar, 1 988), su itable soils for septic systems are being depleted

(Schoeneberger et al. , 1 995). Thus, a greater demand is being placed on the use

of saprolite for wastewater disposal purposes.

The objectives of this study are ( 1 ) to study the physical and micromorphological

characteristics of d ifferent saprolites, (2) to study the saturated hydrau lic

conductivity of different saprolites, and (3) to correlate the saturated hydraulic

conductivity with the physical characteristics and develop models to predict Ksat

for different type of saprolites for wastewater treatment.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Tropical Geomorphology and Soils

The tropical climate has caused deep weathering due to extensive chemical

weathering, leaching, and abundance of organic matter (Pedro, 1 968). The tropic

is also the place of tectonically stable land areas. It is assumed to have long

durations of weathering and low rates of denudation ( Isahak, 1 993).

The tropical landscape commonly consists of soils of the age from amongst the

youngest (e.g. Entisols and Inceptisols) to the oldest (e.g. U ltisols and Oxisols).

The tropical soil is normally considered to be deep, red, acidic soi l , wel l drained

and lacking distinct horizons. This soil is often associated with the order Oxisols

of the Soil Taxonomy system (Soil Survey Staff, 1 975; Suol and Eswaran, 1 978).

2.2 Peninsular Malaysia

2.2 . 1 Geomorphology of Peninsular Malaysia

2.2. 1 .1 Introduction

The summary on the geomorphology of Peninsular Malaysia is extracted mainly

from Zauyah (1 986) unless otherwise indicated . The topography of the Peninsular

Malaysia is dominated by a series of eight prominent mountain ranges alternating

with valleys (Figure 1 ) . They are aligned in a general NNW-SSE direction. The

most important of these ranges is the Main Range, which has an average width of

45 to 65 km and extends southwards for about 500 km from the Thai border in the

N

1 0 �..r !OD'�' \ I

�EN(RI\L PHY�I!}GFUPHf o �OO$!Of plo.OI Q'ld 10 .. Imoen \0- (5 ftI! • =Iood 9'o,ns �nd 10 .. !!Hroces(O-75r.!) !li'� n!e.m.diJ1! vn< Nq".' 'tff(!Ct$ [6 -75 '11\ � �Qlhn.q I� ,�. �'II} lof'd', �o- 150 m) lei H,III ond lTo,in1aln,;c\'" 150.»

101

Figure 1: Relief of Peninsular Malaysia (Law, 1970).

5

S".J j, r�"

Ctun(!

6

north. Most of these ranges are formed of granitic rocks and often, peaks around

2000 m high are present. Occasionally, however, resistant quartzite also forms

some peaks e.g. Gunung Tahan (21 78 m), the highest peak in the Peninsular.

Extensive alluvial plains developed from the widespread alluvial deposition during

the Quatemary period, occur along both the east and west coasts of the Peninsular.

These alluvial plains consist of fluvial plains, peat swamps, marine, estuarine and

brackish water clayey deposits and sandy beach ridge complexes.

Lawrence (1 972) divided the topography of Peninsular Malaysia into four distinct

zones; e.g. mountains, steep hills, low hills, and coastal plains. However, another

important feature of the geomorphology especially in the northwest and west central

parts of the Peninsular is the typical karst topography.

I n the upland areas, denudation and degradation are the most important

geomorphic processes while in the lowlands, aggradation by rivers and the sea

dominate. Mass soil movement or soil creep is also a very important process.

2.2. 1 .2 Mountains

Most of the mountains are developed over granites but occasionally some

mountains over sedimentary rocks also occur. The mountains rise to altitudes in

excess of 1 00 m with slopes generally in the 25° - 35° but locally they approach

45°. These mountains are characterized by steep valley walls, numerous waterfalls

and rapids and small remnant of upland plateau indicate a youthful stage of erosion.

7

2.2 . 1 .3 Steep H ills

Like the mountains, they are developed mostly on granite. They occur peripherally

to the mountains either as spurs of the main mass or as outlying isolated hi l ls .

They may rise to 300 m with slopes of 1 50 -300• Some of these areas have been

planted with rubber.

2.2. 1 .4 Low Hil ls

The altitude in these areas may be up to 250 m, but in the south it is often less than

1 00 m. The low hi l ls are extensive, lying in a continuous belt around the central

highlands. Most of these areas have been used for agriculture having been planted

with rubber, oil palm, and fruit trees.

2.2. 1 .5 Coastal Plain

The broad coastal plain of Holocene riverine and marine alluvium has low to almost

no relief and lies between the low h il ls region and the sea. The alluvium has fi lled

the floors of the seaward valleys of the low hil ls and "fingers" into the low hil ls of the

interior where it forms river plains and terraces. On the average, the coastal plain

has widths varying between 20 and 30 km.

2.2. 1 .6 Limestone Areas

Tower-like limestone hills occur in northwest and west central parts ofthe Peninsular

(GobbeU, 1 965; Tjia, 1 973). These form a typical tower karst geomorphology.

These hi l ls rise abruptly from the alluvial plains and often reach elevations of up to

600 m. These hills are usually honeycombed by caves and old river channels. The

orig in of these caves is attributed to the work of rivers flowing along joints and/or