UNITED STATES NAVAL WAR COLLEGE

Newport, Rhode Island

NAVAL WAR COLLEGE WRITING AND STYLE GUIDE

August 2007

CONTENTS By clicking on the section title you will be taken to that section.

Section Page PREFACE iv WRITING GUIDE 1 1.0 Introduction 1 2.0 Selecting a Topic 2 3.0 Framing the Question 4 4.0 Preparing the Proposal 7 5.0 Crafting and Executing the Plan 8 6.0 Thinking and Writing 10 7.0 Organizing and Tracking the Project 14 8.0 Format Instructions 15 9.0 Classified Papers 18 10.0 Ethics and Integrity 18 11.0 Conclusion 19 STYLE GUIDE 20 1.0 Terms and Usage 20 2.0 Abbreviations 38 3.0 Grammar and Punctuation 68

3.1 Grammar 68 3.2 Punctuation 74

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4.0 Mechanics 88

4.1 Capitalization 88

4.2 Spelling and Word Formation 108 4.3 Numbers 124

4.4 Italics 131

4.5 Bullet 136

5.0 Documentation 138 5.1 Notes 138 5.2 Bibliography 142 5.3 Quotations 143 5.4 Block Quotations 144 5.5 Credit Line 145 5.6 Plagiarism 146 APPENDIX A Examples of Citations 148 B Sample Format for a Naval War College Paper 185 C Copyright 193 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 198 INDEX 200

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PREFACE

This introduces the Naval War College Writing and Style Guide. Its purpose is to assist the Naval

War College (NWC) community of writers, whether students preparing papers to meet academic

requirements; faculty members developing articles, monographs, or books for publication; or those brave

individuals who edit, grade, and evaluate the hopeful submissions of others. Writers outside NWC who

submit material for NWC-sponsored publications should also find the Guide useful. Indeed, anyone who

has ever wondered whether National Command Authorities is still a recognized term, whether Jr. is set

off by commas, or whether 53 is written with numerals or spelled out will find help here.

This Guide does not presume to teach one how to write or edit, but it does offer a coherent,

consistent stylistic base for writing and editing. It includes guidance on a number of questions that

inevitably arise during the process of composition, basing that guidance not only on the conventional

wisdom available in a variety of authoritative sourcebooks, but also on users’ specific needs that have

emerged since the rapid expansion of the digital environment. By freeing its users from juggling various

sources simultaneously, this Guide offers stylistic consistency to NWC writing. Accordingly, and as a

matter of policy, this document shall serve as the single writing guide for the College’s resident and non-

resident courses, the courses offered in its elective program, and all papers submitted for prizes at the

College. This policy takes effect at the start of Academic Year 07-08.

The Naval War College Writing and Style Guide comprises two main sections and appendices of

significant utility. The first main section, the Writing Guide, offers a blueprint for selecting and

developing a topic, and carrying it through to the creation of a quality paper. The second main section, the

Style Guide, offers the functional categories Terms and Usage, Abbreviations, Grammar and

Punctuation, Mechanics, and Documentation. The Mechanics section is further divided into the

component parts Capitalization, Spelling and Word Formation, Numbers, Italics, and Bullets. Entries in

each section are arranged alphabetically. Methods to help locate information quickly and make the Guide

simple to use include assigning each item a unique number based upon its categorization (e.g., 1.56,

4.2.95), and providing a comprehensive index and cross-references.

The Guide by no means addresses every challenge facing writers and editors. Moreover, we

acknowledge that this writing and style guide includes discussion and examples of unique military

documents, terminology, abbreviations, and acronyms that will differ from other 'standard' style

guides used by various colleges and universities. For additional guidance, we recommend The

Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, upon which much of this guide relies for stylistic principles.

Explanations and examples taken from the CMS 15th edition with little or no modification are

italicized and followed by the appropriate reference in parentheses (e.g., Chicago, 16.3). For spellings

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and definitions, the Guide uses Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English

Language, Unabridged, and its chief abridgement, Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary,

11th edition (in the Guide, the term dictionary refers to either or both of these sources). For advice on

grammatical issues, we recommend the eighth edition of Index to English by W. R. and D. R. Ebbitt.

We are indebted to the people who reviewed the preparatory drafts of this Guide and gave their

thoughtful suggestions for its improvement. Our greatest appreciation is reserved for the Air University

Library and Press at Maxwell Air Force Base, its Director, Dr. Shirley B. Laseter, and Dr. Marvin Bassett,

editor of the Air University Style and Author Guide, for staunch collegiality and collaboration. Their

support permitted the Naval War College to adopt and adapt the style section of the Air University Style

and Author Guide for the Naval War College Writing and Style Guide, thus making its construct

markedly easier: many thanks to our Air University colleagues.

We invite interested writers and editors to send their comments and suggestions for future

editions of this guide to the Office of the Provost, Naval War College, 686 Cushing Road, Newport,

Rhode Island 02841.

DR. JAMES F. GIBLIN, JR. Provost and Dean of Academics Naval War College

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WRITING GUIDE

1.0 Introduction

Writing a . . . paper is, finally, just thinking in print. It gives your ideas the attention they deserve. Written out, your ideas are “out there,” disentangled from your memories, opinions, and wishes, ready to be explored, expanded, combined, and understood more fully, because you are cooperating with your readers in a joint venture to create new knowledge. Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams The Craft of Research

At the Naval War College, students must produce written documents of varying types. The core curricula and elective courses use written products to evaluate student efforts. Some emphasize original thought and focus less on documentation of sources; others require more formal academic presentation. However, all demand thoughtful, complete, analytical, competent, professional written work.

Writing marks the culmination of the educational process. Good writing facilitates the expression of powerful thoughts. True learning cannot be revealed unless one can write well. Unquestionably, constructing a cogent, relevant, and persuasive essay stands as the touchstone of academic achievement and excellence.

A variety of disciplines contribute to the quality of writing—logic, research, grammar, and organizational skills, for example. Proficiency in writing comes more naturally to some people than to others. Nevertheless, because it is a psychomotor skill, writing improves with attention and practice.

Many graduate-level students do not write competently, but remain unaware of their deficiencies. Writing habits often continue uncorrected for years because writing skills are not practiced routinely, or because substandard writing fails to receive the scrutiny and criticism it needs. As people rise to higher stations in life, their ineffective writing becomes increasingly burdensome, for they tend to have greater public or professional exposure. Minimum-quality writing capability that sufficed, perhaps for years, is not good enough. No longer can one camouflage poor writing by arguing, "Well, you know what I meant." Shortcomings in expression skills result in lost ideas and missed opportunities.

Conceptualization and organization precede putting thoughts on paper—or into a computer file. A superior product results from keeping the elements of writing in the proper order and perspective. This Guide seeks to remedy the most common lapses and errors in student written work. It cannot repair fully what was never in place, or what years of misuse and too-limited use have reinforced. Moreover, no guarantees can be offered that this guide will improve writing. One need only recall the fellow who said: "I used to have the worst time remembering names; then I took that Carnegie course and I've been fine ever since."

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This guide has modest objectives: first, it suggests how to organize and write a formal paper; second, it provides a tool set for writing a good-quality, formal paper, and alerts students to written communication shortcomings about which they might otherwise be unaware. The construction of a paper is covered initially; elements of "good" writing are addressed subsequently. At the Naval War College, a writing assignment might require extensive research, or it might call for a "think piece." The elements of good writing apply in either case.

High-quality help abounds for those with the inclination and time to seek it. This guide contains a bibliography of materials that can be located in the Naval War College Library or procured by the library staff.

The following sections deal sequentially with selecting a topic, framing a question, preparing a proposal, crafting and executing the plan, thinking and writing, and organizing and tracking the project. Guidance on format, classified papers, and ethics and integrity is also provided. 2.0 Selecting a Topic

On occasion, faculty members assign writing topics to students. In other situations, students must develop topics on their own. The question, "About what shall I write?" often becomes a vexing one, as students try to balance levels of prior knowledge with appetites for new subject matter. In fact, students are likely to have better ideas about good topics on which to write than they might realize. By the time they arrive in Newport, they have years of experience in their career specialties, and possess a wealth of understanding not duplicated by others. It is important not to discount the role of intuition in valuing a particular line of inquiry. Combined with the assistance of someone familiar with what research and publication have been done on a particular subject, these "gut feelings" can be a solid starting point for profitable writing projects.

In selecting a paper topic, a good place to begin is with an observation. One might notice, for example, that all military airborne reconnaissance aircraft appear to be modifications of existing airframes; none originated from dedicated design efforts. This observation stimulates questions such as, "is this true?" In fact, are all reconnaissance aircraft modifications of other types? If true, is this due to financial considerations, or has there never been an overriding requirement for a ground-up, reconnaissance aircraft design? In this way, starting with an observation that evokes researchable questions gives the student a navigable course to steer.

The key criterion for a topic is its relevance. Topics might emphasize the theoretical or the practical. Their pertinence is ascertained by asking such questions as: "What are the implications of the conclusions of this essay?" or "What is affected by …, and in what ways?" or "Do the answers matter, and how?"

All that might be accomplished by producing the written product would be to make the student—and perhaps the reader—better informed on the subject. There is risk, however, that such a topic will fail the "who cares"

test. In that event, one should select a more relevant topic or find a way to make the effort more analytical. The payoff need not have immediate practical application. Many military planners ignored Clausewitz, for example, even though his theoretical arguments might have made the difference between victory and defeat.

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Another criterion for a good topic is more practical: its researchability. One must select a topic for which the time and energy available, and the resources obtainable, are adequate to complete the investigation. Otherwise, the effort might take too much time, or it might exceed the student's skills. Evaluating materials in a language not comfortably within one’s competence is a good example of this, as is the need to evaluate quantitative sources if one does not possess sufficient training in the appropriate methodology. Certain topics are too sensitive or too highly classified to treat adequately. Bureaucratic sensitivities should not prevent a particular question from being studied, but they might limit the availability of information that those with vested interests would be willing to share.

It is unwise to commit to writing on a particular topic without first discerning whether sufficient background material is available to support one’s research. To facilitate the pursuit of an original topic, the author should attempt to phrase the contemplated thesis or research question in the form of a single statement or question—written as precisely and as narrowly focused as possible. For example, if the topic of interest involves writing a paper on "unmanned aerial vehicles" (UAVs), one might formulate the following question: “To what extent does joint doctrine provide sufficient guidance for UAV employment?" Noting the operative terms in the above question: "joint doctrine," "UAV," and "employment," one could then search for those three terms in one or more appropriate electronic databases to find supporting reference material. If too many or too few results were retrieved, the researcher would have to modify his/her search strategy by either adding additional terms or substituting one term for another. In the above example, "employment" is a rather non-specific term and might be better replaced with one that is more specific.

Good research involves analyzing and synthesizing data collected, which means that an author conducting research must read much more material than may actually be used to craft a comparatively shorter paper. Writing a research paper without doing research is impossible. Mortimer Adler and Charles Van Doren, both former editors for Encyclopædia Britannica, wrote a book titled, How to Read a Book. In it, they describe what they call the "highest form of reading": syntopical reading. Syntopical reading involves selecting a topic area and reading as much as possible about that topic before beginning to write. The more one reads, the easier it becomes to narrow one’s focus because common themes begin to emerge as one reads, or, conversely, gaps in the literature surveyed begin to appear. By reviewing the panorama of available material, one gains a perspective that is greater than the sum of the individual articles or books read, and threads or gaps in the literature begin to appear that no one author may have addressed. These "common threads" or "gaps" offer prospective authors a chance to offer some original thought or a fresh perspective.

Finally, the topic chosen must be relevant to the curriculum. The faculty assumes that students have amassed significant tactical expertise in their areas of specialization. The Naval War College curriculum, however, addresses the strategic (national and theater-) and operational levels of war. Subjects such as antisubmarine warfare search techniques for patrol aircraft or minesweeping patterns tend to be inappropriate—except as they relate directly to the operational or strategic levels of war. The perspective should be from the national-strategic level to the combatant commander or joint task force commander conducting a major operation or campaign, rather than from the point of view of the ship's captain, squadron, strike group, or battalion commander.

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3.0 Framing the Question When a writing effort is undertaken, asking the right question is pivotal to obtaining useful

results. It is a good idea to organize written work around a question. A carefully crafted question frames the effort. Moreover, an appropriately constructed approach must elicit a substantive answer; one that can be answered with a variation of "yes" or "no" is clearly off the mark. A poorly articulated question will inevitably result in an inferior paper. Thus, rather than the "yes-no" of "Will increased defense budgets in the future result in higher force levels for the Navy?", one might more appropriately ask: "What factors would contribute most to increased force levels for the U.S. Navy of twenty years in the future?"

Target the question at a known problem or issue. One should not begin by saying: "I wonder how the principle of surprise was employed by the Israelis in the 1967 War," unless one knows that surprise was in fact employed at the operational level and that there is more to be gleaned from that action than a mere description of it. It is useful to remember that the question must pass the "so what?" test. If surprise was used at the operational level by the Israelis during the 1967 Six Days' War, for it to be of interest there must be something worth extracting from that fact. In brief, the student should have an idea that a relevant, useful contribution will result from his or her efforts. Please remember: start with an observation. Much can be learned about the 1967 war, but if the Israelis did not use surprise at the operational level, then the question is inappropriate, the inquiry has been essentially wasted, and effort should have been invested more effectively elsewhere. In brief, fishing expeditions are discouraged, because there may be no fish to catch.

This does not mean that one must shoot one's fish in a barrel, however. The answer to the research question ordinarily will not be known before the project begins. If the question is framed properly, the output can be useful and fruitful. For example, "why" questions often point the way to beneficial research results. "Why," one might ask, "did Russia lose the Crimean War?"

This was primarily a land war fought in Russia by expeditionary forces of its adversaries, far inferior in numbers and overall capability to what the Russians could field. What strategic and operational factors resulted in a Russian defeat, what might have been done by Russia to prevent the loss it suffered, and what insights might be drawn from that struggle? These typify questions that are appropriate and useful.

Papers can be prepared for the purpose of discovery, verification, or synthesis. Discovery seeks to reveal something not previously known. Most papers at the Naval War College are not undertaken for the purpose of discovery, because "discovery" does not mean something "not previously known" to the author, but something not previously known or recognized in the field of study. Unquestionably, the researcher will learn from the project, but such learning does not amount to discovery. It takes an expert in the field (or, perhaps, assistance from a knowledgeable advisor) to design a research project that attempts to develop new information. This most difficult of tasks requires top flight research and analytical skills.

A paper also can verify (or falsify) information or ideas believed to be true. This does not mean proving that something is true, but seeking to determine if it is true. As a practical matter, the difference often lies in the author's openness to information demonstrating that an idea or proposition is false. An investigation might be undertaken, for example, to ascertain whether

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decision makers in the United Kingdom knew beyond reasonable doubt that the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was outside the British Total Exclusion Zone and proceeding away from U.K. forces when it was torpedoed by the submarine HMS Conqueror in the 1982 Falkland Islands conflict.

Synthesis stands as a third possible purpose. This goal tends to be more modest than the other two, but it is still valuable. Synthesis draws together relevant ideas and restructures them to increase their utility. Much of the literature on conventional deterrence that relies on earlier writings on nuclear deterrence provides an example of synthesis. The body of critical writings on deterrence draws heavily from nuclear deterrence theory because authors argued that it was of the highest priority to deter nuclear warfare, and thus they wanted to understand deterrence thoroughly. Once nuclear deterrence seemed stable and fairly well articulated, investigators turned to conventional deterrence, but tapped earlier, in-depth works on nuclear deterrence as the foundation for their ideas. Similarly, writings of early naval strategists could be employed for their insights about modern maritime challenges. Good synthesis requires creativity on the part of researcher-writers.

The three purposes discussed above comprise the major kinds of efforts involved in writing academic papers. Yet, the unsuspecting can fall into a variety of potential traps. The following paragraphs address four of these: backstopping, cheerleading, data dredging, and patron massaging.

Political language . . . is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind.1

Backstopping refers to attempts to rationalize and justify conclusions reached without the benefit of objective study. Those who have worked in Washington, DC will recognize this approach. Indeed, many "studies" are designed to demonstrate the validity of predetermined judgments and, consequently, are blind to contrary information that might surface. The utility and integrity of this approach are suspect. For example, a study designed to “prove” that a particular weapons program is valuable would be fraudulent from the outset if the conclusion were known in advance. Conclusions must be based on the results of evidence and analysis. On the other hand, a study that takes as a premise that a certain weapons system will be available and asks how it might be used to optimum advantage is legitimate. The middle case between these extremes is a study admitting at the outset that it is a "lawyer's brief" (or an OP-ED piece) designed to make a strong case for a certain conclusion, but does not pretend to be objective about it. Although students often find writing this kind of an advocacy essay attractive and enjoyable, it does not satisfy most Naval War College curriculum requirements.

Cheerleading is closely related to backstopping. It seeks to convince, but does not even attempt a scholarly pretense. Essays that merely repeat current buzz words or trendy doctrines might buoy the spirits of their proponents, but they should not be confused with objective writing. Likewise, a "hatchet job"

in which strong rhetoric without supporting evidence, analysis, and

1. George Orwell, "Politics and the English Language," in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, eds., The Collected Essays, Journalism, and Letters of George Orwell: In Front of Your Nose, 1945-1950, vol. IV (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968), 139.

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documentation is employed to denigrate a particular approach is reverse cheerleading. It is equally unacceptable.

Those who gather large amounts of data and then try to determine meaning are victims of the third trap: data dredging. Students should collect data only to underwrite focused analysis. Frame the question before building the database to support the answer. If data are unrelated to the question, or if the question is conceived based upon the available data, the results will necessarily be flawed. This is true of qualitative data as well; the weight of multiple quotations that do not address directly the research question is as useless as a storm of charts, graphs, and numerical tables.

Selected quotations must address the research question directly. If a quotation is off the mark, it can dilute and (in some cases) negate an analytical effort. Data collection for the sake of data collection is not a useful pastime, and does not support the goals of the effort. The data, quantitative or qualitative, must relate directly to the question.

Patron massaging—staking a position solely to curry favor—also has no place in serious academic work. A presentation skewed to advocate a particular viewpoint is generally transparent and unpersuasive. Any similarity between this and good scholarship tends to be coincidental, for the products tend to be second-rate.

The academic core course or elective syllabus should be considered a major resource to assist in framing project questions, insofar as the readings for each session constitute signposts pointing the way for additional material to amplify discussion. Professional journals such as the Naval War College Review, Military Review, Parameters, Joint Force Quarterly, and Air & Space Power Journal also can provide stimulus for questions. In addition, each War College publishes “occasional papers.” These tend to be longer than journal articles, but they should not be overlooked as potential ideas to be mined. Do not hesitate to try out concepts on seminar moderators and other faculty members. They can provide a quick check on whether a question is appropriate and researchable, and if it can be treated adequately within the paper's prescribed length.

Whether a paper is prepared for a core course seminar, an elective, or for prize competition, one should consider engaging the services of an advisor. With a topic already selected, look for a faculty member in one of the core curriculum areas or the Center for Naval Warfare Studies to act as advisor. Pick a faculty member with expertise in the topic area; if possible, favor those in the department for which the paper is being written. The advisor can assist in:

• composing the question and the proposal, • selecting methodologies, • drawing up the plan, • collecting bibliographic material, and • differentiating between experts and quacks in the field.

Advisors may provide the very important service of thoughtful, critical editing. Advisors may

conduct sanity checks, but they must not evaluate (grade) papers. Evaluation is the function of the seminar moderator, elective professor, and prize committee member. Advisors must not usurp evaluators’ prerogatives or responsibilities, and no one desires this to occur. Advisors can help ensure that a project stays on track, and they can provide some streamlining. The Naval War College recommends the use of advisors to assist in preparing papers, within or outside the curriculum.

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Concentrate on the question. Invest substantial time and energy in its selection and presentation. Its importance cannot be overemphasized. Effort expended in the formulation stages of the project will pay high dividends later. Likewise, a disorganized, unfocused start will almost certainly result in a substandard product. 4.0 Preparing the Proposal

Often, a paper requires a formal proposal. A proposal’s intent is to help students organize their efforts to:

• select an appropriate topic, • compose the question, • and develop an initial plan.

The proposal typically consists of three parts: a statement of the issue and question(s) to be

addressed, a detailed outline of the proposed paper, and a preliminary bibliography. The proposal is presented to the grading team at an arranged meeting. This is ordinarily labeled a "tutorial" session, for its purpose is to assist the student in ensuring that the paper will be focused and scoped correctly. As appropriate, the grading team will help to hone the question(s) to be addressed, guide the student to additional sources of information, or suggest alternative approaches.

The outline should be prepared with thought and care. Correctly framed, the outline functions as an organizing tool and guide for writing the paper. Investment of effort in the outline pays high dividends. The relationship between time spent refining the outline—ensuring its completeness and richness, thinking through its flow and logic, and using it to structure research—and the success of the overall effort is usually close and direct. Construct an outline in as much detail as possible, and then present it, in its top two or three levels, to the grading team.

The student should expect the grading team members to ask pointed questions about topic selection, the proposed research question, outline, research plan, and selection of an advisor. They will probably discuss whether the proposed effort can be accomplished within a reasonable time budget and prescribed length. Team members will help ensure that the approach and methodology are sound, and offer any appropriate suggestions. In addition, they will review the outline to ensure that it accurately represents the topic and addresses the research question.

As necessary, the team may require that the proposal be redrafted and resubmitted in a follow-on tutorial.

Proposal presentation and acceptance result in an informal contract between the grading team and the student. The student has "contracted" to undertake the requisite research, thinking, and writing of the paper in accordance with the proposal. The grading team tells the student that the proposal—properly executed—should yield an acceptable paper.

Some core courses and electives may opt to approach this issue somewhat differently than outlined here. The essential points, however, still apply. Selecting the right topic, framing the question to be addressed, organizing the effort, determining the methodology to be used, and ensuring that the project is relevant are essential steps, regardless of other details.

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5.0 Crafting and Executing the Plan Given an approved topic and question, the student then seeks evidence. Analysis and

evaluation take place concurrently with this process. Many sources can be tapped, for example:

(1) Naval War College Sources. The most obvious of these is the NWC Library. The holdings are excellent, and exceptionally knowledgeable professionals stand ready to assist students in all phases of their projects. The research librarians are highly educated and trained (but regrettably often underutilized) professionals who can assist materially in selecting topics and identifying and retrieving useful sources. They can help determine how difficult it may be to find relevant material, and what similar studies have been performed in the past.

In addition to books and periodicals, there are Congressional materials, student reports, specialized indexes, and many other sources. The library also conducts services such as inter-library loans and computerized database searches. Do not ignore the Classified Library and the Naval Historical Collection, if these are relevant.

An approach not to be overlooked is the "Delphi technique": find an "oracle" and ask pertinent questions. The College abounds with genuine experts on any number of interesting and relevant topics. Locate one or more of these quiet masters, find out what he or she knows about the area of interest, and ask who else should be queried and what sources should be consulted. Get into the network of people with thoughts on the topic and pick their brains. Do not confuse this with farming out the research to more knowledgeable people; this marks the beginning of research, not the end.

(2) Other sources. Personal contacts outside the Newport area can often be useful as sources of ideas and information. This is not to recommend procuring "bootleg" copies of documents or undertaking other irregular or inappropriate activities, but outside contacts can often provide valuable ideas to a student about what is worth doing and what information is relevant. (3) Formal Interviews can be useful if they are well-planned and undertaken with an awareness of the perspective of the subject interviewed. If a knowledgeable source is available and willing to participate, take the time to plan the interview carefully. This will make the time spent more productive and show consideration for the interviewee. Remember, an interview is a favor to the researcher. After an interview, try to assess the accuracy and completeness of the provided information. It is important to ensure that interview material is used accurately, of course. Considerate interviewers will remember to send a note of thanks to their subjects, and perhaps to include or to promise a copy of the product that results.

(4) Gaming offers an excellent, but infrequently used, technique for testing hypotheses. Conclusions, of course, will be affected greatly by the assumptions and artificialities of the game. Gaming neither produces verifiable results, nor ”proves” concepts. Game insights can certainly be suggestive, however. They often provide a gold mine of hypotheses for further testing. Seek advice from an expert war gamer before trying to interpret what a particular game conveys.

Next, make a plan: the order in which the various tasks will be undertaken, how notes and other materials will be compiled and organized, and where and how the work will be accomplished can make a significant difference. Then—and this is a key step—decide when in the chain of events the gathering of evidence must be terminated. Almost all subjects, no matter how carefully

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constrained, will support far more data-massing than available time permits. The process of compiling evidence, moreover, tends to be insidious. Most people say to themselves, "I'll just follow this one more lead, then I'll start to write the paper." Of course, "one more" inevitably spawns "one more," and, inadvertently, the analytical and writing segments of the project are short-changed. Set and adhere to a cut-off date for the leg-work in order to preserve adequate time to think and write. Establishing and following a checklist may help avert this problem. The timeline in a check list should stop data gathering no later than two-thirds through the project's life. This leaves one-third of total time for analysis and writing.

Use the outline that was prepared for the paper proposal to conduct your work systematically, but don't allow the outline to petrify. Work the outline as a living document—continually altering the order of presentation, adding and deleting components, digging deeper for meaning and explanation, and identifying new areas for inquiry and analysis. Relate note taking directly to the outline. When it is time to write,” all that must be done” is to stitch the facts and arguments of the outline together with carefully crafted prose.

Skillfully executed note taking, abetted by a competent plan, makes the thinking and writing phases of the paper proceed smoothly. Because errors creep into papers from inaccurate or careless note taking, legible, accurate, complete, and understandable notes are a must. Annotate raw notes with an evaluation of the material that has been accessed.

Take care that direct quotations are identified as such, and that paraphrased material is also flagged. Failure to attribute words or thoughts to their authors is plagiarism. In academia, where thoughts constitute the coin of the realm, appropriating another's ideas without attribution is an extremely severe offense. At the Naval War College, as in other graduate level institutions, it can result in expulsion.

Some plagiarism is unintended. A paraphrase of another's words may be too close to the original; a direct quotation should be used instead. Incomplete notes taken during the information-gathering stage may not have identified the author or work adequately, or may not have indicated that extracted information was actually a quotation from the source. Exercise care: the standards are stricter than one might think; accurate, complete note taking is crucial.

Inadvertent or not, plagiarism is unacceptable. "Never present someone else's language, ideas, or information in such a way that it might be mistaken for your own."2 Foot- or end-noting is necessary, therefore, not only when someone else's words are quoted, but also whenever someone else's ideas are used. The rule is straightforward: when in doubt, note the source.

Equally important, appreciate the difference between primary and secondary sources, and treat them accordingly in the analysis. Whether a source is primary or secondary depends on the subject under investigation. For example, if the subject is how the Carter administration dealt with the question of military procurement, primary sources would consist of speeches, testimony, and written products of Carter administration members. A secondary source in this example would be a book by an academic or an article by a military officer comparing the approaches of the Carter and other administrations. Primary sources in general carry greater credibility than do secondary sources. 2. Michael Meyer, The Little, Brown Guide to Writing Research Papers, 2nd ed. (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1985), 97 [Emphasis added].

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Sometimes, however, especially in the case of autobiographies, primary sources can contain large amounts of bias.3

Finally, all sources were not created equal. A main purpose of citation—of documenting in a paper the source of the information presented—is to reveal the origin of the information. Some citations have greater intrinsic merit than others. Accordingly, a quotation that was drawn from an article by an acknowledged expert in the field, published in a respected professional journal, would naturally carry more weight than an excerpt from an unpublished seminar paper by a graduate student. Likewise, a first-hand account of an event quoted from a first-class newspaper would be preferred to one from a tabloid or the newsletter of some interest group. Because the reader will judge the veracity and the credibility of the information provided by the strength of the sources, it is preferable to use the most legitimate source to present the results of research. Special care must be taken with materials found on the Internet. For example, if one finds an article purportedly written by the Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, but not published in a recognized professional journal, how does one know that it is authentic? Moreover, how can one verify that it has not been altered? This is a difficult problem, but one that can be ameliorated by not straying far from official or well recognized sources, especially on the Internet. Careful documentation renders transparent the source of the information so that the readers can make independent evaluations of authenticity and value.

6.0 Thinking and Writing Everything that can be thought at all, can be thought clearly. Everything that can be said, can be said clearly.4

Thinking about the paper begins and ends by considering the audience. At whom is it directed? Is the paper intended only for the seminar moderators, or is a broader audience the target? Are there experts in the field who must be persuaded to change their minds about the topic, or perhaps just introduced to a new way of thinking about it? Has the subject been approached as a study that one might conduct on a Combatant Commander’s staff? Is the essay suitable to compete for a College writing award? Is the paper suitable for publication in a professional journal?

If gathering information, reading source material, and discussing the project extends too deeply into the time allotted for accomplishment, the thinking and writing portions of the project will be foreshortened and, necessarily, will suffer. Unfortunately, this is often the case. Compressing the thinking and writing phases results in a disappointing paper that reconfirms the common wisdom, merely tacks a series of quotations together with flimsy bridging mortar, or commits serious errors. The thinking phase should be integrated with the research and writing phases, of course, but it must be undertaken deliberately. Papers in which little thought has been invested are easy to recognize.

3. Primary sources: "[are] materials that constitute the original source of information for your topic . . . A familiarity with the primary sources of your topic will allow you to assess the accuracy and value of your secondary sources . . . In short, commentaries and interpretations about people, events, works of art, statistics, or scientific data are secondary sources that should be evaluated on the basis of how well they describe and elucidate the primary sources they seek to explain." Ibid., 56 [Emphasis in the original]. 4. Ludwig Wittgenstein, quoted in Joseph M. Williams, Style: Toward Clarity and Grace (Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1990), xviii.

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The thinking and writing phases are the place to integrate one’s efforts, analyze the collected data, and consider how it will be presented most effectively. Whether they emphasize reference to a variety of sources or are keyed to the required course materials, all papers require a succession of logical steps. First, they will set forth clearly the question addressed. Second, they will provide a thesis. Third, they will marshal evidence to support the thesis. Fourth, they will consider and address, explicitly or implicitly, counter-arguments or weaknesses in the thesis and the supporting evidence. Finally, they will present this material in a clear, well-organized way. The result is that the author has answered the research or “think-piece” question, while offering compelling, persuasive, factual evidence in a well thought-out analytical approach.

In general, unsubstantiated beliefs and opinions are inappropriate. Thus, students should not write: "I believe the Japanese made a mistake in the way they approached the planning for the Midway operation." Instead, write: "The evidence suggests that the Japanese erred in the way they approached Midway operation planning.”

Likewise, the statement: "Force planners of 2020 will have to worry about protecting operations to extract resources from the seabed under the high seas from enemy attack," would not be fitting unless it had been preceded by the presentation of a body of expert opinion or evidence, or there were some clear analytical or experiential basis for such assertions. Strunk and White contend:

Unless there is a good reason for its being there, do not inject opinion into a piece of writing. We all have opinions about almost everything, and the temptation to toss them in is great. To air one's views gratuitously, however, is to imply that the demand for them is brisk, which may not be the case, and which, in any event, may not be relevant to the discussion.5

This does not mean that students cannot exercise expert opinion or reach conclusions. A student who was a mine warfare planner for Operation Desert Storm, for example, could quite appropriately offer an opinion about the mine warfare planning for Operation Chromite, the attack on Inchon in the Korean War. When students reach conclusions and express opinions, they should be informed conclusions and opinions, and the basis for reaching them must be demonstrated in the paper. For example, after setting forth the pros and cons (including expert testimony) of placing a Joint Force Air Component Commander afloat for a particular major operation, one would conclude that the weight of evidence favored locating it afloat (or not afloat).

To the extent the project outline was carefully constructed and executed, paper organization will be sound. An outstanding outline should provide strong support for a correspondingly well organized paper. Both organization and presentation are important; do not take either for granted.

Do not take writing the paper for granted. Ideas do not amount to much unless they are presented accurately, cogently, concisely, and persuasively. Write simply and literally. The reader has the expectation that you mean everything you write. Thus, it would not be a good idea to write that it would take a ton of ordnance delivered on the targeted launcher to neutralize it, unless you literally meant 2,000 pounds of ordnance. If the reader believes that you are writing figuratively rather than literally, then that reader must decide in each and every instance whether to believe what he or she is reading. Also, avoid figures of speech unless you know exactly what you are doing. No matter how solid the research and analysis, even great ideas packaged in semi-literate or awkward writing style will rarely achieve reader comprehension or respect. 5. William Strunk Jr., and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, 4th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000), 79-80.

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Be sure to budget time in the writing phase for rewriting. Once the paper has been completely written, placed in proper format, proofed for spelling and writing errors, and taken to “a learned person” for blessing, it has attained the stature of "first draft." First drafts are not suitable for graduate-level submission—particularly in the computer age when rewriting can be so readily accommodated. Accordingly, set aside ample time to review and revise each sentence, paragraph, and section.

Use this Naval War College Writing and Style Guide to format the paper. It contains procedures and examples to assist in the proper presentation of text on the page (e.g., margin size, placement of page numbers), preparing notes and bibliography, and so forth.

Here are some suggestions to help polish essays:

• Write with a dictionary and thesaurus literally at your elbow.

• Own and use one or more of the works listed in appendix A.

• Write with nouns and verbs; prefer the active to the passive voice.

• Keep the approach and style fresh; use adverbs and adjectives sparingly, for only then will they have maximum impact.

• Employ speech components correctly.

• Avoid jargon, cliches, acronyms, and trendy words and phrases.

• Do not dangle modifiers.

• Do not leave questions unanswered.

• Ensure that pronouns agree with their antecedents, elements in series are parallel, and punctuation is flawless.

• Refrain from using the first person ("I," "me," or "we"), and from changing your point of view within the paper. Because the English language is dynamic and daily oral usage often diverges from accepted

writing practices, it is not always possible to identify poor writing techniques. This guide seeks, among other things, to raise awareness of disjuncture between the vernacular and good writing practices. Therefore, it is wise not to follow contemporary wisdom about "writing as one speaks." Instead, one should write as one thinks. • Understand how to use the apostrophe and the ellipsis. • Be leery of homonyms (e.g., role model versus roll model), words that sound alike (e.g., tenets and tenants, dominate and dominant, lose and loose, determinate and determinant), and words that often are used without regard to true meaning (e.g., infer and imply).

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• Avoid preaching and dogma. Repeated use of the verb "must" leaves an impression of arrogance. • Quote seldom and briefly. Emphasize primary sources as much as possible, and avoid hearsay.

Qualms and questions about style can be fairly easily resolved. As Casey Stengel said,

"You could look it up."6

Employ concepts from the curricula correctly. It is discouraging for the grader when the student incorrectly uses concepts taught in the course. Consider how this may influence the evaluation (grade) of a paper.

Be careful about challenging the reader unnecessarily. Consider the following: "There are only three ways to skin a cat." Or, "Mines have never succeeded in stopping invading forces, whether from sea or land." These encourage the reader to offer counter-examples. But, consider: "Among the many ways to skin a cat, three stand out as the most effective." This is better, for the writer will presumably then present evidence to support his claim of effectiveness. Absolutes and strong assertions make for powerful writing; just make sure the ground is solid before using them.

Documentation (in the form of notes) is an important part of a formal paper. Notes come in two varieties: source notes and explanatory notes. Source notes document locations for quotations or ideas, and conform to a standard style. Explanatory notes explain textual points, but the explanation is not important enough to disrupt the flow of the text.

Establish the credibility of all sources if there is any possibility of a question. One of the reasons for documentation is to present authority for the textual material. As was noted earlier, references are not equal. Experts quoted from very reliable—and verifiable—sources are preferred to, for example, unpublished works or Internet citations. Feeble documentation, such as: "Bushwhack and Cypher say, 'Patton was the most effective leader of the Twentieth Century,'" challenges the reader to ask: Who are Bushwhack and Cypher? And why should I care what they say? In brief, readers of papers are attuned to the quality of the sources presented.

Document items when the material is not common knowledge and also in order that correct attribution may be given to authors. "Common knowledge" refers to facts or observations that appear in many sources and can be expected to be known both to the writer and readers. Thus, it is appropriate not to document in a Naval War College paper a statement to the effect that the moon is a major determinant of tides, the Declaration of Independence was adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, or Richard M. Nixon was President of the United States from 1969 to 1974. The "anticipated reader" qualification means that some items would be common knowledge for certain readers, but for others must be documented. In the final analysis, this is a matter for the exercise of judgment: keep the recipient of the paper firmly in your sights!

Do not play fast and loose with facts. The tolerance for factual errors in graduate papers is zero. Errors of fact cast a mantle of suspicion over the entire work. The readers ask themselves:

6. Quoted in Lee Green, Sportswit (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 63.

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"If this is incorrect, and I know it to be, how much of the remainder is believable?" Such a loss of credibility could be devastating. Be particularly careful when drawing inferences from statistical, graphical, or tabular data. Remember the adage: "Figures lie, and liars figure." Moreover, the paper should contain no spelling or typographical errors. While this seems picky, such errors constitute the Hallmark Error:

7.0 Organizing and Tracking the Project Whether a think piece or a research effort, the formal paper should be well organized. A

straightforward, simple organizational scheme will help orient the reader and add to the paper's positive impact. So, the introductory material should provide the "what and why" of the effort, and might foreshadow the paper's conclusions. It should be short—no more than fifteen percent of the paper's total length.

The main part of the essay should have logic to underwrite its organization. That is, it should proceed chronologically, in the form of a dialectical argument (thesis, antithesis, synthesis), or in some other sensible, deliberate fashion. At the end of this section, readers should not feel that they had just staggered through a maze of disjointed thoughts. Subdivisions might be employed usefully to reinforce the paper's organization and assist reader comprehension. Once again, the paper's outline stands out as a ready-made, organizational road map.

The final part of the paper offers a brief summary of the paper's thesis and findings, draws conclusions, and makes recommendations or lessons learned. It should restate the paper's significance and relevance. Notes should appear only rarely in the concluding section. Frequently, students introduce new ideas or reach conclusions in this section that do not flow from the analysis or data presented; this is an error.

Heed the length limitations imposed on the paper. Failure to do so says much about the paper, little of which tends to be favorable.

If an abstract is required, do not slight it. It should concisely provide the reader with the paper's premises, approach, and findings. A well constructed abstract will summarize the paper and at the same time encourage the reader to delve into it more deeply. Do not render the abstract in a style that differs from the main paper. It should be written from the same point of view as the essay it describes. Thus, it should not say "This paper analyzes the operational insights that can be gained from the 1942 Battle of Midway," but should say, "Research and analysis revealed six insights from the 1942 Battle of Midway . . . ."

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Reading follows writing. While this seems self-evident and elementary, many papers are submitted without having been carefully proofread. Engage a critical reader at some point late in the process to read the paper carefully. If knowledgeable on the subject, such a reader can provide substantive comments and a sanity check for clarity. In addition—as noted earlier, but worthy of repetition and emphasis—prior to submission the paper must be rigorously checked for spelling and typographical errors. Almost all computer word processors have useful spell-checking routines. Many grammar-checkers are also available. While these aids to the mechanics of writing should be used if they are available, they do not eliminate the need for careful proofreading.

It is also a good idea to take the time to read the paper in its entirety aloud. If the reading process unearths areas that are troublesome, change them. If the author of the paper is not satisfied with it, can the evaluators be expected to revere it?

In some instances, papers are transformed into briefings.

It is well to remember that a briefing must be drawn more sharply than a paper, because the audience does not have the ability to review the information presented in the same way. Briefings must be carefully prepared and rehearsed so that incorrect impressions are not conveyed. Briefing charts, if they are used, should be crisp and uncluttered, and include only as many words as the briefer wants the audience to remember. The minimum guidelines are: use as few words as necessary; pictures are better than words. The presentation should use the slides for organization and to drive points home. No viewers of slide presentations like to have slides read to them—they can read faster themselves.

8.0 Format Instructions A Naval War College formal paper, whether research or think piece, should be scholarly.

Reflecting the results of the author's research and analysis, it should be well documented and clearly written. Papers should be suitable for publication in professional journals such as the Naval War College Review, Military Review, Air University Review, Parameters, and Joint Force Quarterly. Papers generally are organized in three sections: preliminaries, text, and reference materials.

PRELIMINARIES

Each element of the preliminaries begins on a separate page, and each page is designated in sequence by a lowercase Roman numeral. The order of preliminary parts, if used, should follow the sequence provided below:

Title Page. The title page is the first preliminary page. It is considered "page i," but is not numbered.

Table of Contents. A table of contents (usually titled simply Contents) is optional. It lists the parts of the paper and their corresponding pagination. It provides the reader with a summary of the scope and order of development of the author's argument.

List of Illustrations. If three or more maps, charts, graphs, or illustrations are used in the paper, provide a list of illustrations. List each entry as "Figure 1" or "Figure n" using Arabic numerals.

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List of Tables. If three or more tables are incorporated in the text, they should be indicated in a list of tables. For each table, the number of the table, its title, and corresponding pagination are given. Tables are numbered consecutively with capital Roman numerals.

Preface. Include a preface only if absolutely necessary to address matters that cannot be in-corporated in the paper's introduction. The author may wish to state reasons for addressing the topic at hand, or to describe methods of research (e.g., questionnaires, interview techniques, sources of literature). In addition, the preface acknowledges, when applicable, special research assistance from persons and institutions. Ordinarily, the advice a student receives from a research advisor is not acknowledged.

Abstract. An abstract is a concise summary of the paper. It should not exceed one double-spaced typewritten page in length. The primary objective of the abstract is to present the reader with paper essentials in highly condensed form.

An abstract is merely an abbreviated version of the paper. The abstract should capture the paper's purpose, scope, and findings and recommendations. Because potential readers rely heavily on abstracts to narrow their research, abstracts tend to be marketing devices. This is not to say that the abstract should in any way incorrectly or unfairly represent the paper, but that it should be very carefully crafted.

TEXT

The text of the paper follows the preliminaries; each page is numbered in sequence with Arabic numerals. No specific format is prescribed for the text of the paper. Authors should be sensitive, however, to the presentation of their material. The flow should be logical and clear. Subheadings can be helpful to guide the reader. Conclusions followed by recommendations or lessons learned as appropriate should appear at the end of the paper. Authors frequently use the final parts of a paper to indicate additional problems or issues uncovered as a result of their effort, and to indicate potential fertile areas for further research. However, authors should exercise care not to introduce new factual or analytical evidence in the conclusions section, and should ensure that conclusions follow logically from the evidence presented.

REFERENCE MATERIALS

Reference materials for research papers include notes and a bibliography, and may embody an appendix or appendices, where applicable.

See back matter (1.12) and glossary (1.30)

Notes. Notes are used to identify the source of significant information presented in the text. Notes may be presented either as footnotes at the bottom of text pages or as endnotes.

Appendices. The appendix is employed to present relevant material not essential to the basic text. Examples include information of an unusually technical and complex nature; discussion of methodology used in preparation of the paper, with sample questionnaires and a description of other data collection techniques presented; case studies too lengthy to be incorporated in the text; and

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documents not generally available to the reader. The appendix supplements the text, and authors must avoid the inclusion of material unrelated to the text.

Appendices may be numbered with Roman numerals or assigned letters to identify them. Page numbering may be sequential with the text, or a letter-number system may be adopted.

Papers will be typed or prepared on a word processor / computer and printed. The original will be presented to evaluators on 8 ½" x 11" white bond paper. Dark, clear printing is the standard. Teaching departments, elective professors, and research offices will issue instructions for binding and submission of papers and copies.

Selected Bibliography. The bibliography should contain entries of all sources used in the preparation of the paper including cited references and works consulted. It follows immediately after the endnotes. Page numbering should be in sequence with the text.

STYLISTIC FORMAT

Margins.

Top = One inch

Left = One and one-quarter inches

Right = One inch

Bottom = One inch

Word Processing Fonts: Use size 12. Serif fonts are preferable to sans-serif fonts because

the former are easier to read in blocks of text. This is an example of a serif font (Times New Roman). This is an example of a sans-serif font (Arial). Sans-serif fonts are better than serif fonts for display purposes (like signs), but are inferior to them for text.

Line Spacing. Typing should be double-spaced throughout the paper, except single-spaced for notes, quotations over 8 lines or 100 words, the table of contents, and the bibliography. Appendices may be single-spaced.

Page numbering. Pages are numbered in the center of each page, about one-half inch from the bottom edge of the paper. The pages of preliminary material (table of contents, list of illustrations, list of tables, preface, abstract) should be numbered with lowercase Roman numerals (ii, iii, iv, v). The title page is introductory page "i,” but should not be numbered.

For reference, appendix B of this Guide is a format example for a Naval War College paper.

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9.0 Classified Papers Classified papers are written at the Naval War College when required by the nature of the material addressed. As a general rule, classified papers advance the literature in limited ways due to their restricted distribution, but this should not discourage authors from pursuing classified topics. It is important that authors accomplish their classified research, writing, stowage, and document destruction in authorized NWC locations. Authors are also responsible for providing downgrading and declassification instructions, and for marking properly the manuscript (and all its components) in accordance with security regulations. Authors who intend to write a classified paper should visit the NWC Security Manager office to receive the most current guidance on what is required. Also, the reference librarians in the NWC Classified Library can assist with offline and online classified research.

10.0 Ethics and Integrity

We strive to maintain integrity at all times in written work. We are governed by the Exemplary Conduct Statute (Title X USC: 3583, 5947, and 8583), and the Academic Honor Code spelled out in NWC Academic Policy, the Student Handbook, course syllabi, and various other documents. The Code fosters and maintains the professional ethical standards required of faculty, staff, and students at the Naval War College. The Code particularly targets the following unacceptable activities: Plagiarism: the act of taking ideas, writings, or the like from another and passing them off as one’s own. Plagiarism includes the following: (a) duplication of an author’s words without both quotation marks and accurate references or footnotes; (b) use of an author’s ideas in paraphrase without accurate references or footnotes. Students are expected to give full credit in their written submissions when borrowing another’s words or ideas. Borrowing of words and ideas, with proper attribution, is not prohibited by this Code, and is desirable and inevitable in the preparation of a paper or an essay. A substantially borrowed but attributed paper may, however, lack the originality expected of graduate-level work; submission of such a paper may merit a low or failing grade, but is not plagiarism. Cheating: the giving, receiving, or using of unauthorized aid in support of one’s own efforts. Cheating includes the following: (a) gaining unauthorized access to exams, (b) assisting or receiving assistance from other students in the preparation of written assignments or during tests, unless specifically permitted, and/or (c) utilizing unauthorized materials (notes, texts, crib sheets and the like, in paper or electronic form) during tests. Misrepresentation: reusing a single paper for more than one purpose without permission or acknowledgement. Misrepresentation includes the following: (a) submitting a single paper or substantially the same paper for more than one course at the NWC without permission of the instructors; (b) submitting a paper or substantially the same paper previously prepared for some other purpose outside the NWC without acknowledging that it is an earlier work. Should you have any questions regarding whether your written work meets integrity standards, please ask an NWC faculty member.

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11.0 Conclusion Experience confirms that some students require structured guidance and assistance in the

preparation of their Naval War College papers. Even the best students may become better thinkers and writers by working through preparation of a paper. Some topics require greater amounts of research than others; but in each academic department the requirements are rigorous, the effort substantial, the available time limited, and the standards high. Accordingly, this Guide offers assistance for each step along the way—from conceptualizing the topic prior to conducting research, to proofreading the paper incident to its submission.

Most important to submission of an outstanding paper are: preparing a thorough, detailed outline; setting aside sufficient time to think and write; remembering the audience for whom the paper is intended; and carefully reading and revising the product before submission. These seem elementary points, but careful attention to them has time and again proven most worthwhile.

Although one can think without writing and–alas! We know it is true–one can write without thinking, these are not, ultimately, separate activities. I am not much impressed when a student tells me that he has thought A-Plus thoughts but has written them in C-Minus language. We do not think wordlessly and later put our thoughts into words. Language is a medium of thought as well as of expression; we think in and with words, just as we speak and write with words. In short, I believe that muddy writing is, more often than not, a symptom of muddy thinking. If I cannot say clearly what I want to say, I probably haven’t thought it out clearly. Taking the time to think can do wonders for our writing.7

7. Inis L. Claude Jr., "Valedictory, Mea Culpa, and Testament," in K.W. Thompson, ed., Community, Diversity, and a New World Order: Essays in Honor of Inis L. Claude Jr. (n.p., University Press of America, 1994), 314.

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STYLE GUIDE

This Style Guide presents entries to be accessible and transparent in terms of function. That is, rather than appearing in a straight alphabetical list, dictionary style, the items appear in major categories designated Terms and Usage, Abbreviations, Grammar and Punctuation, Mechanics, and Documentation. The Mechanics section is further divided into the component parts Capitalization, Spelling and Word Formation, Numbers, Italics, and Bullets. Entries in each section are arranged alphabetically and numbered for ease of cross-referencing and indexing.

Please refer to the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, for further clarification and additional guidance. Note, however, that the Naval War College guide diverges from the Chicago publication in several respects.

At NWC: • In both notes and bibliographies, use two letter postal codes to designate place of

publication in the United States, but spell out (do not abbreviate) place of publication for non-U.S. references.

• Indicate date accessed, in parentheses, for all electronic citations (e.g., accessed 1 June 2006). • Use the military format for dates (10 May 2005 vice May 10, 2005). • Use uppercase letters to designate all U.S. services (the Navy; the Marine Corps; the Army;

the Air Force; the Coast Guard). • Refer to article 2.249 in the NWC Writing and Style Guide for military rank abbreviations.

1.0 Terms and Usage This section contains explanations of the conventional use of selected common words (e.g., a

or an, bimonthly, entitle or title, while) and of terms having distinctive meanings in publishing (e.g.,

caption / legend, foreword, glossary, illustrations/figures, running heads, tables). It also provides

guidance on the use of terms that might prove distracting or offensive to readers (e.g., profanity,

sexist language) and identifies acceptable variants of certain words (e.g., U.S. Navy/Navy/USN,

weapon system/weapons system, World War I/First World War).

1.1 a/an. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds: a historical event, not an

historical event. Since an acronym is usually read as a series of letters or as a word, choose the

indefinite article in accordance with the pronunciation of the first letter (an NCAA decision) or

the pronunciation of the word (a NATO meeting).

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1.2 above. You may use above to refer to information higher on the same page or on a preceding

page: (e.g., There are flaws in the above interpretation.)

1.3 aerospace. See air and space (1.7).

1.4 aircraft. Show model designations by adding the letter without a space: F-4C, F/A-18F.

1.5 air force. Spell out air force either as a noun or an adjective. When referring to the United States

Air Force, you may use that term as well as U.S. Air Force, Air Force, or USAF.

1.6 Air Force–wide (adj., adv.). Use an en dash in this compound. See dash (3.2.6).

1.7 air and space. Use this term rather than aerospace.

1.8 and/or. Acceptable, but don’t overuse. According to Ebbitt and Ebbitt (see “Bibliography,” p.

236),”and/or is used primarily in business writing. . . . It is objected to by some readers because

and/or looks odd and because and or or alone is often all that’s needed. But it’s sometimes

useful when there are three alternatives—both the items mentioned or either one of them:

inflation and/or depression” (p. 24). See slash (3.2.17).

1.9 arms control (n.)

1.10 arms-control (adj.)

1.11 art, artwork. See illustrations (1.33).

1.12 back matter. Elements following the main text of a book are known as the back matter. In

order, they include appendix, chronology (if not in front matter), abbreviations (if not in front

matter), glossary, bibliography, list of contributors, and index(es). Use Arabic numerals to

number the pages of the back matter.

1.13 below. You may use below to refer to information lower on the same page or on a following

page: (e.g., These exercises, discussed below, are important to a unit’s training.)

1.14 biannual, biennial. Biannual and semiannual mean twice a year; biennial means every two

years. For clarity, use twice a year or every two years.

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1.15 bimonthly. Bimonthly can mean every two months or twice a month; semimonthly means

twice a month. For clarity, use every two months or twice a month.

1.16 biweekly. Biweekly can mean every two weeks or twice a week. For clarity, use every two

weeks or twice a week.

1.17 black (people) (n., adj.). You may capitalize or lowercase black(s); choose one style and use

it consistently. See Negro, Negroes (1.39); white (people) (1.70).

1.18 caption/legend. These terms, sometimes used interchangeably, refer to explanatory material

that appears immediately below an illustration (figure, photograph, etc.). Not necessarily a full

sentence, the caption/legend can consist of two or more sentences or a title followed by one or

more full sentences (Chicago, 12.8).

The caption/legend follows the figure number on a line parallel to and flush left with the bottom

of the illustration. Place a period at the end if it is a complete sentence; preferably, use sentence-style

capitalization even if it is not a complete sentence (see titles of works [4.1.148]; tables [1.55]). Do

not use a period at the end of a caption/legend that is an incomplete sentence unless you follow it

with a complete sentence:

Figure 1. Carrier air wing. As the Air Force assembles composite wings, it would do well to study how the Navy operates its carrier air wings. The composite nature of the carrier air wing is evident from this deck photo of the USS Theodore Roosevelt and its complement of aircraft. Figure 2. System flowchart applied to mission accomplishment

If the caption/legend is the title of a work of art, use headline-style capitalization and italics (Chicago, 12.33):

Figure 9. Starry Night

An illustration number may be separated from the caption/legend by a period or, if the number is typographically distinct, by a space. The word “figure” may be either spelled out or abbreviated as “fig.” (Chicago, 12.34):

Fig. 1. U.S. bomb tonnage dropped on Germany by month Figure 3 U.S. airpower versus the world Plate 3 Venice in winter

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Identify the source of an illustration with a credit line. Place it at the end of the

caption/legend, in parentheses or in different type (or both) (Chicago, 12.42). Use “reprinted

from” or “adapted from,” depending upon whether you have copied the illustration or modified

it, respectively:

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs (adapted from Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New World Order,” Airpower Journal 6, no. 3 [Fall 1992]: 51.)

A photographer’s name occasionally appears in small type parallel to the bottom side of a photograph (Chicago, 12.42). For material that the author has obtained free and without restrictions, the word “courtesy” may appear in the credit line (Chicago, 12.46):

Photograph courtesy of Col Mike Schrieve. Mayor Lunsford at the groundbreaking ceremony for the industrial plant, September 2002. Courtesy of Cathi Fredericks.

Unless fair use applies (see appendix B), an illustration reproduced from a published work under copyright requires formal permission (Chicago, 12.47):

Reproduced by permission from T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2000), facing 237.

If you use words such as left, right, top, bottom, or left to right to identify individual subjects

within an illustration, put them in italics, preceding the subjects they identify.

Figure 1. Left to right: George Jones, Henry Johnson, and John Hopkins Figure 3. Upper left, B-1; upper right, F-15; lower left, C-5; center, XV-3; lower right, XV-15

If your table of contents includes a list of illustrations, do not simply reprint the

captions/legends as they appear in the text. If they are lengthy, you should shorten

(Chicago, 12.55):

[caption]: The White Garden, reduced to its bare bones in early spring. The box hedges, which are still cut by hand, have to be carefully kept in scale with the small and complex garden as well as in keeping with the plants inside the “boxes.” [entry in list]: The White Garden in early spring

See illustrations/figures (1.33).

1.19 click. One kilometer.

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1.20 copyright. See appendix C of this guide.

1.21 dates. Write exact dates in the sequence day-month-year, without commas. Spell out the

month, use figures for the day, and use a four-digit year. When you use only the month and year,

no commas are necessary:

FDR referred to 7 December 1941 as a day that would live in infamy. The month March 2003 was special to her.

Do not use the all-numeral style for dates (3/11/50, etc.) in formal writing. However, in text

discussing the events of 11 September 2001, the use of 9/11 is acceptable (Chicago, 6.115). If

documentation, figures, and tables contain numerous dates, you may abbreviate certain months

(Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.) and use the sequence day-

month-year without internal punctuation (7 Dec. 1941) to reduce clutter

(Chicago, 9.39, 15.42, 17.225).

Choose one style for the documentation, figures, and tables, and use it consistently.

See numbers (4.3).

1.22 direct quotations. See quotations (5.3).

1.23 dot-com (n., adj.). A company that markets its products or services online via a World Wide

Web site.

1.24 East Berlin, East Germany. Use East Berlin or East Germany, not just Berlin or Germany

alone, in references to the city and country when they were divided.

1.25 entitle, title (v.). The verbs entitle and title are used interchangeably in the sense of

designating or calling by a title:

A book entitled [or titled] Roderick Random was on the list of required readings.

1.26 epigraph. An epigraph is a pertinent quotation that may be used at the head of a chapter. Do

not enclose an epigraph in quotation marks. Set it in italics in the same sized type as the text or in

Roman type in a size smaller.

24

Identify the source of the quotation on the following line. Cite only the author’s name (sometimes preceded by a dash) and usually the title of the work. If the author is well known, you may cite the last name only (Chicago, 1.38–.39).

Do not place an endnote at the end of an epigraph.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines.

—Ralph Waldo Emerson Essays, First Series: Self-Reliance

1.27 figures. See numbers (4.3) or illustrations/figures (1.33), as appropriate.

1.28 foreword. A foreword (not spelled forward) is part of the front matter of a book, appearing

before the preface. Usually it is two to four pages long and written by someone other than the

author of the book. The name of the person who wrote the foreword appears at the end of the

piece. See front matter (1.29).

1.29 front matter. Elements preceding the main text of a book are known as the front matter. In

order, they include the title page, copyright page, dedication, epigraph, table of contents, list of

illustrations, list of tables, foreword, about the author, preface, acknowledgments (if not part of

preface), introduction (if not part of text), abbreviations (if not part of back matter), and

chronology (if not in back matter) and abstract. Use lowercase Roman numerals to number the

pages of the front matter.

1.30 glossary. Include a glossary if you use a number of unfamiliar or technical terms in your text. Arrange the words to be defined in alphabetical order, each word on a separate line and accompanied by its definition. Place the glossary before the bibliography (Chicago, 1.87).

See back matter (1.12).

Glossary of Internet Terms

browser A client program (software) that is used to look at various kinds of Internet resources. cookie The most common meaning of “cookie” on the Internet refers to a piece of information sent

by a Web server to a Web browser that the browser software is expected to save and to send back to the server whenever the browser makes additional requests from the server.

download Transferring data (usually a file) from another computer to the computer you are using. The

opposite is upload.

25

If your text includes a number of acronyms or initialisms, you may wish to include them in a

list of abbreviations (an umbrella term that includes both acronyms and initialisms), located

before the bibliography.

Abbreviations

AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System LGB laser-guided bomb MANPADS man-portable air defense system

1.31 headings. See subheadings (1.53).

1.32 idem (the same). See notes (5.1).

1.33 illustrations/figures. Illustrations or figures (the terms are interchangeable) include maps,

line drawings, photographs, paintings, or charts (graphs, diagrams, flow charts, bar charts, etc.)

(Chicago, 12.3). Tables are not considered illustrations even though they occasionally may be

listed under a subhead in the list of illustrations (e.g., if space so dictates) (Chicago, 1.47).

See tables (1.55).

Place an illustration so that it appears as soon as possible after the first text reference to it. It

may precede the reference only if it appears on the same page or the same two-page spread as the

reference—or if the text is too short to permit placing it after the reference. If a book includes

more than a handful of illustrations, they should normally be numbered. However, if the

illustrations are neither integral to the text nor specifically mentioned, numbers are unnecessary

(Chicago, 12.10–.11, 12.15).

If appropriate, number illustrations consecutively throughout the text, and refer to them by

their numbers, either parenthetically (fig. 8) or as part of the text:

The totals shown in figure 3 are rounded off to the nearest dollar.

Maps are sometimes numbered separately if that is more convenient for readers (Chicago, 12.12).

26

If each chapter in a book is written by a different author, the numbering of figures and tables

restarts with each new chapter. For precise identification of figures and tables, use a combination

of chapter number, a period, and figure/table number: 2.1, 2.2., 2.3, and so forth. If a book has

appendices with figures and/or tables, the numbers should include the letter of the particular

appendix (A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, C.1, C.2, etc.).

If illustrations are gathered into a gallery (a section devoted solely to illustrations), they need not be numbered unless addressed in the text. If they are numbered and if other numbered illustrations are interspersed throughout the text, use two number sequences (e.g., “figure 1,” etc. for text illustrations and “plate 1,” etc. for gallery illustrations) (Chicago, 12.16).

It is seldom necessary to list illustrations printed together in a gallery or galleries separately in a list of illustrations. Their location may be noted at the end of the table of contents; for example, “Illustrations follow pages 130 and 288” (Chicago, 1.43).

An illustration number may be separated from the caption/legend by a period or, if the number is typographically distinct, by a space. The word “figure” may be either spelled out or abbreviated as “fig.” (Chicago, 12.34).

Fig. 1. U.S. bomb tonnage dropped on Germany by month Figure 3 U.S. airpower versus the world Plate 3 Venice in winter

Identify the source of the illustration with a credit line. Place it at the end of the

caption/legend, in parentheses or in different type (or both), introduced by reprinted from or

adapted from, depending upon whether you have copied the illustration or modified it,

respectively. Before using an illustration from a copyrighted source, obtain a formal (written)

release from copyright owner. See caption/legend (1.18); tables (1.55); appendix B.

If a book has either very many or very few illustrations, it is not necessary to include a list of them following the table of contents. Multiauthor books, a collection of symposia proceedings, and so forth do not usually include lists of illustrations. If such a list is included, it may be divided into subheadings if the book contains various types of illustrations (e.g., charts, photographs, plates, drawings, maps, etc.) (Chicago, 1.44–.45).

1.34 index. An index helps the reader find details about particular subjects. Meaningful entries

direct the reader to pertinent references in the text but not to merely passing remarks.

27

Consult the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style articles 18.1–.149 for information about

the preparation of an index.

1.35 Internet address. See URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator) (2.428).

1.36 latitude, longitude. Spell out the terms latitude and longitude in text or standing alone:

longitude 80 degrees east; the polar latitudes, from 20° 50' north latitude to 20° 50' south latitude.

In tables you may abbreviate as follows:

lat 41°15'40" N long 90°18'30" W

1.37 lists. Run lists into the text or set them apart in a vertical enumeration. Use Arabic numerals

in both styles.

For a run-in enumeration, enclose the numbers in parentheses without a period. Use commas

to separate items in a simple series if there is little or no punctuation within the items; otherwise,

use semicolons:

Plain English standards include the following: (1) present material in a logical, orderly sequence, (2) write in a clear, uncluttered style, and (3) write in active voice.

Note that items in the series should be syntactically parallel.

For a vertical enumeration, follow these principles:

1. Use a grammatically complete sentence (like the one above), followed by a colon, to introduce a vertical list.

2. Entries do not require periods at the end unless at least one entry is a complete sentence, in which case each entry requires a period at the end.

3. Items in a list should be syntactically similar.

4. If items are numbered, as they are in this example, a period follows each number, and each entry begins with a capital letter—whether or not the entry forms a complete sentence. 5. Unnumbered items, each of which consists of an incomplete sentence, should begin in lowercase and require no terminal punctuation. 6. If a list completes the sentence that introduces it, items begin with lowercase letters; commas or semicolons separate each item; and the last item ends with a period. (Such lists are often better run into the text rather than presented vertically.) (Chicago, 6.127, 6.129)

28

Set the list flush with the text or indent. Align run-over lines with the first word after the

numeral:

The following steps increase your effectiveness as a communicator: 1. Use English that is alive. 2. Analyze the purpose and audience, taking care to select a subject that will be of interest to

the audience. 3. Conduct the research. 4. Support your ideas.

Compose three sentences: 1. To illustrate the use of commas in dates 2. To distinguish the use of semicolons from the use of periods 3. To illustrate the use of parentheses within dashes The five categories of research sources are as follows: abstracts of student papers Navy sources DOD sources periodicals other sources The loan officer told Richard to 1. fill out the application forms, 2. make a copy for himself, and 3. return all paperwork in one week.

1.38 mottoes. Enclose mottoes and similar expressions in quotation marks, capitalize them as if

they were titles, or capitalize the first word only:

“A penny saved is a penny earned” was his favorite maxim. The flag bore the motto, Don’t Tread on Me.

He was fond of the motto, All for one and one for all.

1.39 Negro, Negroes. Because the use of Negro(es) may be offensive, use black(s), Black(s),

African-American(s). The use of Negro(es) is appropriate in certain historical citations: “In

October 1940, the War Department announced . . . that Negro Aviation Units would be

organized as soon as the necessary personnel were trained.” See black (people) (1.17);

white (people) (1.70).

29

1.40 nicknames. Enclose a nickname in quotation marks when it accompanies the full name:

George Herman “Babe” Ruth

Omit the quotation marks when a nickname is used as part of or in place of a personal name:

Stonewall Jackson the Iron Duke 1.41 percent. Always spell out percent in humanistic text, and precede it with Arabic numerals: a

10 percent increase. You may use the % symbol in tables and in scientific or statistical text.

1.42 preliminaries. See front matter (1.29).

1.43 profanity. Do not use profanity, vulgarity, abusive/offensive language, and so forth, in any

of the writing you do under the auspices of the Naval War College.

1.44 Blank.

1.45 retired military personnel. Use this style in running text:

Commander Ronald R. Dowdy, USN, retired.

1.46 running heads. Running heads are located at the tops of pages of published works; they

serve as reference points for readers. If running heads are to be included in a book, they should

also appear on the pages of the contents, preface, foreword, and so forth (but not on the first page

of those parts) when they run more than one page. Use the same running head (e.g., Contents,

Preface, etc.) on both the verso (left) and recto (right) pages of these front-matter elements.

Headings should not appear on display pages such as the title, disclaimer, and dedication.

The first page of a chapter should not contain a running head. Similarly, pages with part titles

or any page containing only a table or an illustration should not contain a running head. If a page

includes both a table (or an illustration) and lines of text, however, it should include a running

head. The following are some acceptable arrangements for running heads on text pages

(for others, see the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style, article 1.95):

Verso Recto Part title Chapter title

30

Chapter title Chapter title Chapter title Chapter subtitle Chapter number Chapter title Author (multiauthor books) Chapter title

Including the book title as a running head on the verso page is no longer common practice

since most readers know what book they’re reading and would rather have running heads tell

them where they are in the book.

Acceptable arrangements for running heads in the back matter include the following:

Verso Recto Appendix A Title of appendix Appendix Appendix (if not titled) Glossary Glossary Bibliography Bibliography Bibliography Section title Index Index

1.47 Russia, Russian. Use Russia and Russian in reference to the nation before 1917; to the

former Russian Soviet Socialist Republic; to the independent state formed after the breakup of

the Soviet Union in 1991; and to the language and the ethnological origin of the people of that

state. See CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) (2.71); Soviet Union, USSR (1.52).

1.48 semiannual. Avoid semiannual; use twice a year.

1.49 sexist language. Do not use terms that denigrate or patronize people (the weaker sex), that

stereotype occupations by sex (always referring to a nurse as she or a pilot as he), or that exclude

either sex from positions of authority (a commander should brief his staff on new policy).

You may use pairs of masculine and feminine pronouns (his or her, he or she, him or her) in

reference to antecedents whose sex is unspecified (every patient had his or her temperature

checked). Such references can become numerous and awkward, however, so use them sparingly.

You can avoid this problem by making both the pronoun and antecedent plural (all patients had

their temperatures checked). If the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun (each, either, neither, one,

no one, everyone, someone, anyone, nobody, everybody, somebody, anybody), which is

31

considered singular, use a pair of singular pronouns—not a plural pronoun—to refer to it

(everyone had his or her temperature checked [instead of] everyone had their temperature

checked). Avoid the practice of alternating masculine and feminine pronouns in referring to

antecedents of unspecified sex (using she in one passage and he in another) since this may be

confusing to readers. Similarly, avoid such clumsy combinations as he/she and s/he as pronouns

of common gender.

You may use she (and appropriate variants) in reference to nations, cities, and ships (Britain

must guard her traditions).

You may use he (and appropriate variants) in reference to military foes (The enemy had

massed his forces on the border).

You may use man, whether freestanding or in compounds, in references to occupations and

offices (policeman, chairman, congressman) or to both men and women (mankind, manpower,

free men). However, if you find such usage offensive or you believe your audience might,

consider substituting gender-neutral terms (officer, chairperson or chair, member of Congress,

persons, people).

1.50 sic (so; thus; in this manner). Use sic, italicized and bracketed, to indicate misspelling or

improper usage in original text:

The newscaster announced that “the pilot got out of his plane and laid [sic] down on the ground after his harrowing flight.”

1.51 so-called. A word or words following so-called should not be enclosed in quotation marks or

italicized: The so-called model citizen beat his wife regularly.

1.52 Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR. Use Soviet(s), Soviet Union, or USSR instead of Russian(s)

or Russia in references to the people or the nation from 1917 to 1991. See CIS (Commonwealth

of Independent States) (2.71).

32

1.53 subheadings. Use up to three levels of subheadings to divide text: centered, flush and

hang, and run-in (highest to lowest). Text should be divided into at least two parts (i.e., at least

two centered, at least two flush-and-hang, and at least two run-in subheadings). If at all possible,

do not “stack” headings (i.e., do not immediately follow one heading with another); rather,

separate headings by text. Do not place an endnote at the end of subheadings; instead, find an

appropriate place in the running text for the note number.

Observations [centered]

Given this background, the key question remains, Does the composite wing work in combat? The answer is obvious. . . . Why the Composite Wing Worked So Well [flush and hang] The composite training undergone by the wing's personnel contributed to the successful completion of their mission. . . . Evaluation and Inspection. [run-in] Tactical evaluations, operational readiness inspections, and other exercises have created a solid foundation of training in both units and individuals. . . .

1.54 subtitle. Use a colon to separate a title from its subtitle. One space follows the colon.

Alternatively, the subtitle may be set in a smaller size font than that of the main title (no colon).

Skating on Thin Ice: A Study of Honesty in Political Campaigning

Skating on Thin Ice A Study of Honesty in Political Campaigning

1.55 tables. Tables permit the economical presentation of large amounts of information. Number

all tables and refer to them in the text by those numbers, either directly or parenthetically. In

referring to a table, don’t just repeat the facts presented in the table. Most of the time, a simple

cross-reference is sufficient (see table 10). Number the tables (with Arabic numerals) in the order

in which they appear in the text. Numbering is continuous throughout the text. However, if a

book consists of chapters by different authors, the numbering restarts with each chapter (e.g., 1.1,

1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, etc.). If a book has appendices with tables, the table numbers should

include the letter of the particular appendix (A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, C.1, C.2, etc.).

33

Place the title above the table, flush left with the table, following the number, separated by punctuation or by space and typographic distinction. Use sentence-style capitalization; if the author and editor prefer, headline-style is also acceptable (one style should be used consistently throughout the text). Alternatively (and less commonly), the number may appear on a line by itself, with the title starting a new line (Chicago, 13.16, 13.18):

Table 3. Army and air component budgets, 1922–41

TABLE 3 Army and air component budgets, 1922–41

Table 6

Army officer manning between the world wars

The title should identify the table and give facts rather than provide discussion and comment:

Table 3. Improvement of prediction of peer leadership characteristics

Not:

Table 3. Improvement of prediction of peer leadership characteristics by addition of other managerial leadership characteristics

If the table continues to other pages, use a notation such as Table 3 (continued) at the top of

the next page. Parenthetical information included in the title should be lowercased:

Table 13. Federal employees in the progressive era (total plus selected agencies)

A table must have at least two columns. At the top of the columns, include headings that

identify the material in the columns. Do not use vertical rules to separate the columns. Make the

first column heading singular in number (e.g., Party). The other headings may be singular or

plural (e.g., Votes, Seats won). Preferably, all headings should be in sentence-style

capitalization. If you include subheadings with the column headings, enclose them in

parentheses. You may use abbreviations in the subheadings. Because the width of the column

headings determines the width of the table, keep the headings as brief as possible.

List the names of items in the left-hand column (stub) of your table; use sentence-style

capitalization and put information about them in the other columns. Be sure that items in the stub

are grammatically parallel. Do not number stub items, and do not use ditto marks in the stub.

Indent runover lines one em. Write stub items in sentence style, without a period at the end:

34

Computers at headquarters Zenith Gateway IBM Printers at headquarters Hewlett-Packard Epson Star

If you use the word Total at the foot of the stub, indent it more deeply than the greatest indention above it or distinguish it typographically (Chicago, 13.29). Align a column of figures on the decimal points or commas. Also align dollar signs and

percentage signs. If all figures in a column are the same kind, place the dollar signs and

percentage signs only at the top of the column and after any horizontal rule cutting across it.

Omit the signs if the table title or column head identifies the figures.

In a column consisting of information expressed in words, center all items if they are short,

but flush them left if they are long.

If you wish to refer to specific parts of a table, use superior letters—beginning with a—as reference marks. You may use them on column headings, on stub items, and in the body of the table—but not on the table number or title. Place the reference marks beginning at the upper left and extending across the table and downward, row by row. If you reproduce a table from another source, identify it below the body of the table, introduced by the word Source(s) (often in italics and followed by a colon). Since the word source lacks specificity, consider using reprinted from or adapted from, depending upon whether you have copied the table or modified it, respectively. Unless fair use applies (see appendix B), a table reproduced without change from a published work under copyright requires formal permission (Chicago, 13.45). Do not identify the source by placing a note number after either the table number or the title and then including an endnote in the list of chapter notes. A note applying to the table as a whole follows any source note, is unnumbered, and is introduced by the word Note and a colon (often in italics) (Chicago, 13.46). If a book has either very many or very few tables, it is not necessary to include a list of them. Multiauthor books, a collection of symposia proceedings, and so forth do not usually include lists of tables (Chicago, 1.44). If such a list is included, it follows the list of illustrations, if there is one. Although tables are not considered illustrations, they may occasionally be listed under a subhead in the list of illustrations (e.g., if space so dictates) (Chicago, 1.47).

35

1.56 the. If an initial the is part of the titles of journals, magazines, or newspapers,

incorporate it into the surrounding text: See abbreviations (2.0).

Most of the people in the office read the Wall Street Journal.

Omit an initial the in note and bibliography entries:

1. Cameron W. Barr, “Mideast Takes a First Wary Step,” Wall Street Journal, 30 June 2003.

1.57 trademarks. The symbols ® and ™, which often accompany registered trademark names on

product packaging and in advertisements, need not be used in running text.

1.58 Truman, Harry S. Use a period after the initial S.

1.59 United States. Spell out United States in text when it is used as a noun. See abbreviations

(2.0); U.S. (United States) (2.429).

1.60 United States Air Force, U.S. Air Force, Air Force, USAF. See USAF (United States Air

Force) (2.431).

1.61 United States Army, U.S. Army, Army, USA

1.61.1 United States Coast Guard, U.S. Coast Guard, Coast Guard, USCG

1.62 United States Marine Corps, U.S. Marine Corps, Marine Corps, the Corps, USMC

1.63 United States Navy, U.S. Navy, Navy, USN

1.64 upon (prep.). Upon may be used as a synonym of on: (e.g., His salary depends upon his

performance.)

1.65 vice (prep.). Vice can mean “in place of, replacing”: John Doe was appointed postmaster vice

Richard Roe.

1.66 weapon system(s) or weapons system(s). Choose one variant of this phrase, and use it

consistently.

1.67 Web address. See URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator) (2.428); see Web, Web

site, Web-site (adj.) (4.1.153).

36

1.68 West Berlin, West Germany. Use West Berlin or West Germany, not Berlin or Germany

alone, in references to the city and country when they were divided.

1.69 while. You may use this term to mean “during the time that”:

Take a nap while I’m out.

or “as long as”:

While there’s life, there’s hope.

or “whereas”:

Skiing is easy for an expert, while it is dangerous for a novice.

or “although”:

While respected, he is not liked.

or “similarly and at the same time that”:

While the book will be welcomed by scholars, it will make an immediate appeal to the general reader.

1.70 white (people). Use white (or White) officer, white (or White) people, whites (or Whites),

Caucasians. See Black (people) (1.17); Negro, Negroes (1.39).

1.71 word division. Generally, you should follow the syllable division indicated in the dictionary

when you break words at the end of lines. Note the following prohibitions: do not carry over a

final syllable whose only vowel sound is that of a syllabic "1” (prin-ciples, not princi-ples); do

not carry over a vowel that forms a syllable in the middle of a word (preju-dice, not prej-udice);

do not divide a word if doing so would result in a one-letter division (e.g., again, idol, item,

unite); avoid carrying over two-letter endings (fully, not ful-ly); if possible, do not break

hyphenated compound words except at the hyphen (court-/martial, not court-mar-/tial); words

originally compounds of other words but now spelled solid should be divided at the natural

breaks whenever possible (school-master is better than schoolmas-ter); also, try to make a

division after a prefix rather than dividing at any other point in the word (dis-pleasure is better

than displea-sure). Do not end more than three succeeding lines in hyphens.

37

1.72 World War I , the First World War, the Great War, the war, the world war

1.73 World War II, the Second World War, the war, the world war

1.74 Xerox. The term Xerox is a registered trademark. You can use the capitalized word as a noun

meaning a xerographic copier and the lowercased word (xerox) as a verb meaning to copy on a

Xerox copier.

1.75 zero, zeros (also zeroes). Use a 0 in tables to denote zero amount instead of using a dash or

leaving the space blank.

1.76 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code; zip (n.); zip-code (v.). In writing a mailing

address, do not use a comma before the ZIP code (or after, if including ”USA”).

Troy, AL 36081 USA

2.0 Abbreviations

“Abbreviations” is an inclusive term for “acronyms” (terms based on the initial letters of words and read as single words [NATO, NORAD]),”initialisms” (terms read as a series of letters [NBC, ISR]), and “contractions” (terms consisting of the first and last letters of full words [Mr., Dr.]), as well as other shortened forms of words (Chicago, 15.3).

Use abbreviations sparingly: do not abbreviate words and phrases merely for the sake of

doing so when brevity is not of the essence, and do not saturate writing with abbreviations to the

detriment of reader comprehension.

Avoid using abbreviations in headings unless the spelled-out term would make the heading

unwieldy. You may, however, begin or end a sentence with an abbreviation.

Spell out the name of an agency, organization, and so forth, the first time you use it, and

follow it with the abbreviation in parentheses; you may use the abbreviation (without periods)

thereafter; also, if you are certain that your audience is familiar with a particular abbreviation [e.g.,

NAVSTA, USN], you need not define it on first usage:

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

38

Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Cable News Network (CNN) program evaluation review technique (PERT)

To assist the reader, you may want to spell out an abbreviation that you have identified previously—

especially when you haven’t used it in a long time—and then resume using the abbreviation (it isn’t

necessary to include it again parenthetically after the subsequent spelled-out form):

The Pioneer unmanned aerial vehicle provided substantial imagery support to Army, Marine Corps, and Navy units during Operation Desert Storm. These UAVs were so good that many more could have been used.

Although a term may be plural or possessive, do not make the abbreviation plural or

possessive on first usage: cluster bomb units (CBU); low noise amplifiers (LNA). Use the plural or

possessive form for subsequent occurrences of the abbreviation, when appropriate: CBUs, LNA’s.

Even though an abbreviation may stand for a plural term (e.g., precision-guided munitions

[PGM]), consider the abbreviation itself a singular noun: PGMs (plural), PGM’s (possessive), the

PGM is (not are).

Generally, use the with an abbreviation if you would use it with the spelled-out term in the

particular context in which it appears, unless the combination seems awkward:

He works for the DOD. The city is home to many DOD employees. NATO found itself at a crossroads. Use capital letters for the abbreviations of computer-file extensions such as PDF, GIF, and

JPG (or JPEG) unless they are actually appended to file names (f22.jpg).

Italicize an abbreviation only if it would be italicized if spelled out (Chicago, 15.8): Oxford English Dictionary (OED) Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)

Spell out the names of countries in text when they are used as nouns (although you may use

USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] to refer to the country as it existed between 1917 and

1991). If space is a consideration, you may abbreviate the names of countries in tables, lists, notes,

and so forth. See also CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) (2.71);

39

U.S. (United States) (2.429); USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) (2.448). Always spell out

the names of non-U.S. countries when they appear in notes and bibliographic citations.

United States (U.S.) United Kingdom (UK) France (Fr.) United Arab Emirates (UAE) Germany (Ger.) Israel (Isr.)

Abbreviate civilian and military titles or ranks that precede a person’s full name according to

the list found at 2.249. Do not use periods with military ranks. Do not include military rand or

academic title with the name in footnotes, endnotes, or bibliographic citations (Chicago, 17.20).

Spell out titles or ranks that precede a person’s last name only. See military titles and offices (2.249)

ADM Chester W. Nimitz Admiral Nimitz VADM John Smith Admiral Smith RADM Michael Wiggins Admiral Wiggins CDR Henry Price Commander Price Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris Marshal Harris Gen Richard B. Myers General Myers Brig Gen James Stewart General Stewart Lt Col Martin L. Green Colonel Green Maj Frank T. Boothe Major Boothe Capt Donald D. Martin Captain Martin 1st Lt Peter N. Cushing Lieutenant Cushing 2d Lt Boyd D. Yeats Lieutenant Yeats CMSgt Robert Patterson Chief Patterson MSgt Walter Austin Sergeant Austin A1C K. L. Jones Airman Jones Prof. Harold Bloom Professor Bloom Assoc. Prof. John Cooper Professor Cooper Asst. Prof. Dwight Hicks Professor Hicks Gov. Bob Riley Governor Riley Pres. George W. Bush President Bush Amb. John D. Negroponte Ambassador Negroponte Rep. Terry Everett (R-AL]) Representative Everett Cong. Robert Cramer (D-AL]) Congressman Cramer Senator Jon Kyl (R-AZ]) Senator Kyl Rev. John Brannon the Reverend John Brannon Hon. James Lunsford the Honorable James Lunsford

Always abbreviate social titles whether they precede the full name or last name only: Ms., Mrs., Messrs., Mr., Dr. When Mister or Doctor is used without a name, in direct address, spell it out (Chicago, 15.16). Spell out a unit of measure on first usage, follow it with the abbreviation in parentheses, and

use the abbreviation thereafter. In nonscientific copy, periods customarily accompany English units

of measure (e.g., lb., mi., in., ft., cu. in., qt., gal.) (Chicago, 15.71).

40

Capitalize abbreviations for terms derived from proper names (e.g., Hz). Singular and plural

abbreviated forms for units of measure are the same (e.g., 5 lb.). See numbers (4.3).

gallon gal. hertz Hz kilogram kg miles per hour mph degrees Celsius 70° C revolutions per minute rpm kilometer km millimeter mm pounds per square inch psi nautical mile nm

Spell out the names of states, territories, possessions of the United States and foreign countries in textual material. When the names appear in lists, tabular matter, notes, bibliographies, and indexes, use the two-letter, no-period state abbreviations preferred by the U.S. Postal Service (Chicago, 15.29, 15.33).

Alabama (AL) Kansas (KS) North Dakota (ND) Alaska (AK) Kentucky (KY) Ohio (OH) American Samoa (AS) Louisiana (LA) Oklahoma (OK) Arizona (AZ) Maine (ME) Oregon (OR) Arkansas (AR) Maryland (MD) Pennsylvania (PA) California (CA) Massachusetts (MA) Puerto Rico (PR) Colorado (CO) Michigan (MI) Rhode Island (RI) Connecticut (CT) Minnesota (MN) South Carolina (SC) Delware (DE) Mississippi (MS) South Dakota (SD) District of Columbia (DC) Missouri (MO) Tennessee (TN) Florida (FL) Montana (MT) Texas (TX) Georgia (GA) Nebraska (NE) Utah (UT) Guam (GU) Nevada (NV) Vermont (VT) Hawaii (HI) New Hampshire (NH) Virginia (VA) Idaho (ID) New Jersey (NJ) Virgin Islands (VI) Illinois (IL) New Mexico (NM) Washington (WA) Indiana (IN) New York (NY) West Virginia (WV) Iowa (IA) North Carolina (NC) Wisconsin (WI)

Wyoming (WY)

In notes, bibliographies, and reference lists, you may use abbreviations freely, but be

consistent. You also may use abbreviated forms in parenthetical references. Use the following terms:

vol. 1, bk. 1, pt. 2, no. 2, chap. 2, fig. 4, art. 3, sec. 4, par. 5, col. 6, p. 7, n.d. (no date). The plurals

are vols., bks., pts., nos., chaps., figs., arts., secs., pars., cols., pp.

2.1 AAA (antiaircraft artillery)

2.2 AAM (air-to-air missile)

41

2.3 AB (air base). Cite a first reference to a specific air base as follows: Rhein-Main Air Base

(AB), Germany. Subsequent references: Rhein-Main AB, Germany; the air base.

2.4 ABCCC (airborne battlefield command and control center)

2.5 ABM (antiballistic missile)

2.6 academic degrees and titles. Abbreviate academic degrees and titles (no periods) after a

personal name. See also associate’s degree (4.1.22); bachelor’s degree (4.1.23); doctorate

(4.1.55); master’s degree (4.1.97).

BA MA PhD LLD MD DDS JP (justice of the peace) MP (member of Parliament)

2.7 ACC (Air Combat Command)

2.8 ACSC (Air Command and Staff College)

2.9 AD (anno Domini). Use full caps without periods; the abbreviation precedes the year:

AD 107. See also BC (before Christ) (2.43, 4.1.26).

2.10 ADVON (advanced echelon)

2.11 AEF (air and space expeditionary force)

2.12 AEG (air expeditionary group)

2.13 AETC (Air Education and Training Command)

2.14 AETF (air and space expeditionary task force)

2.15 AEW (airborne early warning; air expeditionary wing)

2.16 AFB (Air Force base). Because of its familiarity, you need not spell out this abbreviation on

first usage: Maxwell AFB, Alabama. Subsequent references: the Air Force base; the base. In

notes and bibliographies, abbreviate the name of the state: Maxwell AFB, AL.

42

2.17 AFCC (Air Force Component Commander)

2.18 AI (air interdiction)

2.19 AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

2.20 ALCM (air launched cruise missile)

2.21 a.m. (ante meridiem [before noon]). Either write the abbreviation in lowercase with periods

or set it in small caps without periods (choose one style and use it consistently): 9:00 a.m. or

9:00 AM.

2.22 AMC (Air Mobility Command)

2.23 ampersand (&). Change an ampersand in original titles to and (Aviation Week and Space

Technology). Consistently use either the ampersand or and as it appears in company names in

notes, bibliographies, lists, and parenthetical references (Harper & Row, Harper and Row), but

use and in running text. The ampersand also occurs in some abbreviations: R&D (no space on

either side of the ampersand in such abbreviations).

2.24 AMRAAM (advanced medium-range air-to-air missile)

2.25 ANG (Air National Guard). Capitalize the shortened title: the Guard.

2.26 AO (area of operations)

2.27 AOC (air and space operations center)

2.28 AOR (area of responsibility)

2.29 ARM (antiradiation missile)

2.30 ARNG (Army National Guard). Shortened form: the Guard.

2.31 ASAP (as soon as possible)

2.32 ASAT (antisatellite weapon)

2.33 ASBC (Air and Space Basic Course)

2.34 ATACMS (Army Tactical Missile System)

43

2.35 ATAF (Allied Tactical Air Force)

2.36 ATO (air tasking order)

2.37 AU (Air University)

2.38 AUL (Air University Library)

2.39 AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System)

2.40 AWC (Air War College)

2.41 AWOL (absent without leave). Synonymous with ”UA,” Unauthorized Absentee.

2.42 base. See AB (air base) (2.3); AFB (Air Force base) (2.16).

2.43 BC (before Christ). Use full caps without periods; the abbreviation follows the year:

240 BC. See also AD (anno Domini) (2.9, 4.1.5).

2.44 BCE (before the common era). See CE (2.64).

Herod Antipas (21 BCE–39 CE) was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE until his death. (Chicago, 9.38)

2.45 BDA (battle damage assessment)

2.46 BMD (ballistic missile defense)

2.47 BMDO (Ballistic Missile Defense Organization)

2.48 BRAC (base realignment and closure)

2.49 BVR (beyond visual range)

2.50 C2 or C2 (command and control)

2.51 C3 or C3 (command, control, and communications)

2.52 C3I or C3I (command, control, communications, and intelligence)

2.53 C4 or C4 (command, control, communications, and computers)

2.54 C4I or C4I (command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence)

2.54.1 CA (Civil Affairs) USA and USMC personnel trained to support Civil Military operations.

2.55 CADRE (College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education)

44

2.56 CALCM (conventional air-launched cruise missile)

2.57 CAOC (combat [or combined] air operations center); (combat [or combined] air and

space operations center)

2.58 CAP (Civil Air Patrol; combat air patrol; crisis action planning)

2.59 CAS (close air support)

2.60 CBRNE (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear Effects)

2.61 CBU (cluster bomb unit)

2.62 CBW (chemical and biological warfare)

2.63 CC (Community College)

2.64 CE (of the common era). See BCE (2.44)

Herod Antipas (21 BCE–39 CE) was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE until his death. (Chicago, 9.38)

2.65 CEPME (College for Enlisted Professional Military Education)

2.66 CFACC (combined force air component commander); (combined force air and space

component commander)

2.67 chapter. Abbreviate chapter in parenthetical references (chap. 5). Lowercase and spell out

the word in text. Use Arabic figures for chapter numbers, even if the chapter numbers in the

work cited are spelled out or in Roman numerals. The same principle holds true for other

divisions of a book: part 1, section 3, book 7, volume 2.

2.68 CHOP (change of operational control)

2.69 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)

2.70 CINC (commander in chief). Use only in reference to the President of the United States.

Use commander of a combatant command in reference to leaders of combatant or unified

commands (e.g., commander of U.S. Central Command).

45

2.71 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States). The free association of sovereign states

formed in 1991, comprising Russia and 11 other republics formerly part of the Soviet Union.

See Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR (1.52).

2.72 CJCS (Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff)

2.73 CMC (Commandant, United States Marine Corps)

2.74 CNA (computer network attack); (Center for Naval Analyses)

2.75 CNC&S (College of Naval Command & Staff at Naval War College)

2.75.1 CMO (Civil Military Operations)

2.76 CNO (Chief of Naval Operations)

2.77 CNW (College of Naval Warfare at Naval War College)

2.78 CO (commanding officer)

2.79 COC (combat operations center)

2.80 COCOM (Combatant Command)

2.81 COG (center of gravity)

2.82 COMAFFOR (commander, Air Force forces)

2.83 COMPUSEC (computer security)

2.84 COMSAT (communications satellite)

2.85 CONOPS (concept of operations)

2.86 CONPLAN (concept plan) An operation plan in concept format.

2.87 CONUS (continental United States)

2.88 CRAF (civil reserve air fleet)

2.89 CSA (Chief of Staff, United States Army)

2.90 CSAF (Chief of Staff, United States Air Force)

2.91 CSAR (combat search and rescue)

46

2.92 CSG (carrier strike group)

2.93 CV (conventionally-powered aircraft carrier; carrier)

2.94 CVN (nuclear-powered aircraft carrier)

2.95 CW (chemical warfare)

2.96 DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)

2.97 DC (District of Columbia)

2.98 DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration)

2.99 DEFCON (defense readiness condition)

2.100 DET (detachment)

2.101 DFAS (Defense Finance and Accounting Service)

2.102 DHS (Department of Homeland Security)

2.103 DIA (Defense Intelligence Agency)

2.104 DMPI (designated [or desired] mean point of impact)

2.105 DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program)

2.106 DMZ (demilitarized zone)

2.107 doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives. On first

usage, spell out the type of publication (doctrine document, instruction, etc.) and follow it with

the abbreviation in parentheses; use the abbreviation and number for subsequent references.

Italicize the title of the publication:

(e.g., Joint Publication (JP) 3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations, JP 3-0)

2.108 DOD (Department of Defense)

2.109 DODD (Department of Defense directive)

2.110 DODI (Department of Defense instruction)

2.111 DODM (Department of Defense manual)

47

2.112 DODR (Department of Defense regulation)

2.113 Dr. (doctor). Use a period with the abbreviation. See abbreviations (2.0);

Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. (2.260); Messrs., Mmes. (2.243).

2.114 DRU (direct reporting unit)

2.115 DSN (Defense Switched Network)

2.116 EAF (expeditionary air and space forces)

2.117 EBO (effects-based operations). Also, EBP (Effects Based Planning), EBA (Effects Based

Applications).

2.118 e.g. (for example). Avoid using e.g. in text; use for example instead. Use the abbreviation,

followed by a comma, only in parenthetical references or tabular matter.

2.119 ELINT (electronic intelligence)

2.120 EO (executive order). Lowercase and spell out executive order in general references when

the number is not given: the executive order. Always capitalize the term when a number

accompanies it, but abbreviate the term with the number only after spelling it out on first

reference: Executive Order (EO) 1654, EO 1654, the executive order.

2.121 ESG (expeditionary strike group)

2.122 et al. (and others). Et al. follows the full name of the first author listed in a note reference to

a work by more than three authors:

1. Jaroslav Pelikan et al., Religion and the University, York University Invitation Lecture Series (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), 109.

2.123 etc. (and so forth). The spelled-out term et cetera is rarely used. Use its abbreviation, etc.,

only in lists, tables, and parenthetical references. Use and so forth in running text, set off by

commas.

Joan had a variety of candy bars in her purse (Baby Ruths, Snickers, Mounds, etc.). The animal shelter offered such dogs as terriers, Pomeranians, Chihuahuas, and so forth, for adoption.

48

2.124 EU (European Union)

2.125 EW (early warning; electronic warfare)

2.126 FAC (forward air controller)

2.127 FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

2.128 FBIS (Foreign Broadcast Information Service)

2.129 FEBA (forward edge of the battle area)

2.130 FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency)

2.131 FFC (Fleet Forces Command)

2.132 FLIR (forward-looking infrared)

2.133 FLOT (forward line of own troops)

2.134 FM (field manual)

2.135 FOA (field operating agency)

2.136 FOIA (Freedom of Information Act)

2.137 FOUO (for official use only)

2.138 FP (force protection)

2.139 FPCON (force protection condition)

2.140 FRAG (fragmentation code)

2.140.1 FRAGO (fragmentary order)

2.141 frequencies. See abbreviations (2.0).

2.143 FSCL (fire support coordination line)

2.144 FW (fighter wing)

2.145 FY (fiscal year). FY 2004, FY 04.

2.146 GAO (Government Accountability Office); (prior to 2004:General Accounting Office)

2.147 GBU (guided bomb unit)

49

2.148 GCA (ground controlled approach)

2.149 GCI (ground control intercept)

2.150 general (military rank). See abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1); military titles and

offices (2.249).

2.151 GEO (geosynchronous Earth orbit)

2.152 g-force (apparent weight increase of an object due to gravitational forces)

2.153 GHz (gigahertz)

2.154 GLCM (ground launched cruise missile)

2.155 GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)

2.156 GO (general order). Lowercase and spell out general order in references when the number is

not given: the general order. Capitalize the term when a number accompanies it, but

abbreviate the term with the number only after spelling it out on first reference: General

Order (GO) 6-325, GO 6-325, the general order.

2.157 GPS (global positioning system)

2.158 GSA (General Services Administration)

2.158.1 HA (Humanitarian Assistance)

2.159 HARM (high-speed antiradiation missile)

2.160 HF (high frequency)

2.161 H hour (specific time when an operation or exercise begins)

2.162 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

2.163 HMMWV (high mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle)

2.164 HMW (health, morale, and welfare)

2.165 HRO (humanitarian relief organizations) May also refer to Human Resources Office.

2.166 HUD (head-up display)

50

2.167 HUMINT (human intelligence)

2.168 HUMRO (humanitarian relief operation)

2.169 Hz (Hertz)

2.170 IA (information attack)

2.171 IADS (Integrated Air Defense System)

2.172 ibid. (in the same place). The abbreviation “ibid.” (“ibidem,” “in the same place”) refers to a single work cited in the note immediately preceding. Do not use “ibid.” if more than one work is cited in the preceding note (Chicago, 16.47). Do not italicize this abbreviation in your notes. Do not use op. cit. (opere citato, ”in the work cited”) or loc. cit. (loco citato, ”in the place cited”). Instead, use the shortened form of the citation. You may use “ibid.” within the note to indicate successive references to the same work (Chicago, 16.48).

7. Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1993), 331. 8. Ibid., 301. 9. Richard B. Myers, “A Word from the Chairman: Shift to a Global Perspecitve,” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 5.”By shifting our view from a regional to a global perspective, we will better comprehend and respond to America’s security needs in the twenty-first century” (ibid., 8).

2.173 ICAF (Industrial College of the Armed Forces)

2.174 ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missile)

2.175 i.e. (that is). Avoid using i.e. in running text; use that is instead. Use the abbreviation,

followed by a comma, only in parenthetical references or tabular matter.

2.176 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

2.177 IFF (identification, friend or foe)

2.178 IG (inspector general)

2.179 IMA (individual mobilization augmentee)

2.180 IMINT (imagery intelligence)

2.181 INFOCON (information operations condition)

51

2.182 INFOSEC (information security)

2.183 INS (inertial navigation system)

2.184 INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization)

2.185 IO (information operations)

2.186 I/O (input/output)

2.187 IOS (International Officer School)

2.188 IR (infrared)

2.189 ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance)

2.190 IW (information warfare)

2.191 I&W (indications and warning)

2.192 J-1 (manpower and personnel directorate of a joint staff)

2.193 J-2 (intelligence directorate of a joint staff)

2.194 J-3 (operations directorate of a joint staff)

2.195 J-4 (logistics directorate of a joint staff)

2.196 J-5 (plans directorate of a joint staff)

2.197 J-6 (command, control, communications, and computer systems directorate of a joint staff)

2.198 J-7 (Operational Plans and Joint Force Development, Joint Staff)

2.199 J-8 (Director for Force Structure, Resource, and Assessment, Joint Staff)

2.200 JAG (judge advocate general)

2.201 JAOC (joint air operations center); (joint air and space operations center)

2.202 JAOP (joint air operations plan); (joint air and space operations plan)

2.203 JASSM (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile)

2.204 JAWS (Joint Advanced Warfighting School)

2.205 JCS (Joint Chiefs of Staff). Shortened form: Joint Chiefs.

52

2.206 JDAM (Joint Direct Attack Munition)

2.207 JFACC (joint force air component commander)

2.208 JFC (joint force commander)

2.209 JFLCC (joint force land component commander)

2.210 JFMCC (joint force maritime component commander)

2.211 JFSOCC (joint force special operations component commander)

2.212 JOC (joint operations center)

2.213 JP (joint publication)

2.214 Jr. Use with a period. Commas are not required; if you do use commas, place one before and

after the abbreviation. Select one style, and use it consistently. Use a comma before the

abbreviation when the name is inverted (as in an index).

James Adair Jr. is the mayor. James Adair, Jr., is the mayor. Adair, James, Jr.

2.215 JSOW (joint standoff weapon)

2.216 JSTARS (Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System)

2.217 JTF (joint task force)

2.218 kg (kilogram)

2.219 kHz (kilohertz)

2.220 KIA (killed in action)

2.221 km (kilometer)

2.222 LANDSAT (land satellite)

2.223 LANTFLT (U.S. Atlantic Fleet)

2.224 LANTIRN (low-altitude navigation and targeting infrared for night)

53

2.225 latitude, longitude. Spell out latitude and longitude in text or standing alone: longitude

80 degrees east; the polar latitudes, from 20° 50' north latitude to 20° 50' south latitude.

In tables you may abbreviate as follows: lat 41°15'40" N long 90°18'30" W

2.226 LEO (low Earth orbit)

2.227 LF (low frequency)

2.228 LGB (laser-guided bomb)

2.229 LGM (laser-guided missile)

2.230 LGW (laser-guided weapon)

2.231 LIC (low intensity conflict)

2.232 LIMFAC (limiting factor)

2.233 LOC (line of communications)

2.234 loc. cit. (loco citato).”In the place cited.” Instead of loc. cit., use a shortened reference (2.172)

See notes (5.1).

2.235 LORAN (long-range aid to navigation)

2.236 MAAP (master air attack plan)

2.237 MAGTF (Marine air-ground task force)

2.238 MAJCOM (major command)

2.239 MANPADS (man-portable air defense system)

2.240 MAW (Marine aircraft wing)

2.241 MEDEVAC (medical evacuation)

2.242 MEO (medium Earth orbit)

2.243 Messrs., Mmes. Messrs. is the plural of Mr.; use a period: Messrs. Bailey, Bryant, and

Richardson. Mmes is the plural of madam or madame or Mrs.; no period: Mmes Clark,

O’Neal, and Terrell. See also Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. (2.260).

54

2.244 MET (mission essential task)

2.245 MHz (megahertz)

2.246 MIA (missing in action)

2.247 MiG(s). Capital M, lowercase i, capital G. Soviet aircraft developed by the design bureau of

GEN Artem Mikoyan and GEN Mikhail Gurevich.

2.248 military abbreviations. See Joint Publication 1-02, Department of Defense

Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.

2.249 military titles and offices. Within the body of a paper or other document capitalize and

abbreviate titles that precede full names in accordance with the following list. Capitalize and

spell out titles that precede surnames only. Lowercase and spell out titles following a personal

name or used alone in place of a name:

GEN Ulysses S. Grant, commander in chief of the Union army; General Grant; the commander in chief; the general LTC Antulio J. Echevarria II, USA; Colonel Echevarria; the colonel Gen Curtis E. LeMay, commander of Strategic Air Command; General LeMay; the general But General of the Army Douglas MacArthur; Douglas MacArthur, general of the Army; General MacArthur; the general Sgt Phyllis Forsman; a noncommissioned officer (NCO); Sergeant Forsman; the sergeant ADM Chester W. Nimitz; Admiral Nimitz, commander of the Pacific Fleet; the fleet admiral Col (Brig Gen–select) Peter D. Haynes; Brig Gen (sel) Peter D. Haynes Generals Eisenhower and Montgomery (but Army generals Patton and Bradley)

See abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1).

The following Service-specific abbreviations for military rank are provided for reference

purposes. In the body of your text, use the correct abbreviation for military rank found on the

following list. For chapter bylines in a book by multiple authors and in journal bylines, us the

correct military rank. In the back matter and all documentation (including endnotes, footnotes

and bibliographic citations) do not use military ranks.

55

The correct cap-and-lowercase variants abbreviations for the ranks of the services are listed

below.

Air Force Army Gen general GEN (Gen) general Lt Gen lieutenant general LTG (Lt Gen) lieutenant general Maj Gen major general MG (Maj Gen) major general Brig Gen brigadier general BG (Brig Gen) brigadier general Col colonel COL (Col) colonel Lt Col lieutenant colonel LTC (Lt Col) lieutenant colonel Maj major MAJ (Maj) major Capt captain CPT (Capt) captain 1st Lt first lieutenant lLT (1st Lt) first lieutenant 2nd Lt second lieutenant 2LT (2d Lt) second lieutenant CMSAF chief master sergeant of the Air Force CMSgt chief master sergeant CW5 chief warrant officer 5 SMSgt senior master sergeant CW4 chief warrant officer 4 MSgt master sergeant CW3 chief warrant officer 3 TSgt technical sergeant CW2 chief warrant officer 2 SSgt staff sergeant CW1 chief warrant officer 1 Sgt sergeant A1C Airman first class SMA sergeant major of the Army Amn Airman CSM command sergeant major AB Airman basic SGM sergeant major 1SG (1st Sgt) first sergeant MSG (MSgt) master sergeant PSG platoon sergeant SFC sergeant first class SSG (SSgt) staff sergeant SP6 specialist 6 SGT (Sgt) sergeant SP5 specialist 5 CPL (Cpl) corporal SP4 specialist 4 PFC (Pfc) private first class PVT (Pvt) private Marine Corps Navy/Coast Guard Gen general ADM (Adm) admiral LtGen lieutenant general VADM (Vice Adm) vice admiral MajGen major general RADM (Rear Adm) rear admiral (O-8/O-7) BGen (Brig Gen) brigadier general CAPT (Capt) captain Col colonel CDR (Cdr) commander Lt Col lieutenant colonel LCDR (Lt Cdr) lieutenant commander Maj major LT (Lt) lieutenant Capt captain LTJG (Lt JG) lieutenant junior grade 1st Lt first lieutenant ENS (Ensign) ensign 2d Lt second lieutenant CWO-5 chief warrant officer 5 CWO5 chief warrant officer 5 CWO-4 chief warrant officer 4 CWO4 chief warrant officer 4

56

CWO-3 chief warrant officer 3 CWO3 chief warrant officer 3 CWO-2 chief warrant officer 2 CWO2 chief warrant officer 2 CWO-1 chief warrant officer 1 MCPON master chief petty officer of the Navy Sgt Maj sergeant major MCPO master chief petty officer Mgy Sgt master gunnery sergeant SCPO senior chief petty officer 1st Sgt first sergeant CPO chief petty officer MSgt master sergeant PO1 petty officer first class GySgt gunnery sergeant PO2 petty officer second class SSgt staff sergeant PO3 petty officer third class Sgt sergeant SN seaman Cpl corporal SA seaman apprentice LCpl lance corporal SR seaman recruit PFC (Pfc) private first class Pvt private

2.250 MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle) (n.,v.). MIRVed, MIRVing.

2.251 MISREP (mission report)

2.252 MITRE Corp. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research Corporation)

2.253 MOA (memorandum of agreement)

2.254 MOE (measure of effectiveness)

2.255 months of the year. Write exact dates in day-month-year sequence, without commas. Spell

out the month, use figures for the day, and use a four-digit year. When you use only month and

year, no commas are necessary.

FDR referred to 7 December 1941 as a day that would live in infamy. The date March 2003 was special to her.

Do not use the all-numeral style for dates (3/11/50, etc.) in formal writing. However, in text

discussing the events of [11 September 2001], the use of 9/11 is acceptable (Chicago, 6.115). If

documentation, figures, and tables contain numerous dates, you may abbreviate certain months

(Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.) and use the day-month-

year sequence without internal punctuation (7 Dec. 1941) to reduce clutter. Choose one style for

the documentation, figures, and tables, and use it consistently. See numbers (4.3).

2.256 MOOTW (military operations other than war)

2.257 MOS (military occupational specialty)

57

2.258 MOU (memorandum of understanding)

2.259 mph (miles per hour)

2.260 Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. With all except Mme, use a period. Spell out “Mister” when it

connotes military rank: Mister Roberts, Mme Leblanc. See also Messrs., Mmes (2.243).

2.261 MRE (meal, ready to eat)

2.262 MTO (Maritime Tasking Order)

2.263 MTW (major theater war)

2.264 NAF (nonappropriated funds; numbered air force)

2.265 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

2.266 NATC (Naval Air Test Center)

2.267 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

2.268 NAVCENT (Naval Forces, U.S. Central Command)

2.269 NAVEUR (U.S. Naval Forces Europe)

2.270 NAVSAT (navigation satellite)

2.271 NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical)

2.272 NCA (National Command Authorities). No longer used. Use president or secretary of defense.

2.273 NCO (noncombat operations; noncommissioned officer)

2.274 NCOIC (noncommissioned officer in charge)

2.275 NDU (National Defense University)

2.276 NEA (northeast Asia)

2.277 NEO (noncombat evacuation operation)

2.278 NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency). Formerly the National Imagery and

Mapping Agency (NIMA).

2.279 NGB (National Guard Bureau)

58

2.280 NGO (nongovernmental organization)

2.281 NIPRNET (Nonsecure Internet Protocol Router Network)

2.282 nm (nautical mile)

2.283 no. Use a period after the abbreviation for number.

2.284 NOFORN (not releasable to foreign nationals)

2.285 NOPC (Naval Operational Planner Course, U.S. Navy)

2.286 NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command)

2.287 NOTAM (notice to Airmen)

2.288 NRO (National Reconnaissance Office)

2.289 NSA (National Security Agency)

2.290 NSC (National Security Council)

2.291 NVG (night vision goggle)

2.292 NWC (National War College; Naval War College)

2.293 NWDC (Navy Warfare Development Command)

2.294 OCA (offensive counterair)

2.295 OCI (offensive counterinformation)

2.296 OCS (offensive counterspace)

2.297 OJT (on-the-job training)

2.298 OL (operating location)

2.299 O&M (operation and maintenance)

2.300 OMB (Office of Management and Budget)

2.301 OODA (observe, orient, decide, act)

2.302 op. cit. (opere citato).”In the work cited.” Use the shortened reference form instead of

op. cit.. See notes (5.1).

59

2.303 OPCON (operational control)

2.304 OPLAN (operation plan)

2.305 OPM (Office of Personnel Management)

2.306 OPORD (operation order)

2.307 OPR (office of primary responsibility)

2.308 OPTEMPO (operating tempo)

2.309 OSD (Office of the Secretary of Defense)

2.310 OT&E (operational test and evaluation)

2.311 OTS (Officer Training School)

2.312 PA (Public Affairs)

2.313 PACAF (Pacific Air Forces)

2.314 PACFLT (U.S. Pacific Fleet)

2.315 PAWS (phased array warning system)

2.316 PCS (permanent change of station)

2.317 PGM (precision-guided munitions)

2.318 PIREP (pilot report)

2.318.1 PJE (professional joint education)

2.319 PKO (peacekeeping operations)

2.320 p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]).

2.321 PME (professional military education)

2.322 POC (point of contact)

2.323 POL (petroleum, oil, and lubricants)

2.324 POM (program objective memorandum)

2.325 POW (prisoner of war)

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2.326 PPBS (Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System)

2.327 Prime BEEF (Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force)

2.328 PSYOP (psychological operations)

2.329 PSYWAR (psychological warfare)

2.330 pub (publication)

2.331 RAF (Royal Air Force)

2.332 rank. See military titles and offices (2.249).

2.333 rates of speed, frequencies, and so forth. See abbreviations (2.0); measurements (4.3.15).

2.333.1 RCC (regional combatant commander)

2.334 RCS (radar cross section)

2.335 R&D (research and development)

2.336 RDA (research, development, and acquisition)

2.337 RDT&E (research, development, test, and evaluation)

2.338 RECCE (reconnaissance)

2.339 RECON (reconnaissance)

2.340 RED HORSE (Rapid Engineers Deployable Heavy Operations Repair Squadron,

Engineers)

2.341 RMA (revolution in military affairs)

2.342 ROE (rules of engagement)

2.343 ROK (Republic of Korea)

2.344 ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps)

2.345 RPV (remotely piloted vehicle)

2.346 RRF (rapid reaction force)

2.347 SAASS (School of Advanced Air and Space Studies)

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2.348 SACEUR (Supreme Allied Command, Europe)

2.349 SACTRANS (Supreme Allied Command, Transformation)

2.350 SAF (secretary of the Air Force)

2.351 Saint. As part of a proper name, spell out Saint in text and either spell out or abbreviate (St.)

in notes, bibliographic entries, and parenthetical references (pick one, and be consistent). When

the word is part of someone’s name, follow that person’s usage (e.g., as indicated in Webster’s

New Biographical Dictionary). Marco de Saint-Hilaire Barry St. Leger

2.352 SAM (surface-to-air missile)

2.353 SAMS (School of Advanced Military Studies)

2.354 SAOC (sector air operations center)

2.355 SAR (search and rescue; synthetic aperture radar)

2.356 SATCOM (satellite communications)

2.357 SAW (School of Advanced Warfighting)

2.358 SBIRS (space-based infrared system)

2.359 SBR (space-based radar)

2.360 SBSS (space-based space surveillance)

2.361 SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative)

2.362 SEA (Southeast Asia); (Senior Enlisted Academy)

2.363 SEAD (suppression of enemy air defenses)

2.364 SEAL (sea-air-land team or naval special warfare person)

2.365 SECNAV (Secretary of the Navy)

2.366 SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, Europe)

2.367 SIGINT (signals intelligence)

2.368 SIOP (Single Integrated Operational Plan)

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2.369 SIPRNET (Secret Internet Protocol Router Network)

2.370 SITREP (situation report)

2.371 SJA (staff judge advocate)

2.372 SLAM (standoff land attack missile)

2.373 SLAR (side-looking airborne radar)

2.374 SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missile)

2.375 SLCM (sea-launched cruise missile)

2.376 SLOC (sea line of communications)

2.377 SNDL (Standard Navy Distribution List)

2.378 SO (special order). Lowercase and spell out special order in general references when the

number is not given: the special order. Capitalize the term when a number accompanies it,

but abbreviate the term with the number only after you spell it out on first reference:

Special Order (SO) T-013, SO T-013, the special order.

2.379 SOC (space operations center; special operations command)

2.380 SOF (special operations forces)

2.381 SOP (standing [or standard] operating procedure)

2.382 SORTS (Status of Resources and Training System)

2.383 SOS (Squadron Officer School)

2.384 SP (security police)

2.385 SPINS (special instructions)

2.386 Sr. Use with a period. Commas are not required; if you do use commas, place one before and

after the abbreviation. Select one style, and use it consistently. Use a comma before the

abbreviation when the name is inverted (as in an index). M. H. Abrahms Sr. lives at the end of the street.

M. H. Abrahms, Sr., lives at the end of the street. Abrahms, M. H., Sr.

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2.387 SROE (standing rules of engagement)

2.388 SSA (space situational awareness)

2.389 SSBN (fleet ballistic missile submarine, nuclear-powered)

2.390 SSM (surface-to-surface missile)

2.391 SSN (attack submarine, nuclear-powered)

2.392 state names. See abbreviations (2.0).

2.393 STO (space tasking order)

2.394 STOL (short takeoff and landing)

2.395 STOVL (short takeoff and vertical landing aircraft)

2.396 SWA (Southwest Asia)

2.397 TACAIR (tactical air)

2.398 TACON (tactical control)

2.399 TACP (tactical air control party)

2.400 TAF (tactical air force)

2.401 TAW (tactical airlift wing)

2.402 TBM (theater ballistic missile)

2.403 TDY (temporary duty)

2.404 T&E (test and evaluation)

2.405 TEMPEST (telecommunications electronics material protected from emanating

spurious transmissions; transient electromagnetic pulse emanation standard)

2.406 TERCOM (terrain contour matching)

2.407 titles of persons and offices. See capitalization (4.1); military titles and offices (2.249).

2.408 TLAM (Tomahawk land-attack missile)

2.409 TMD (theater missile defense)

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2.410 TO (technical order). Lowercase and spell out technical order in general references when

the number is not given: the technical order. Always capitalize the term when a number accompanies

it, but abbreviate the term only after spelling it out on first use: Technical Order (TO) 00-25-4, TO 00-25-4.

2.411 TOF (time of flight)

2.412 TOT (time on target)

2.413 TOW (tube launched, optically tracked, wire guided)

2.414 TPFDD (time-phased force and deployment data)

2.415 TPFDL (time-phased force and deployment list)

2.416 TRADOC (US Army Training and Doctrine Command)

2.417 TRS (tactical reconnaissance squadron)

2.418 TTP (tactics, techniques, and procedures)

2.419 UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle)

2.420 UCMJ (Uniform Code of Military Justice)

2.421 UCP (Unified Command Plan)

2.422 UHF (ultrahigh frequency)

2.423 UK (United Kingdom)

2.424 UMD (unit manning document)

2.425 UN (United Nations). The abbreviation can be used as either a noun or an adjective.

2.426 UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund)

2.427 UNPROFOR (United Nations protection force)

2.428 URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator). A data string that identifies a resource in

the World Wide Web. In a printed work, if you must break a URL, do so after a slash (single or

double) if possible. Do not break after a dot since this looks like a period at the end of a line and

might confuse the reader; rather, place the dot at the beginning of the next line. Do not hyphenate

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a word at the end of a line since some URLs contain hyphens as part of the address, and do not

leave a hyphen that’s part of a URL at the end of a line. Additionally, break before a tilde (~),

a hyphen, a comma, an underline (_), a question mark, a number sign (#), or a percent symbol—

or before or after an equals sign or an ampersand (&).

2.429 U.S. (United States). Use the abbreviation as an adjective only.

2.430 USA (United States Army)

2.431 USAF (United States Air Force). Can be used as either a noun or an adjective (serving in the

USAF; USAF people). See United States Air Force, U.S. Air Force, Air Force, USAF (1.60).

2.432 USAFE (United States Air Forces in Europe)

2.433 USAFR (United States Air Force Reserve)

2.434 USC (United States Code)

2.435 USCENTAF (United States Central Command Air Forces)

2.436 USCENTCOM (United States Central Command)

2.437 USCG (United States Coast Guard)

2.438 USEUCOM (United States European Command)

2.439 USJFCOM (United States Joint Forces Command)

2.440 USMC (United States Marine Corps)

2.441 USN (United States Navy)

2.442 USNORTHCOM (United States Northern Command)

2.443 USPACOM (United States Pacific Command)

2.444 USSBS (United States Strategic Bombing Survey). Italicize in references to the published

work. Initial caps in Roman type are appropriate in references to the project prior to publication:

United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS).

2.445 USSOCOM (United States Special Operations Command)

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2.446 USSOUTHAF (United States Air Force, Southern Command)

2.447 USSOUTHCOM (United States Southern Command)

2.448 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Use Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and

its abbreviation in references to the country as it existed between 1917 and 1991. The

abbreviation can be used as either a noun or an adjective. See CIS (Commonwealth of

Independent States) (2.71); Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR (1.52).

2.449 USSTRATCOM (United States Strategic Command)

2.450 USTRANSCOM (United States Transportation Command)

2.451 USW (undersea warfare)

2.452 UTC (unit type code)

2.453 v. (versus). Use v. instead of vs. in names of legal cases; in other contexts, use versus.

See italics (4.4).

2.453a VF (Navy fighter squadron)

2.454 VFR (visual flight rules)

2.455 VHF (very high frequency)

2.456 viz. (videlicet; that is to say, namely)

2.457 VLF (very low frequency)

2.458 V/STOL (vertical and/or short takeoff and landing aircraft)

2.459 VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing)

2.460 WARNORD (warning order)

2.461 Washington, DC. Not necessary to spell out abbreviation in running text.

2.462 WIA (wounded in action)

2.463 WMD (weapons of mass destruction)

2.464 WRSK (war readiness/reserve spares kit)

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2.465 WWW (World Wide Web). Shortened form: Web (e.g., Web site, Web page, etc.)

2.466 XO (executive officer)

2.467 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code; zip (n.); zip-code (v.). In writing a mailing address, do not use a comma before the ZIP code (or after, if including

”USA”): Troy, AL 36081 USA. 2.468 ZULU (time zone indicator for Universal Time or Greenwich Mean Time)

3.0 Grammar and Punctuation

3.1 Grammar 3.1.1 active voice. When the grammatical subject performs the action represented by the verb, the

verb is in active voice.

The congregation sang “Abide with Me.” Mr. Conrad gave his son a car. The police caught the thieves.

See passive voice (3.1.15).

3.1.2 aircraft. Form plurals by adding an s (no apostrophe):

F-15s F/A-18Fs F-22s F-4Cs B-52Hs

3.1.3 court-martial (n., v.), courts-martial (n., plural)

3.1.4 dangling modifier. A verbal phrase at the beginning of a sentence dangles when the word it

should modify is not present:

Running along the street, my nose felt frozen.

Here, running along the street seems to modify nose. Correct this problem by adding a word

that the verbal phrase can logically modify:

Running along the street, I felt as if my nose were frozen.

3.1.5 data. Singular or plural. Choose one, and use it consistently. Be sure that verbs and qualifiers

agree with the number that you choose:

The data is now in, but we have not examined it. The data are now in, but we have not examined them.

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3.1.6 first, firstly. Firstly, secondly, and so forth are acceptable but awkward sentence modifiers;

first, second, and so forth are the preferred forms. Do not mix the two: first, secondly.

3.1.7 first person. See I, we (3.1.11).

3.1.8 he, him, his. See sexist language (1.49).

3.1.9 important, importantly. You may use either word as a sentence modifier. Choose one, and

use it consistently.

More important, the truth will prevail. Just as importantly, the truth will prevail.

3.1.10 it. Use it to refer to inanimate objects and some living things; you may also use this pronoun

in impersonal statements and idioms:

The couple bought a house but did not like it. The newborn baby kept its eyes shut tightly. It has been three hours since it began to rain. We will have to play it by ear.

Using it rather than an appropriate personal pronoun or noun can make writing stilted; use I

believe, the Air Force believes, and so forth, instead of it is believed.

3.1.11 I, we. You may use I or we occasionally in the text rather than the very formal “the

author(s).”

3.1.12 logistics (n.). Logistics may take either a singular or plural verb. Choose one, and use it

consistently.

3.1.13 media. Media is the plural of medium. Use it with a plural verb. Although media is used in

the singular in references to agencies of mass communications (plural medias), that usage is not

well established. See data (3.1.5).

3.1.14 none. None can be either singular or plural. Choose one, and use it consistently.

None of those accused was really responsible. None of those accused were really responsible.

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3.1.15 passive voice. Passive voice is a verbal construct comprising a past participle and some form

of the verb to be; all other forms are active.

When the subject of a verb receives the action, the verb is in the passive voice:

“Abide with Me” was sung by the congregation. Jimmy was given a car by his father. The pit was dug fully eight feet deep. They had been caught.

Characteristics of passive voice:

1. The receiver of the verb’s action comes before the verb. 2. The verb has two parts: some form of the verb to be plus the past participle of a main verb (most of

them end in -en or -ed). 3. If the doer of the action appears at all, it follows the verb and is usually the object of the preposition

by.

Use passive voice sparingly; otherwise, your writing can become wordy and lack

forcefulness. But passive voice has several important uses. In the writer’s mind, the object may

have more importance than the doer:

The bill was passed without opposition. The well was drilled in solid rock. Our house was painted last year.

Use passive voice if you do not want to name the person or thing performing the action.

For example:

President Reagan was elected in 1980. The parts were shipped on 1 June.

Passive voice allows various degrees of emphasis by placing the name of the act or the doer

at the end:

Our house is being painted. (Active: They are painting our house.) Our house was painted by Joe Mead and his brother. (Active: Joe Mead and his brother painted our house.) “Abide with Me” was sung by the choir. (Active: The choir sang “Abide with Me.”)

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Since passive voice does not always show the doer, you may forget to include important

information. The result may be confusing.

Requests must be approved beforehand. (By whom?) The commander must approve requests beforehand. The figures were lost. (By whom?) We lost the figures.

3.1.16 that, which. Clauses introduced by the relative pronouns that and which are of two kinds:

restrictive and nonrestrictive.

A clause is restrictive or defining when the information it provides about something in the

main clause is essential to the meaning of the statement. It is generally preceded by the relative

pronoun that; which can also introduce a restrictive clause:

I am looking for the book that (which) I lost yesterday.

A nonrestrictive clause is descriptive, can be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas,

must be self-contained, and is introduced only by which:

My house, which is old and large, is located on Elm Street.

In some circumstances that can be omitted from restrictive clauses:

When it is the object of a verb: the songs (that) we used to sing. When it is the object of a preposition: the house (that) we made the delivery to is on Main Street. When it is the complement of some form of the verb to be: Rascal is not the horse (that) his father was. When it is technically the subject of the verb to be but standing in the complement position: We gave him all (that) there was.

Some writers take this option to the extreme by omitting that altogether. Oftentimes,

however, that must be retained for clarity. For example, when a time element follows the verb,

the conjunction that is always needed to make clear whether the time element applies to the

material preceding or following:

Governor Riley announced today that he would sign the income tax bill.

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Here, if that is omitted, the sentence could mean either that the governor made the

announcement today or that he would sign the bill today.

When a sentence with two parallel clauses requires the expression and that in the second

part, you must retain that in the first part of the sentence for parallel construction:

The senator said that she would run next year and that James Corley would be her campaign manager.

After verbs like said or announced, you may omit that for conciseness: He said (that) he was

tired. But if the subject of the clause following the verb can be mistaken for that verb’s direct

object, that must be retained:

He said that a good many things about the project bothered him.

See which (3.1.22).

3.1.17 that, which, who, what. Use that to refer to persons, animals, or things; which to refer to

animals or things; who, whom, and whose to refer to persons (but an argument whose point was

convincing); and what to refer to nonliving things.

3.1.18 there is, there are. When there is the anticipatory subject, the verb should agree in number

with the “real” subject, which follows it: “There is a lesson to be learned here, and there are

many more lessons to be learned.” However, like repeated use of it is . . . , repeated use of there

is . . . and there are . . . deprives the sentence of strong subject-verb combinations.

See it (3.1.10).

3.1.19 this. Although criticized by some writers, using this to refer to the idea conveyed in a

preceding sentence is acceptable if the reference is neither confusing nor ambiguous:

John lost his job. This made his creditors uneasy.

However, do not use this when it refers only to some part of an idea or to an antecedent not

actually expressed:

Because of inherited venereal disease, their population remains static. This worries the elders of the tribe. (Venereal disease? Static population? Both?)

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The poet is widely admired, but it is difficult to make a living at this. (Writing poetry, but not expressed in sentence.)

Do not use demonstrative this in place of personal pronouns:

We were much impressed by the tour director. This person (not this) is capable and well informed.

3.1.20 Vietnamese (n., sing. and pl.; adj.)

3.1.21 whether. When this term introduces either a complete or elliptical adverbial clause, use or

not after whether:

Whether or not the car was in good condition, he was determined to buy it.

In noun clauses, you may use the words or not with whether for emphasis, but they are not

necessary:

Whether Tom goes to Birmingham today depends on the weather.

When the alternatives are fully expressed, the use of or not with whether is redundant: Whether he

lived inside or outside the city limits was irrelevant.

You should repeat whether after or when the alternatives are long and complex (Whether or

whether . . .).

3.1.22 which. Which can introduce both nonrestrictive and restrictive clauses:

I read The Once and Future King, which is a retelling of Arthurian legend. They proposed an operational testing and evaluation method that was based on an approach which evolved from their experiences during the testing of the weapon system.

Which sometimes unambiguously refers to an entire preceding statement rather than to a

single word:

She ignored him, which proved unwise.

Sometimes, however, the antecedent of which may be in doubt:

Some people worry about overeating, which can be unhealthy. (Worrying? Overeating?)

Sometimes it is better to rewrite the sentence:

Worrying about overeating can be unhealthy.

See that, which (3.1.16).

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3.2 Punctuation 3.2.1 apostrophe. Form the possessive of singular nouns by adding an apostrophe and an s, and the

possessive of plural nouns (except for irregular plurals) by adding an apostrophe only:

the student’s book, the oxen’s tails, the libraries’ directors.

However, if the addition of ’s to a singular noun causes difficulty in pronunciation, add the

apostrophe only: for righteousness’ sake.

When the singular form of a noun ends in ”s” and the plural form is the same as the singular, form the possessive of both the singular and plural forms by adding an apostrophe only: politics’ true meaning, economics’ forerunners. The same principle applies when the name of a place or organization is a plural ending in ”s” even though the entity is singular: the United States’ role in international law, Calloway Gardens’ former curator (Chicago, 7.19).

Show joint possession by using the possessive form for the second noun only:

Bill and Judy’s home

Show individual possession by using the possessive form for both nouns:

our dog’s and cat’s toys

Form expressions of duration in the same way you do possessives:

an hour’s delay, three weeks’ worth, six months’ leave of absence

You can apply the general rule to most proper nouns, including most names ending in sibilants:

Burns’s poems Marx’s theories Jefferson Davis’s home Aristophanes’ play the Rosses’ and the Williamses’ lands

To avoid an awkward appearance, use an apostrophe without an s for the possessive of singular words and names ending in an unpronounced s (Chicago, 7.21):

the Marine Corps’ motto

To show possession for compound nouns, add an apostrophe and an s to the final word: secretary-

treasurer’s, mother-in-law’s, mothers-in-law’s

To show possession for indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe and an s to the last component of

the pronoun:

someone’s car, somebody else’s books

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Do not use apostrophes in plurals of decades identified by century: 1960s, 1980s.

Do not use apostrophes to show plurals of letters and figures unless such punctuation is

necessary to avoid confusion:

Bs and Cs; 1s, 2s, and 3s; B-52s and F-15s; but A’s, a’s, i’s, and u’s.

3.2.2 brackets. Use brackets to enclose editorial interpolations within quoted material (to clarify

references and make corrections) or in place of parentheses within parentheses.

“In April [actually July] 1943, Jones published his first novel.” GEN Charles Horner controlled coalition air assets during the Gulf War (specifically, he was the joint force air and space component commander [JFACC]).

See sic (1.50).

3.2.3 bullets. See Bullets (4.5).

3.2.4 colon. In a sentence, the presence of a colon indicates a break of the same degree as one

indicated by a semicolon. It also signals a relationship between the separated elements. The

second element may illustrate or amplify the first:

Music is more than a collection of notes: it conveys deep feelings and emotions.

Use a colon to introduce a list or a series. If you use namely, for example, or that is to

introduce the list or series, do not use a colon unless the list or series consists of one or more

complete clauses:

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period: Byron, Shelley, and Keats. The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period, namely, Byron, Shelley, and Keats.

Use a colon after as follows or the following to enumerate several items:

Test scores were as follows: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65. The class made the following test scores: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

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When a colon is used within a sentence, lowercase the first word that follows it unless (1)

that word is a proper name, (2) the colon introduces two or more sentences, or (3) the colon

introduces speech in a dialogue or extract:

Beneath the surface, however, is the less tangible question of values: are the old truths true? Ed had two must-see attractions on his itinerary: Northwest Florida Alligator Emporium and Crazy Bill’s Pink Flamingo Ranch. He had two reasons for not attending the awards ceremony: First, he was shy. Second, he had nothing appropriate to wear. The umpire heard the fan loud and clear: “You need glasses, you bum!”

Note also that one space, not two, separates the colon from the following text.

Do not use a colon before a series introduced by a verb or preposition:

NOT My three immediate goals are: to survive midyear exams, to get to Colorado, and to ski until my legs wear out. BUT My three immediate goals are to survive midyear exams. . . . NOT His friend accused him of: wiggling in his seat, talking during the lecture, and not remembering what was said. BUT His friend accused him of wiggling in his seat. . . .

Place a colon outside quotation marks:

Will had one objection to the poem ”Altarwise by Owl Light at the Halfway House”: it was incomprehensible.

See subtitle (1.54).

3.2.5 comma. Use a comma as follows:

• to set off nonrestrictive clauses—those you could omit without changing the meaning of the

main clause:

Ebeneezer Scrooge, who lived alone, refused to celebrate Christmas.

• after relatively long introductory phrases:

After reading the letter from the manufacturer, Mary decided to sue the company.

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• before and or or in a series of three or more elements:

Thomas Hobbes said life in the Middle Ages was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

• to set off addresses and place-names:

The harmless drudge lives at 108 Deerfield Drive, Troy, Alabama, with a full complement of dogs and cats. They moved from Paris, Texas, to Rome, Georgia, in 1987. (Note commas before and after the name of the state.)

• to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence:

Dr. Lopez criticized the report, and he asked the committee to revise it.

• to separate adjectives that modify the same noun (as a general rule of thumb, if and can be

substituted for the comma, then the comma is appropriate):

Most people consider her a generous, outgoing person.

• to separate groups of three digits in numbers of 1,000 or more (except page numbers):

2,100 465,230 5,722,465

• When a comma is needed at the end of material enclosed in quotation marks, parentheses, or

brackets, place the comma inside the quotation mark (whether single or double) but outside

the closing parenthesis or bracket:

Tom commented, “The remark ‘I mean what I say,’ used by a character in Alice in Wonderland, provoked a heated discussion.” Although the speaker appeared nervous (he stammered quite a bit), he managed to finish his speech. When the great ship sailed in 1911 [actually 1912], nobody suspected what lay ahead.

Do not use a comma in the following situations:

• to set off restrictive clauses—those you could not omit without changing the meaning of the

main clause:

The notion that all men are created equal was a radical one.

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• after a short introductory phrase:

By 1865 the Confederacy was clearly doomed.

• to set off the year in military-date style:

They signed the order on 26 July 1947 in Washington.

• to separate compound predicates in a simple sentence:

Patsy graduated in May and went to work in June.

• to separate adjectives when the first modifies the combined idea of the second plus the noun:

The estate is surrounded by an old stone wall. The professor was a little old man.

Note that the converse of the rule of thumb for determining whether to use a comma to

separate adjectives (see above) applies here: since and would not be appropriate either

between old and stone or between little and old, then no comma is needed.

• to set off Jr., Sr., or a Roman numeral from a name (although commas are no longer necessary

with Jr. and Sr., you may use them if you wish; if so, place one before and after the

abbreviation [choose one style, and use it consistently]; commas never set off Roman

numerals when used as part of a name except when the name is inverted, as in an index):

Harry Connick Jr. plays piano and sings. T. Coraghessan Boyle, Sr., is my neighbor. Adlai E. Stevenson III Stevenson, Adlai E., III. The Citizen and His Government. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press,

1984.

See ZIP code (1.76).

3.2.6 dash. The most common dashes are the em dash (sometimes typed as two hyphens) and the

en dash (sometimes typed as a hyphen).

Use an em dash or a pair of em dashes to indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in

thought:

My world and the real world—what a contrast! He asked—no demanded—that the door be opened.

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to set off interrupting or clarifying elements:

These are shore deposits—gravel, sand, and clay—but marine deposits underlie them.

to introduce a final statement that summarizes a series of ideas:

Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, freedom from fear—these are the fundamentals of moral world order.

to set off a word or phrase in the main clause that emphasizes or explains:

George worked several days on the system—a system that was designed to increase production in the department.

If text set off by a pair of dashes requires a question mark or an exclamation point, place it

before the second dash:

Mr. Incredible’s unctuous acquaintance Mr. Blowhard—did he realize how tiresome he was?—excelled at making stupidity a virtue.

Do not use more than one pair of em dashes in a sentence.

The en dash is one-half the length of an em dash and is longer than a hyphen. Use an en dash

(signifying up to and including or through) to connect continuing or inclusive numbers such as

dates, time, or reference numbers:

1957–63 February–March 1971 pages 12–15

The en dash is also used in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective, one element of which

is an open compound or a hyphenated word:

New York–London flight Air Force–wide changes quasi-public–quasi-judicial body

Use an en dash (signifying to) to express scores from sporting events, voting results, and

travel expressions even though they don’t reflect a range of values:

The Biscuits beat the Lugnuts 12–10 last night. The delegates to the convention approved the proposal 150–97. The London–Paris train leaves at two o’clock.

You may also use an en dash to identify a particular university campus:

The University of Alabama–Huntsville

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3.2.7 ellipses. Indicate the omission of a word, phrase, line, or paragraph from a quoted passage

with ellipsis points, which come in threes; are set on the line like periods; and are separated from

each other, from the text, and from any contiguous punctuation by one space.

Use three ellipsis points to indicate an omission in the middle of a quoted sentence:

“The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor . . . has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.”

Indicate the omission of the last part of a sentence by a period and three ellipsis points (assuming

that more quoted material follows). Leave no space between the period and the preceding word:

“The Soviets also have research programs under way on kinetic energy weapons. . . . These programs have been highly successful.”

Note that “the first word after ellipsis points is capitalized if it begins a grammatically complete

sentence, even if it was lowercased in the original” (Chicago, 11.55); a space precedes the

capitalized word. Four ellipsis points should be preceded and followed by grammatically

complete sentences. If space so dictates, you may leave the period at the end of a line and begin

the next line with three ellipsis points.

A comma, a colon, a semicolon, a question mark, or an exclamation point may precede or follow three (but never four) ellipsis points (Chicago, 11.58):

“What is the major strength of the Soviet space program? . . . This is the question we intended to explore fully.”

Remember that ellipsis points are seldom used at the beginning or end of a quoted passage.

Indicate the omission of one or more paragraphs in a long block quotation by three ellipsis

points following the period at the end of the paragraph preceding the omitted paragraph. If a

paragraph in the block quotation—other than the first paragraph—begins with a sentence that

does not open the paragraph in the original, it should be preceded by three ellipsis points:

Such a tremendous increase in capability exceeds their future civil and scientific requirements. The gap between what we perceive to be Soviet launch requirements and launch capabilities is of great concern to us. . . .

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. . . This system will expand the current U.S. ICBM field coverage to include U.S. submarine-launched ballistic missiles.

When you replace part of a quoted passage with different wording, enclose the new term(s)

with square brackets, but do not use ellipsis points to show that the original wording was:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor deployed around Moscow has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites. The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] deployed around Moscow has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

However, if bracketed material is next to ellipsis points which show that part of a quoted

passage has been omitted (and not replaced with different wording), retain the ellipsis points:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] . . . has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

In a run-in quotation, do not use ellipsis points before the first word of the quotation, even if

the beginning of the original sentence has been omitted, or after the last word of the quotation,

even if the end of the original sentence has been omitted:

For example, we now know that the Soviets “are currently producing about 50 SL-4/SL-6-type vehicles each year—a rate of nearly one a week.”

See brackets (3.2.2).

3.2.8 hyphenated compound words. Compounds are words joined by a hyphen or hyphens, such

as many-sided, ill-fated, and mother-in-law. No all-inclusive rule exists for hyphenating

compound words. If you are not sure about a particular compound, look it up in the dictionary or

The Chicago Manual of Style’s (15th ed.)”Hyphenation Guide for Compounds, Combining

Forms, and Prefixes” (7.90), or refer to “The Writing of Compounds” in Webster’s Third New

International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. The following are a few general

principles:

Use a hyphen to prevent ambiguity. For example, slow moving van could mean a moving van

that is slow (in which case, hyphenating moving van would be acceptable) or a van that is

moving slowly: slow-moving van. Although adjective compounds traditionally are hyphenated

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before the noun they modify and are written open after the noun, you may omit the hyphen in all

cases if there is no chance of ambiguity or misreading: smoke filled room, red hot iron. This

principle holds true even if the compound is hyphenated in the dictionary. Do not hyphenate an

adjective compound consisting of an adverb ending in -ly plus a participle or an adjective (highly

developed organism).

Hyphenate adjective compounds beginning with well, ill, better, best, little, lesser, and least

when they precede the noun, and leave them open after the noun: well-dressed man (but the man

is well dressed); best-known work (but the work is best known); ill-advised action (but the action

is ill advised). Leave such compounds open when they are modified by an adverb: very well

dressed man. If you use quotation marks to enclose an adjective compound that you would

normally hyphenate, you may omit the hyphen: “well dressed” man. See well- (4.2.270).

Measurement compounds are also hyphenated:

six-inch-wide board, three-mile limit, 24-gallon tank.

If you abbreviate the unit of measure, omit the hyphen: 24 gal. tank.

Compounds consisting of numerals and the word percent are left open:

25 percent decrease.

Hyphenate when the second element of a compound is capitalized or is a number:

mid-Atlantic tempest, post-1980 developments.

Hyphenate when spelling the word solid creates a homonym, as in re-mark (mark again)

versus remark (say).

Hyphenate some compounds in which the last letter of the prefix is the same as the first letter

of the word following:

anti-intellectual, anti-inflammatory.

Use a “suspension” hyphen to carry the force of a modifier to a later noun:

second- or third-rate powers; second-, third-, and fourth-grade students.

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Some noun compounds are always hyphenated: relative words with great and in-law, such as

great-uncle, great-great-grandmother, sister-in-law; noun plus noun, expressing two different but

equally important functions, such as secretary-treasurer; two-word compounds ending in elect,

such as governor-elect (but probate judge elect); some multiple-word compounds including a

preposition and describing someone or something, such as jack-of-all-trades (but flash in the

pan). Some permanent compounds beginning with vice are hyphenated, such as vice-chancellor,

but not vice admiral or vice president or viceroy. See vice- (4.2.249).

Do not hyphenate capitalized geographical terms used as adjectives:

Southeast Asian country, Mobile Bay cruise.

See compound words (4.2.52); titles of works (4.1.148).

Hyphenate age terms in both adjective and noun forms:

a five-year-old child, a five-year-old.

See word division (1.71).

3.2.9 omissions. See ellipses (3.2.7).

3.2.10 parentheses. Use parentheses when material inserted in a sentence is so loosely connected

with the main thought of the sentence that commas would not be adequate. Such insertions may

be explanatory, amplifying, or digressive:

Another illustration reflects a much more recent instance of a doctrinal notion (table 4). This manual (issued to all students) covers the fundamental problems. The funeral for her brother (she misses him terribly) was a sad affair.

If a comma is necessary, place it after the second parenthesis, not before the first. If the

parenthetical element within a sentence is itself a sentence, omit the period but retain a question

mark or exclamation point:

As the machine gunner opened fire (it was a .50-caliber gun), all movement ceased. As the machine gunner opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all movement ceased.

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If parentheses enclose a freestanding sentence, place the period inside the second parenthesis:

Albert convinced me to go back to college. (I always found his logic irresistible.)

Use parentheses to enclose enumerating letters or numerals (without periods) within a

sentence:

He wanted to (1) consolidate the position, (2) establish contact with guerrillas, and (3) regain control over the inhabitants.

3.2.11 period. Place a period at the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. If you use a

quotation at the end of a sentence, place the period within the closing quotation mark (double or

single). If you use a quotation before the end of a sentence, omit the period or replace it with a

comma. To separate sentences, use only one space after a closing quotation mark, as well as after

a period or other terminal punctuation (e.g., question mark, exclamation point) (see colon

[3.2.4]). When using parentheses or brackets to enclose a freestanding sentence, place the period

inside the final parenthesis or bracket. If the enclosed matter is part of a sentence, place the

period outside the final parenthesis or bracket:

The commander said, “You’re only half right.” “One should always say, ‘I mean what I say.’ “ “I’m sure I say what I mean,” said Alice. The Cheshire Cat, however, didn’t believe her. The decision to keep the sentence or drop it is a judgment call. (Writing is hard work precisely because it requires so many judgment calls.) The driver glanced in his rearview mirror at the passenger (certainly an eccentric fellow).

See Dr. (doctor) (2.113); Jr. (2.214); lists (1.37); Messrs., Mmes. (2.243); Mr., Mrs., Mme,

Ms. (2.260); no. (2.283); parentheses (3.2.10); quotation marks (3.2.14); Sr. (2.386); Truman,

Harry S. (1.58).

3.2.12 possessive. See apostrophe (3.2.1).

3.2.13 question mark. Put a question mark at the end of a direct question that stands alone:

How can I miss you if you won’t go away?

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Do not put a question mark at the end of an indirect question:

I asked him what he was doing. How he had managed to fool me was the question no one could answer.

Put a question mark inside quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets only when it is part of

the quoted or parenthetical matter:

The colonel asked, “Did you receive our inspection report?” Did you say, “The base commander wants the report immediately”? Which of the concepts do you believe to be generally shared (at least by your contemporaries)?

3.2.14 quotation marks. Enclose quoted words, phrases, and sentences in double quotation marks.

Use single quotation marks to enclose quotations within quotations. Quotations within block

quotations require double quotation marks.

Enclose a nickname in quotation marks when it accompanies the full name:

George Herman “Babe” Ruth

Omit the quotation marks when a nickname is used as part of or in place of a personal name:

Stonewall Jackson the Iron Duke

Enclose a conference title in quotation marks:

“American Writers in the 1930s,” a symposium held at the University of Alabama, 15–16 September 1975 but the 1994 State Conference on Writing across the Curriculum

Use quotation marks to enclose words used in an ironic sense, references to spoken language,

and slang terms. Subsequent occurrences of these terms need not include the quotation marks.

See italics (4.4).

The “consultation” could be heard three blocks away. In Elizabethan dialogue, a change from “you” to “thou” often implies studied insult. Jacob’s grandfather called his Adam’s apple his “go fetch it.”

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Place a comma or a final period within quotation marks, single or double. Put other

punctuation marks within quotation marks only if they are part of the quotation. See period

(3.2.11); question mark (3.2.13).

He said, “I will go.” He asked, “Shall we evacuate the area?” “I am sure he used the word ‘moron.’ “

If you place quotation marks around an adjective compound that you would normally

hyphenate, you may omit the hyphen:

“well dressed” man

Place a colon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

There is one problem with Walt Whitman’s ”O Captain, My Captain”: it is doggerel.

You may use quotation marks to refer to a word as a word (see italics [4.4]):

The word “boy” has a pejorative sense in some contexts.

Do not enclose words such as yes, no, where, how, and why in quotation marks when

they are used singly, except in direct discourse:

Ezra always answered yes; he could never say no to a friend. “Yes,” he replied weakly.

Enclose in quotation marks the titles of articles in journals and newspapers; chapter titles; the

titles of draft versions of books and other unpublished works; and the titles of short stories, short

poems, dissertations, theses, and essays. See italics (4.4); mottoes (1.38); words as words

(4.4.23).

3.2.15 semicolon. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses not connected by a coordinating

conjunction:

John stayed home for the holidays; he had nowhere else to go. Use a semicolon (not a comma) before words such as however, therefore, hence,

consequently, moreover, nevertheless, and so forth, when they connect two independent clauses.

(Use a comma after these words.)

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All such missions should remain secondary to the primary mission; however, all commanders of flying Air Force units must prepare to fly such missions with minimum notice.

You may want to use a semicolon with a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence

whose independent clauses are long and contain internal punctuation:

Ishmael, the narrator, goes to sea, he says, “Whenever it is a damp, drizzly November” in his soul; and Ahab, the captain of the ship, goes to sea because of his obsession to hunt and kill the great albino whale, Moby Dick.

When items in a series are lengthy or contain internal punctuation, separate them by

semicolons:

Mark prepared for the exam by reading the material, which caused him great difficulty; by studying with Tom, who knew less than he did; and by praying, which he did frequently. We will need the following supplies: pencils, three boxes; pens, five boxes; paper, four reams; typewriter ribbons, 15; and staples, two boxes.

Place a semicolon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

Dan’s favorite poem is “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”; he reads it whenever he feels troubled. Sam gave his wife a toaster oven for her birthday (he was a very practical fellow); needless to say, she was overwhelmed.

3.2.16 series of items. The number of commas separating items in a series should be one fewer than

the number of items in the series. Hence, three items in a series should be separated by two

commas: planes, boats, and trains. See comma (3.2.5).

3.2.17 slash.

The slash (/)—also known as virgule, solidus, slant, or forward slash, to distinguish it from a backward slash, or backslash (\)—has various distinct uses. . . . A slash most commonly signifies alternatives. . . . Where one or more of the terms separated by slashes is an open compound, a thin space before and after the slash is helpful: he/she, and/or, Hercules/Heracles, World War I/World War II. . . . A slash is used in certain contexts to mean and: an MD/PhD student, a Jekyll/Hyde personality. . . . A slash is sometimes used in dates instead of an en dash . . . or even in combination with an en dash, to indicate the last part of one year and the first part of the next: the winter of 1966/67, fiscal years 1991/92–1998/99. . . . In a context where the events of [11 September 2001] are being discussed, 9/11 is quite acceptable. . . . A slash may stand as shorthand for per, as in . . .”$450/week” . . . or in certain abbreviations, in lieu of a period, as in ”c/o” (in care of). . . . Single and double slashes are used in URLs. No space should precede or follow them. In typeset URLs, line breaks may occur after a slash but not between two slashes. (Chicago, 6.111–16, 6.119). See and/or (1.8), dates (1.21), URL (2.428).

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3.2.18 year (punctuation with). See dates (4.3.6).

3.2.19 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code (punctuation with). See 1.76.

4.0 Mechanics 4.1 Capitalization

Use as few capital letters as possible, and avoid capitalizing anytime you are in doubt. The

following conventions will help you decide whether capital letters are appropriate.

Proper nouns—those that name a particular person, place, or thing—are capitalized. One test

of a proper noun is that it does not take a limiting modifier; thus, “this [or] any [or] some 857th

Combat Support Group,” for example, is not appropriate (since there is only one such group).

However, a common noun, which is not capitalized can take a limiting modifier, as in “this combat

support group” (it is generic). Because the following examples can take a limiting modifier, they are

common nouns and, therefore, are not capitalized:

base supply civil engineer squadron military personnel flight accounting and finance office

Capitalize civil, military, religious, and professional titles and titles of nobility when they

immediately precede someone’s name:

President Bush General Regni Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld Sergeant Mann Queen Caroline Professor Elliott Cardinal Richelieu Colonel Allen

Capitalize titles associated with more than one person:

Generals Grant and Lee

Lowercase titles that follow someone’s name or that stand alone:

George W. Bush, president of the United States the president Donald Rumsfeld, secretary of defense the secretary Lincoln Chafee, senator from Rhode Island the senator Admiral Michael Mullen, Chief of Naval Operations the CNO RADM Jacob Shuford, president of the Naval War College the president, the admiral Dr. James Giblin, Provost, Naval War College the provost

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Lowercase titles used in apposition to a name—no commas (see comma, “restrictive clauses”

[3.2.5]):

Montgomery mayor Bobby Bright Air Force general John W. Handy

Capitalize the names of buildings, monuments, and so forth:

the White House the Eiffel Tower the Israeli Embassy the Tomb of the Unknowns

Capitalize the full and (oftentimes) the shortened names of national governmental and

military bodies:

U.S. Congress Congress Department of Defense Defense Department, the department Department of State State Department, the department U.S. Air Force Air Force U.S. Army Army U.S. Marine Corps Marine Corps, Marines U.S. Navy Navy Montgomery City Council the city council

Capitalize the full names of boards, committees, organizations, and bureaus:

National Labor Relations Board Committee on Foreign Affairs Organization of American States Bureau of the Census Veterans Administration

Do not capitalize shortened forms of the full titles for departments, directorates, centers, and

similar organizations; the same principle applies to the names of conferences:

Department of Labor the department Directorate of Data Processing the directorate Center for Strategic Studies the center Special Plans Division the division Naval War College Press the press Design Branch the branch Western Region Writing-Style Conference the conference

Capitalize the full titles of treaties, laws, acts, bills, amendments, and similar documents, but

lowercase their shortened forms:

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty the treaty Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty the treaty Treaty of Verdun the treaty National Labor Relations Act the labor act, the act First Amendment (to the U.S. Constitution) the amendment

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Capitalize the full names of judicial bodies; lowercase shortened forms and adjective

derivatives:

California Supreme Court state supreme court Circuit Court of Calhoun County county court circuit court traffic court juvenile court

Capitalize the names of national and international organizations, movements, alliances, and

members of political parties. The words party and movement are capitalized when they are part of an

organization’s name.

The African National Congress party Bolshevik, Bolshevist, Bolshevik movement, Bolshevism, bolshevist (generic), bolshevism

(generic) Communist Party, the party, Communist(s), Communist bloc, Communism, communist (generic), communism (generic) Communist Party USA (CPUSA) Common Market Democratic Party, Democrat, democracy, democrat (general advocate of democracy) Eastern bloc Fascist Party, Fascist(s), fascist (generic), fascism (generic) Federalist Party, Federalist(s), federalist (generic) Holy Alliance, the alliance Marxism-Leninism, Marxist-Leninist, marxism (generic), marxist (generic) the Right, the Left, right wing, right-winger, leftist Socialist Party, the party, socialism (generic), socialist (generic)

Capitalize the names of generally accepted historical or cultural epochs:

Dark Ages Jazz Age Middle Ages Reformation Roaring Twenties but information age

Capitalize the full titles of armies, navies, air forces, fleets, regiments, battalions, companies,

corps, and so forth. Lowercase the words army, navy, air force, and so forth when they are not part

of an official title (except when they refer to U.S. forces). Similarly, capitalize the official names

of foreign military forces, but lowercase subsequent references to those forces:

Allied armies Al Quwwat al Jawwiya il Misriya, Egyptian air force, the air force

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Army of Northern Virginia Axis powers Confederate army (American Civil War) Continental army (American Revolution) Eighth Air Force Fifth Army, the Fifth, the army 1st Battalion, 178th Infantry; the battalion, the 178th 3d Infantry Division, the division, the infantry 1st Armored Division, the division III Corps Artillery French foreign legion Fuerza Aérea Argentina, Argentinean air force, the air force Heyl Ha’avir, Israeli air force, the air force Luftwaffe, the German air force Nihon Koku Jieitai, Japan air self-defense force, the air self-defense force the 187th Fighter Group (Air National Guard), the group People’s Liberation Army, Red China’s army, the army Red Army (Russian, World War II), Russian army Royal Air Force, British air force, the air force Royal Navy, British navy, the navy Royal Scots Fusiliers, the fusiliers Seventh Fleet, the fleet Twenty-first Air Force Union army (American Civil War) United States Air Force, the Air Force United States Army, the Army, the American Army, the armed forces United States Coast Guard, the Coast Guard United States Marine Corps, the Marine Corps, the U.S. Marines, the Marines, the Corps,

Fleet Marine Corps United States Navy, the Navy United States Signal Corps, the Signal Corps

Capitalize the full titles of wars but lowercase the words war and battle when used alone:

American Civil War, the Civil War, the war American Revolution, the Revolution, the Revolutionary War Battle of Britain Battle of the Bulge, the bulge battle of Bunker Hill, Bunker Hill, the battle the Blitz European theater of operations Falklands War Gulf War Korean conflict Korean War Operation Overlord Seven Years’ War Spanish civil war Tet offensive Vicksburg campaign Vietnam War western front (World War I) World War I, the First World War, the war, the two world wars World War II, the Second World War

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Capitalize the names of medals and awards:

Distinguished Flying Cross Medal of Honor, congressional medal Purple Heart Victoria Cross Croix de Guerre (sometimes lowercased)

Capitalize but do not italicize the designations of make, names of planes, and names of space

programs:

Boeing 747 Project Apollo Concorde Trident Missile Nike U-boat

Do not capitalize or italicize generic types of vessels, aircraft, and so forth:

aircraft carrier space shuttle submarine

Capitalize the titles of official documents, instructions, directives, letters, standard forms, and

shortened forms of titles, but don't capitalize common nouns that refer to them:

NAVMAN 3-95, Deployed Operations the manual JPAM 6, The JIACG the pamphlet AFPD 10-1, Mission Directives the policy directive CJCSI 1800.01, The OPMEP the instruction

Capitalize such words as empire, state, county, and so forth that designate political divisions

of the world, when they are part of a proper name. Lowercase these terms when they are not part of a

proper name or when they stand alone:

Montgomery County, the county 11th Congressional District, the congressional district, the district Fifth Ward, the ward Indiana Territory, the territory of Indiana, the territory New England states New York City, the city of New York, the city Roman Empire, the empire Washington State, the state of Washington the British colonies

Capitalize all principal words in titles and subheadings. See titles of works (4.1.148).

Capitalize proper names that designate parts of the world or specific regions:

Central America North American continent

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central Europe North Pole Central Europe (political division of WWI) the Southwest (U.S.) the Continent (Europe) the South, southerner, the European continent Southerner (Civil War context) the East, easterner, Southern Hemisphere eastern seaboard South Pacific, southern Pacific eastern Europe tropic of Cancer Eastern Europe (political division) West Coast Far East western Europe Far West Western Europe (political division) the Gulf, Persian Gulf region Western world the North, northerner Southeast Asia Northerner (Civil War context) North Africa, northern Africa

Lowercase the names of the four seasons unless they are personified; however, capitalize

them as part of the date of publication in note references:

spring, summer, fall, winter In April, Spring sends her showers to pierce the drought of March. 2. James H. Toner, “Military OR Ethics,” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 80.

Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

DS 613-Strategic Force Employment CL 6362-Air Staff Familiarization

Capitalize registered trademark names (see trademarks [1.57]):

Coca-Cola (but cola drink) Levi’s Kleenex (but tissue) Ping-Pong (but table tennis) Band-Aid Xerox (but xerox [v.])

Capitalize signs, notices, and mottoes in text (see mottoes [4.1.106]):

The company had a No Entrance sign at the gate. The cry of the French Revolution was Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.

4.1.1 academic courses. Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

FE 672 – Critical Thinking NSDM – National Security Decision Making

4.1.2 active Air Force

4.1.3 active duty (n., adj.)

4.1.4 acts, amendments, bills, and laws. Capitalize the full title (formal or popular) of an act or a

law, but lowercase all shortened forms:

Atomic Energy Act, the act Article 6, the article Sherman Antitrust Law, the antitrust law, the law

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A legislative measure is a bill until it is enacted; it then becomes an act or a law. Lowercase

the names of bills and proposed constitutional amendments:

equal rights amendment (not ratified), food stamp bill

Capitalize the formal title of an enacted and ratified amendment to the United States

Constitution (including the number):

the Fifth Amendment, the 18th Amendment

But lowercase informal titles of amendments:

the income tax amendment

4.1.5 AD (anno Domini). Use full caps without periods. The abbreviation precedes the year: AD 107. See BC (before Christ) (2.43, 4.1.26).

4.1.6 administration. Capitalize administration as part of the proper name of an agency: General

Services Administration

Lowercase the term as part of the name of a political organization:

Nixon administration

4.1.7 agency. Capitalize agency in proper names, but lowercase the shortened form:

National Security Agency, the agency

4.1.8 air base / station. Capitalize air base / station when it is part of a proper noun:

Kadena Air Base, Japan; Naval Air Station Sigonella, Italy

Lowercase the shortened form:

the air base; the naval air station

4.1.9 air force. Capitalize air force when you refer to the U.S. Service:

United States Air Force, Air Force

Use lowercase letters for an air force in general. Capitalize the term when it is part of the official

name of a foreign air force. Use lowercase letters for subsequent references:

Royal Air Force, British air force

See capitalization (4.1).

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4.1.10 Air Force base. Capitalize base when the full term is part of a proper noun:

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

Otherwise, lowercase base: the Air Force base

4.1.11 Air Force ONE (the president’s aircraft)

4.1.12 AirLand Battle

4.1.13 Airman, Airmen (in references to U.S. Air Force personnel)

4.1.14 Air Staff

4.1.15 allied, allies. Capitalize allied or allies in the context of World War I and World War II.

4.1.16 a.m. (ante meridiem [before noon]). Write the abbreviation in lowercase with periods.

See p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]) (4.1.118).

4.1.17 amendments. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.18 appendix. Capitalize appendix as a document title: Appendix A, Appendix B. Lowercase the

term in textual references (see appendix A). If you wish to include a document such as a Navy

instruction as an appendix to your study, reproduce that document verbatim.

4.1.19 armed forces

4.1.20 army. Capitalize army when you refer to the U.S. Service: United States Army, Army.

Lowercase the term when you refer to an army in general. Capitalize army when it is part of the

official name of a foreign army: Red Army. Use lowercase letters for subsequent references:

Russian army. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.21 article (part of a document). See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.22 associate’s degree. Capitalize the name of the degree (Associate of Arts, Associate of

Science) when it follows someone’s name (John Smith, Associate of Arts). Lowercase the term

when referring to the degree in general terms (John Smith has an associate of arts degree).

See academic degrees and titles (2.6); bachelor’s (4.1.23); master’s (4.1.97);doctorate (4.1.55).

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4.1.23 bachelor’s degree. Capitalize the name of the degree (Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of

Science) when it follows someone’s name (John Smith, Bachelor of Arts). Lowercase the term

when referring to the degree in general terms (John Smith has a bachelor of arts degree). See

academic degrees and titles (2.6); associate’s (4.1.22); master’s (4.1.97);doctorate (4.1.55).

4.1.24 battalion. Capitalize battalion in proper names: 3d Battalion, 10th Battalion.

4.1.25 battle. Capitalize battle in proper names (you may lowercase the term to indicate the location

where the battle took place):

Battle of the Bulge, battle of Bunker Hill

4.1.26 BC (before Christ). Write the abbreviation using full caps without periods; the abbreviation

follows the year: 240 BC. See AD (anno Domini) (2.9, 4.1.5).

4.1.27 Berlin airlift

4.1.28 Berlin Wall

4.1.29 bills (congressional). See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.30 Black (people) (n., adj.). You may capitalize or lowercase this term; choose one style, and

use it consistently. See White (people) (4.1.158).

4.1.31 board. Capitalize board when it is part of a proper name but lowercase it in generic

references: National Labor Relations Board, the board

4.1.32 Bosnian crisis

4.1.33 building names. Capitalize the names of governmental buildings, churches, office buildings,

hotels, and specially designated rooms:

the Capitol (state or national) Criminal Courts Building First Presbyterian Church Empire State Building

4.1.34 bureau. Capitalize bureau when it is part of a proper name but not in reference to a

newspaper’s news bureau:

Bureau of Indian Affairs Newspaper Advertising Bureau Washington bureau of the New York Times.

96

4.1.35 chief of staff. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.36 civil service

4.1.37 coalition forces

4.1.38 cold war or Cold War. Lowercase cold war in references to an ideological conflict in

general; uppercase the term in references to the ideological conflict between the United States

and the Soviet Union.

4.1.39 committee. See congressional committees and subcommittees (4.1.46).

4.1.40 communism. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.41 communist. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.42 Communist bloc. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.43 Communist Party. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.44 Congress. Capitalize this term when referring to the U.S. Congress.

4.1.45 congressional. Lowercase congressional except when it is part of a particular title or office:

Congressional Record, Congressional Budget Office, congressional district

4.1.46 congressional committees and subcommittees. Capitalize committee or subcommittee when

either is part of a full title:

Committee on Foreign Affairs, the committee Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment, the subcommittee

4.1.47 congressman, congresswoman. Lowercase congressman and congresswoman except when

they precede a person’s name. Capitalize senator and representative when they precede a person’s

name: See abbreviations (2.0).

Congresswoman Lowey, the congresswoman from New York Senator Reed, the senator from Rhode Island

4.1.48 constitutional amendments. Capitalize the full titles of amendments to the U.S. Constitution:

Fifth Amendment, 18th Amendment, the amendment

See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

97

4.1.49 courses, academic. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.50 Cuban missile crisis

4.1.51 Democratic Party, Democrat(s) (member[s] of the party), democracy. See capitalization

(4.1).

4.1.52 department. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.53 directions (north, south, east, west, north-northwest, north-northeast, south-southwest,

south-southeast). See also capitalization (4.1).

4.1.54 director, directorate. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.55 doctorate. Capitalize the name of the degree (Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Education)

when it follows someone’s name:

John Smith, Doctor of Philosophy John Smith, PhD

Lowercase the term when referring to the degree in general terms (John Smith has a doctorate).

See academic degrees and titles (2.6); associate’s (4.1.22); bachelor’s (4.1.23); master’s (4.1.97).

4.1.56 earth.

In nontechnical writing, do not capitalize “earth” (in the sense of our planet) when preceded by “the” or in such idioms as “down to earth.” When the term is used as the proper name of our planet, especially in context with other planets, capitalize it, usually omitting “the” (Chicago, 8.149).

Some still believe the earth is flat. Where on earth have you been? The astronauts have successfully returned to Earth.

The words “sun” and “moon” are usually lowercased in nontechnical text and always lowercased in the plural (Chicago, 8.150).

The moon circles the earth as the earth circles the sun. Jupiter has several moons.

4.1.57 Earth station

4.1.58 e-mail (n., sing. and pl.).

4.1.59 e-mail (v.)

98

4.1.60 e-mailer (n.)

4.1.61 empire. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.62 exercises. Capitalize only the initial letter(s) of the name of the exercise unless the name is

an acronym:

Desert Strike, REFORGER (return of forces to Germany)

See operations, names of (4.1.112).

4.1.63 federal, federal government

4.1.64 floor leader. Lowercase floor leader, whether preceding or following the name:

He consulted floor leader Hugh L. Brown, a Republican. Rep. Hugh L. Brown, the Republican floor leader, was available for questions.

4.1.65 foreign military services. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.66 fort. Spell out and capitalize fort when it is part of a proper name: Fort Hood.

4.1.67 free world or Free World

4.1.68 führer or fuehrer

4.1.69 general (military rank). See abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1); military titles (2.249).

4.1.70 Geneva convention(s)

4.1.71 g-force

4.1.72 global war on terrorism

4.1.73 government, federal government, U.S. government

4.1.74 group. Capitalize group when it is part of a proper name:

42nd Medical Group, the group

4.1.75 G suit

4.1.76 Gulf War. See capitalization (4.1); Persian Gulf War (4.1.116).

4.1.77 headquarters. Spell out and capitalize headquarters when referring to Service headquarters

and headquarters of major commands.

99

4.1.78 highway. Capitalize highway in proper names, but lowercase the shortened form:

Alcan Highway, the highway

Use Arabic numerals to designate state, federal, and interstate highways:

Interstate 95, Alabama 41

4.1.79 Ho Chi Minh Trail

4.1.80 house. Capitalize house when referring to the House of Representatives, in full or shortened

form:

the House

Lowercase in other contexts:

the lower house of Congress

4.1.81 information age

4.1.82 international date line

4.1.83 Internet (the global network of computers)

4.1.84 iron curtain or Iron Curtain. The term iron curtain is often capitalized when it refers to the

political, military, and ideological barrier that isolated an area under control of the former Soviet

Union.

4.1.85 jeep. Lowercase jeep when referring to a military vehicle. Capitalize when referring to the

trademark civilian vehicle.

4.1.86 joint doctrine

4.1.87 Joint Staff. The staff assigned to the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

4.1.88 journals. Capitalize all main words of the title of a journal, and italicize both the full title

and its abbreviation:

Air and Space Power Journal, ASPJ [for journal titled Air & Space Power]

See italics (4.4); titles of works (4.1.148).

4.1.89 judicial branch. See capitalization (4.1).

100

4.1.90 Korean conflict

4.1.91 Korean War

4.1.92 laws. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws (4.1.4).

4.1.93 legislative bodies, legislative branch. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.94 localities and regions. Capitalize the popular names of specific localities and regions:

East Side, Sun Belt, Twin Cities

See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.95 Marine Corps, Marine(s), marine. Capitalize Marine(s) as a synonym for the U.S. Marine

Corps:

Jim enlisted in the Marines a Marine landing three Marines a company of Marines

Shortened title: Marine Corps, the Corps

4.1.96 Marshall Plan, the plan

4.1.97 master’s degree. Capitalize the name of the degree (Master of Arts, Master of Science)

when it follows someone’s name (John Smith, Master of Arts). Lowercase the term when

referring to the degree in general terms (John Smith has a master of arts degree). See academic

degrees and titles (2.6); associate’s (4.1.22); bachelor’s (4.1.23); doctorate (4.1.55).

4.1.98 medals. Capitalize names of specific medals and awards:

Medal of Honor; congressional medal Distinguished Flying Cross Legion of Merit

See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.99 Middle Ages

4.1.100 MiG(s). Capital M, lowercase i, capital G. Soviet aircraft developed by the design bureau of

Gen Artem Mikoyan and Gen Mikhail Gurevich.

101

4.1.101 military establishment

4.1.102 military-industrial complex

4.1.103 military terms. Capitalize proper names of armies, navies, air forces, fleets, regiments,

battalions, companies, corps, and so forth. Lowercase the words army, navy, air force, and so

forth, standing alone or when they are not part of a proper name (except when they refer to U.S.

forces):

When questioned about a separate air force, the general saw it as a matter for the Army to decide.

See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.104 military titles and offices. See military titles and offices (2.249).

4.1.105 moon. See earth (4.1.56).

4.1.106 mottoes. Enclose mottoes and similar expressions in quotation marks, capitalize them as if

they were titles, or capitalize the first word only:

“A penny saved is a penny earned” was his favorite maxim. The flag bore the motto, Don’t Tread on Me. He was fond of the motto, All for one and one for all.

4.1.107 naval forces. Lowercase naval forces, but use Navy forces in the context of the U.S. Navy.

”U.S. Naval Service” or “Naval Service” is the formal title for the Navy and Marine Corps as a

single U.S. Service under the Secretary of the Navy.

4.1.108 naval station. Capitalize naval station only in proper names:

Norfolk Naval Station, the naval station, the station.

Use Navy station to refer to a U.S. Navy installation.

4.1.109 Navy. Capitalize Navy when referring to the U.S. Service. For foreign naval forces, see

capitalization (4.1).

4.1.110 nuclear triad

4.1.111 officials, government. See capitalization (4.1).

102

4.1.112 operations, names of. The names of operations are written in all uppercase letters. Only the first letter of the word “operation” is capitalized:

Operation HAYLIFT Operation TORCH Operation CROSSROAD Operations DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM Operation IRAQI FREEDOM

4.1.113 organizations. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.114 panzer (German tank)

4.1.115 party (political). See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.116 Persian Gulf War. See capitalization (4.1); Gulf War (4.1.76).

4.1.117 plans. Capitalize the names of military plans.

Navy Plans Division Plan 1 (NPD-1) Munitions Requirements of the Navy Operating Force

4.1.118 p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]). Write the abbreviation in lowercase with periods. See

also a.m. (ante meridiem [before noon]) (4.1.16).

4.1.119 president. Capitalize president only when the term precedes a person’s name; otherwise,

lowercase it. Abbreviate the term when it precedes a full name; spell it out when it precedes a

surname only (Pres. John F. Kennedy, President Kennedy, the president). See capitalization

(4.1); abbreviations (2.0).

4.1.120 RAND Corporation or RAND

4.1.121 regiment. 2dArmored Cavalry Regiment, the regiment. See capitalization (4.1); military

units (4.3.17).

4.1.122 regions of the world. See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.123 regular. Capitalize regular when it is part of the name of a component:

Regular Air Force, Regular Army

4.1.124 Republican Party, Republican(s) (member[s] of the party). See capitalization (4.1).

103

4.1.125 Reserve(s). Capitalize Reserve(s) if the term is part of the name of a component:

Air Force Reserve, Ready Reserve, Standby Reserve

Capitalize it as a synonym for Air Force Reserve: the Reserve.

But write reserve component, the reserve officer, the reservist(s) (all generic, service

unspecified). As a guide to capitalization, apply the following test: if Air Force Reserve can be

logically substituted for reserve, use R. The same rule applies to other military services.

4.1.125.1 Sailor, Sailors (Capitalize in reference to U.S. Navy personnel)

4.1.126 seasons. Do not capitalize the four seasons unless they are personified:

spring, summer, fall, winter

Capitalize them in publication dates in endnotes for journal references:

(Fall 2003)

See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.127 security classification. Capitalize only the initial letter of a term indicating a specific

security classification:

Secret, Confidential

4.1.128 Senate. Capitalize this term in references to the U.S. Senate.

4.1.129 senator. Capitalize senator when it precedes someone’s name (do not abbreviate it before a

full name); lowercase the term when it follows a personal name or is used alone in place of a

name:

Senator Richard Shelby Senator Shelby Richard Shelby Republican senator from Alabama the senator from Alabama

See abbreviations (2.0); capitalization (4.1).

4.1.130 service. Lowercase service in references to one of a nation’s military forces (e.g., an army

or navy). When referring to a U.S. armed service, capitalize “Service” to avoid ambiguity with

the generic “service.”

104

4.1.131 show of force

4.1.132 Signal Corps, the corps

4.1.133 Smithsonian Institution

4.1.134 Socialist Party, Socialist (member of the party), socialism, socialist (advocate of

socialism). See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.134.1 Soldier, Soldiers. Capitalize in reference to U.S. Army personnel.

4.1.135 South. Capitalize this term in references to a specific geographical region. See

capitalization (4.1).

4.1.136 space programs. Capitalize but do not italicize the names of space programs:

Project Apollo

4.1.137 space shuttle

4.1.138 Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Speaker of the House, the Speaker.

Capitalize Speaker to avoid ambiguity.

4.1.139 Spetsnaz

4.1.140 Sputnik. Capitalize this term; italicize when it is part of the name of a specific satellite: Sputnik II.

4.1.141 squadron. Capitalize squadron in references to a numbered unit, but lowercase it when used alone:

732nd Bomber Squadron the squadron Destroyer Squadron FIVE ZERO

4.1.142 standby (n., adj.). Capitalize standby in references to the Air Force Reserve:

Standby Reserve.

See Reserve(s) (4.1.125).

4.1.143 stealth bomber, stealth technology

4.1.144 sun. See earth (4.1.56).

105

4.1.145 Supreme Court (of the United States). Shortened form: the Court.

See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.146 theater. Shortened form of theater of operations or theater of war. Lowercase, as in

European theater.

4.1.147 third world or Third World (n., adj.)

4.1.148 titles of works. Capitalize the first and last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives,

verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions in titles and subheadings. Lowercase articles (the,

a, an), coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so), and prepositions, unless they are

the first or last words of the title or subtitle. Lowercase the to in infinitives.

The Problem with Our Naval Doctrine

Always capitalize the first element of a hyphenated compound word in a title; capitalize the

other elements unless they are articles, prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions:

Eighteenth-Century Fiction Over-the-Hill Gang Fly-by-Night Businesses

Do not capitalize the second element of a hyphenated prefix unless it is a proper noun or

proper adjective:

Anti-inflationary Guidelines Non-Christian Religions

Do not capitalize the second element of a hyphenated, spelled-out number:

Lolita’s Twenty-first Birthday

Capitalize the final element of a hyphenated compound at the end of a title, unless it is a

hyphenated prefix:

Avoiding a Run-In Haven of Anti-intellectualism

See italics (2.0).

4.1.149 treaties, pacts, and plans. See capitalization (4.1).

106

4.1.150 Vietnam War

4.1.151 wars. Capitalize full titles of wars, but lowercase the shortened form:

Spanish-American War, the war Korean War, the war Vietnam War, the war

4.1.152 Warsaw Pact, Warsaw Pact nations

4.1.153 Web, Web site, Web-site (adj). See WWW (World Wide Web) (2.461).

4.1.154 West(ern). Capitalize terms that include West(ern) if they are considered proper names;

lowercase such terms if they are not considered proper names or if they are merely directional:

Western world, the West, Midwest (U.S.) Far West but western, far western, western Pacific Ocean

See capitalization (4.1).

4.1.155 western front (World War I)

4.1.156 Western Hemisphere

4.1.157 white paper. Lowercase white paper unless it is part of a title:

The State Department summarized its findings in a white paper on terrorism. The State Department released its findings in a report, “A White Paper on Terrorism.”

4.1.158 White (people). (n., adj.). You may either capitalize or lowercase this term; choose one

style, and use it consistently. See Black (people) (4.1.30).

4.1.159 wing. Capitalize wing when it is part of a proper name:

42nd Air Base Wing, but the wing

4.1.160 work order. Lowercase work order when it is used generically. Capitalize the term when it

is part of a title (e.g., Minor Maintenance Work Order).

4.1.161 Wright brothers

4.1.162 Xerox (n.), xerox (v.). See 1.74.

4.1.163 zip code or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code. See 1.76.

107

4.2 Spelling and Word Formation

This style guide uses Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English

Language, Unabridged, and the 11th edition of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary as

authoritative sources for the spelling of common words. These dictionaries often identify variations

in spelling that are considered standard usage (e.g., toward or towards; adviser also advisor; flyer

variant of flier). Either spelling is acceptable. Select the one you prefer, and use it consistently

throughout a particular piece of writing. For the spelling of place-names, refer to such authoritative

sources as the Columbia Gazetteer of the World, The Times Atlas of the World, Merriam-Webster’s

Geographical Dictionary, and the section “Geographical Names” in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate

Dictionary, 11th edition. Note that the noun forms listed below can also be used attributively (e.g.,

African-American population).

4.2.1 African-American (n.)

4.2.3 aiming point (n.)

4.2.4 air base (n.)

4.2.5 air chief marshal (n.)

4.2.6 aircrew (n.)

4.2.7 airdrop (n.)

4.2.8 air-drop (v.)

4.2.9 air-droppable (adj.)

4.2.10 airfield (n.)

4.2.11 airframe (n.)

4.2.12 airhead (n.)

4.2.13 airland (v.)

4.2.14 AirLand Battle

108

4.2.15 air lane (n.)

4.2.16 airlift (n., v.)

4.2.17 Airman (n.)

4.2.18 air marshal (n.)

4.2.19 air-minded (adj.)

4.2.20 air-mindedness (n.)

4.2.21 airmobile (adj.)

4.2.22 airpower (n.). But use land power, sea power, space power.

4.2.23 airspace (n.)

4.2.24 airspeed (n.)

4.2.25 air strike (n.)

4.2.26 airstrip (n.)

4.2.27 air vice-marshal (n.)

4.2.28 airworthiness (n.)

4.2.29 airworthy (adj.)

4.2.30 al-Qaeda

4.2.31 anti-. Words formed with the prefix anti are usually solid: antiaircraft, antisubmarine.

Exceptions include capitalized words (anti-Semitic), repeated vowels (anti-inflammatory), and

misleading or difficult-to-read forms (anti-utopia). See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.32 Ba’ath Party

4.2.33 battlefield (n.)

4.2.34 battlefront (n.)

4.2.35 battleground (n.)

4.2.36 battle line (n.)

109

4.2.37 battlespace (n.)

4.2.38 beddown (n.)

4.2.39 bed down (v.)

4.2.40 bin Laden, Osama (also Usama)

4.2.41 biplane (n.)

4.2.42 Brookings Institution

4.2.43 buildup (n.)

4.2.44 build up (v.)

4.2.45 by-product (n.)

4.2.46 call sign (n.)

4.2.47 cease-fire (n.)

4.2.48 choke point (n.)

4.2.49 citizen-soldier (n.)

4.2.52 code name (n.)

4.2.51 code-name (v.)

4.2.52 compound words. There are three types of compound words: open (air brake), solid

(aircrew), and hyphenated (air-dry). Compounds are either permanent (found in the dictionary)

or temporary (not found in the dictionary). Use the dictionary’s spelling of permanent

compounds. For help in the spelling of compounds, refer to the “Hyphenation Guide for

Compounds, Combining Forms, and Prefixes” article 7.90 in The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th

edition. When in doubt, use open spelling for a temporary compound (e.g., war fighter). See

“The Writing of Compounds” in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English

Language, Unabridged.

110

Words formed with prefixes like non-, pre-, and re- are usually solid: nonnuclear,

prearrange, reenlist.

Words with the suffix -like are often used to form new compounds and are generally solid:

childlike, businesslike, lifelike; but bull-like, Faulkner-like.

Words combined with the suffix -fold are solid unless they are formed with numerals:

threefold, multifold, 20-fold.

A few noun compounds are always open: those beginning with relationship words, such as

Mother Nature, fellow traveler, sister ship, parent company, and most compounds ending with

general, such as attorney general, adjutant general, and comptroller general (but governor-

general).

Adjective compounds consisting of adverbs ending in -ly plus participles or adjectives are

left open: poorly written story, rapidly developing area. Compounds formed from unhyphenated

proper names are left open: Methodist Episcopal Church, Southeast Asian country. Chemical

names are open: carbon monoxide poisoning, hydrochloric acid bottle. Words naming colors are

open: sea green gown, grayish blue car. See hyphenated compound words (3.2.8) and “Words

Formed with Prefixes,” in “Hyphenation Guide for Compounds, Combining Forms, and

Prefixes,” in The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, pages 306–8.

4.2.53 copilot (n.)

4.2.54 cost-effective (adj.)

4.2.55 cost-effectiveness (n.)

4.2.56 counter-. Compound words with the prefix counter are usually solid: counterair,

countermeasure, counterblow, counterclockwise. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.57 countries. Spell out the names of countries in text. See abbreviations (2.0); United States

(1.59); U.S. (United States) (2.429); USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) (2.448).

111

4.2.58 court-martial (n., v.), courts-martial (n., plural)

4.2.59 coworker (n.)

4.2.60 crew member (n.)

4.2.61 cross-train (v.)

4.2.62 cyberspace (n.)

4.2.63 database (n., v.)

4.2.64 data link (n.)

4.2.65 data-link (v., adj.)

4.2.66 daytime (n.)

4.2.67 D-day (n., adj.)

4.2.68 decision maker (n.)

4.2.69 decision making (n.)

4.2.70 decision-making (adj.)

4.2.71 de-emphasize (v.)

4.2.72 dive-bomb (v.)

4.2.73 dive-bomber (n.)

4.2.74 downsize (v.)

4.2.75 drawdown (n.)

4.2.76 draw down (v.)

4.2.77 e-mail (n., sing. and pl.)

4.2.78 e-mail (v.)

4.2.79 e-mailer (n.)

4.2.80 endgame (n.)

4.2.81 endnotes. See notes (5.1).

112

4.2.82 end state (n.)

4.2.83 end-state (adj.)

4.2.84 en masse (adv.)

4.2.85 en route (adv., adj.)

4.2.86 ensure (v.) To make sure or certain, guarantee. See insure (4.2.132).

4.2.87 fact finder (n.)

4.2.88 fact-finding (n., adj.)

4.2.89 fait accompli (n. sing.), faits accomplis (n. pl.) (a thing accomplished and presumably

irreversible).

4.2.90 feedback (n.)

4.2.91 field marshal (n.)

4.2.92 field test (n.)

4.2.93 field-test (v.)

4.2.94 fighter-bomber (n.)

4.2.95 fighter pilot (n.)

4.2.96 firearm (n.)

4.2.97 firebomb (n., v.)

4.2.98 firepower (n.)

4.2.99 firsthand (adj., adv.)

4.2.100 flight crew (n.)

4.2.101 flight line (n.)

4.2.102 flight-line (adj.)

4.2.103 flight path (n.)

4.2.104 flight suit (n.)

113

4.2.105 flight-test (v.)

4.2.106 followership (n.)

4.2.107 follow-on (n.)

4.2.108 follow-up (n.)

4.2.109 follow up (v.)

4.2.110 footnote (n.) See notes (5.1).

4.2.111 foreword (n.) See foreword (1.28).

4.2.112 front line (n.)

4.2.113 frontline (adj.)

4.2.114 führer or fuehrer

4.2.115 full time (n.)

4.2.116 full-time (adj., adv.)

4.2.117 Gadhafi, Mu‘ammar

4.2.118 geo-. Most compounds with the prefix geo are solid: geoeconomics, geomagnetic,

geonavigation, geopolitics.

4.2.119 g-force (n.)

4.2.120 G suit (n.)

4.2.121 half-. Most adjective compounds with the prefix half are hyphenated; a few are closed:

half-blooded, half-cocked, half-witted, halfhearted, halfway. See compound words (4.2.52);

hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.122 half century (n.)

4.2.123 high-. Most adjective compounds with the prefix high are hyphenated before the noun:

high-level meeting. After the noun, write them open (but hyphenate after the noun if doing so

114

will prevent ambiguity). Some compounds with this prefix are closed: highbrow, highfalutin,

highland. See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.124 home page (n.)

4.2.125 Hussein, Saddam

4.2.126 ill-. See hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.127 inbrief (v.)

4.2.128 inbriefing (n., v.)

4.2.129 in depth (adv.)

4.2.130 in-depth (adj.)

4.2.131 in-process (v.)

4.2.132 insure (v.) This term is often synonymous with ensure (i.e., to make certain by taking

necessary measures and precautions). Insure also carries the distinctive sense of providing or

obtaining insurance. See ensure (4.2.86).

4.2.133 inter-. The prefix inter nearly always occurs in solid compounds: interrelated, interaction,

international. Add a hyphen when the second element is capitalized: inter-American. See

compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.134 in-theater (adj., adv.)

4.2.135 -keeper. Compound words with the suffix keeper are usually written solid: bookkeeper,

scorekeeper, timekeeper, hotelkeeper; but tollgate keeper. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.136 landmass (n.)

4.2.137 land power (n.)

4.2.138 log in (v.)

4.2.139 log-in (n.)

4.2.140 logistic or logistical (adj.)

115

4.2.141 log off (v.)

4.2.142 log-off (n.)

4.2.143 log on (v.)

4.2.144 log-on (n.)

4.2.145 long term (n.)

4.2.146 long-term (adj.)

4.2.147 longtime (adj.)

4.2.148 man-. The prefix man occurs in solid, hyphenated, and open compound words: mankind,

man-hour(s), man jack. See also compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8);

sexist language (1.49); work hour(s) (4.2.281).

4.2.149 man-hour(s) (n.). See sexist language (1.49); work hour(s) (4.2.281).

4.2.150 material, matériel (or materiel) (n.) Material refers to any matter or substance from which

something is made. Materiel refers more specifically to apparatus or equipment (e.g., military

supplies).

4.2.151 microcomputer (n.)

4.2.152 mid-. Adjective compounds with the prefix mid are usually solid unless the second element

begins with a capital letter: midair collision, mid-Atlantic tempest. Noun compounds with this

prefix are usually solid; if the second word is a proper noun, the compound may be either open

or hyphenated: midsummer, mid Atlantic, mid-Victorian, mid-1944 (all of the following are

acceptable: mid- to late 1944, mid-to-late 1944, mid to late 1944). See compound words (4.2.52);

hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.153 militia (sing.), militias (pl.)

4.2.154 Milosevic, Slobodan

4.2.155 mind-set (n.)

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4.2.156 minelayer (n.)

4.2.157 mine laying (n.)

4.2.158 mine-laying (adj.)

4.2.159 minesweeper (n.)

4.2.160 minesweeping (n., v.)

4.2.161 missileman (n.)

4.2.162 multi-. Words with the prefix multi are usually solid: multibreak, multicylinder,

multiengine. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.163 must-read (n.)

4.2.164 nation-state (n.)

4.2.165 near real time (n.)

4.2.166 near-real-time (adj.)

4.2.167 near term (n.)

4.2.168 near-term (adj.)

4.2.169 nighttime (n.)

4.2.170 non-. Words with the prefix non are usually solid: nonviolent, nonoperating, nonnegotiable,

nonparty. But non-English-speaking world. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.171 off-line (adj., adv.)

4.2.172 off-load (v.)

4.2.173 onboard (adj.). An onboard computer.

4.2.174 on board (adv.). Aboard. He is on board the ship.

4.2.175 ongoing (adj.)

4.2.176 online (adj., adv.)

4.2.177 onload (v.)

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4.2.178 on-station (adj.)

4.2.179 on station (adv.)

4.2.180 outbrief (v.)

4.2.181 outbriefing (n., v.)

4.2.182 out-process (v.)

4.2.183 over-. Compound words with the prefix over are usually solid: overage, overproduction,

overeager, override. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.184 part-time (adj., adv.)

4.2.185 part-timer (n.)

4.2.186 peacekeeper (n.)

4.2.187 peacekeeping (n.)

4.2.188 peacemaker (n.)

4.2.189 peacemaking (n.)

4.2.190 peacetime (n.)

4.2.191 per annum (adv.)

4.2.192 per capita (adv., adj.)

4.2.193 Philippines

4.2.194 policy maker (n.)

4.2.195 policy making (n.)

4.2.196 policy-making (adj.)

4.2.197 post-. Compound words with the prefix post are usually solid: postwar, postaxial,

postmortem, but post-cold-war world or post–Cold War world. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.198 pre-. Compound words with the prefix pre are usually solid: preexisting, predetermined,

prejudge, preempt. But pre-latency-period development. See compound words (4.2.52).

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4.2.199 pro-. Compound words with the prefix pro are usually solid: progovernment, pronuclear.

See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.200 proactive (adj.)

4.2.201 proactively (adv.)

4.2.202 problem solver (n.)

4.2.203 problem solving (n.)

4.2.204 problem-solving (adj.)

4.2.205 re-. Compound words with the prefix re are usually solid: reedit, reeducate, reelect, reenlist,

reequip, reexamine, reunify. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.206 real time (n.)

4.2.207 real-time (adj.)

4.2.208 real-world (adj.)

4.2.209 risk taking (n.)

4.2.210 risk-taking (adj.)

4.2.211 road map (n.)

4.2.212 sea-lane (n.)

4.2.213 sealift (n., v.)

4.2.214 sea power (n.)

4.2.215 self-. Most self- compounds are hyphenated: self-reliant, self-sustaining, but selfless,

selfsame. See hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.216 semi-. Compound words with the prefix semi are usually spelled solid: semifinal,

semiofficial, but semi-indirect. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.217 semiannual. See semiannual (1.48).

4.2.218 Shiite

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4.2.219 short-range (adj.)

4.2.220 short term (n.)

4.2.221 short-term (adj.)

4.2.222 space-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated: spaceman, spaceship,

spaceflight, spacewalk (v.), space suit, space station, space walk (n.), space age, space power,

space shuttle, space-age (adj.), space-time. See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound

words (3.2.8).

4.2.223 space lift (n.)

4.2.224 space-lift (v., adj.)

4.2.225 space power (n.)

4.2.226 standby (n., adj., adv.)

4.2.227 stand by (v.)

4.2.228 standoff (n.)

4.2.229 stand off (v.)

4.2.230 state of the art (n.)

4.2.231 state-of-the-art (adj.)

4.2.232 sub-. Compound words with the prefix sub are usually written solid: subcommittee,

subcontract, substandard, but sub-Saharan Africa. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.233 superpower (n.)

4.2.234 takeoff (n.)

4.2.235 take off (v.)

4.2.236 takeover (n.)

4.2.237 take over (v.)

4.2.238 test-fly (v.)

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4.2.239 theater (n.) Shortened form of theater of operations or theater of war. Lowercase, as in

European theater.

4.2.240 third-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated: third base, third

baseman, third class (n.), third degree (n.), third grader, thirdhand (adj., adv.), third-class (adj.),

third-degree (adj.). See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.241 trans-. Words formed with the prefix trans are generally closed: transship, transcontinental,

transoceanic. Compounds whose second element is a capitalized word are hyphenated: trans-

America, but transatlantic. See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.242 tri-. Compound words with the prefix tri are usually closed: tricolor, trilingual, tristate. See

compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.243 U-boat

4.2.244 ultra-. Most compounds with the prefix ultra are solid: ultramodern, ultrasonic, but ultra-

atomic, ultra-German. See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.245 un-. Most compounds with the prefix un are solid: unbiased, unsolved, unused. See

compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.246 under-. Most compounds with this term are solid: underbid, underdevelop, underestimate,

underground, undersea, undersecretary, underreport. See compound words (4.2.52).

4.2.247 underway (adj.)

4.2.248 under way (adv.)

4.2.249 vice-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated: vice admiral, vice-chief,

vice-commander, vice-marshal, vice-minister, vice president, vice squad, viceroyalty, vice-

chairman, vice-consul. Hyphenate if the word is not in the dictionary. See compound words

(4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.250 vice versa (adj.)

121

4.2.251 Vietcong (n., sing. and pl.)

4.2.252 Vietminh (n., sing. and pl.)

4.2.253 walk-. Most compounds with this term are either hyphenated or solid: walk-on (n.), walk-

up (n.), walkout (n.), walkover (n.). See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words

(3.2.8).

4.2.254 war-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated: war chest, war power,

war room, war zone, warlike, warpath, warplane, warship, wartime, war-game (v.). See

compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.255 war fighter (n.)

4.2.256 war fighting (n.)

4.2.257 war-fighting (adj.)

4.2.258 war-game (v.) (e.g., to war-game an invasion)

4.2.259 war game (n.)

4.2.260 war gamer (n.)

4.2.261 war gaming (n.)

4.2.262 war-gaming (adj.)

4.2.263 warhead (n.)

4.2.264 war making (n.)

4.2.265 war-making (adj.)

4.2.266 warplane (n.)

4.2.267 warship (n.)

4.2.268 wartime (n.)

4.2.269 wavelength(s) (n.)

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4.2.270 well-. Most compounds formed with well are either hyphenated or solid: well-being (n.),

well-defined (adj.), well-grounded (adj.), well-intentioned (adj.), well-known (adj.), well-read

(adj.), well-spoken (adj.), well-timed (adj.), wellborn (adj.), wellness (n.). Generally, you should

hyphenate compounds with well before the noun: A well-known man came to my house. Do not

use the hyphen when the expression carries a modifier: A very well known man made an

unexpected appearance at the party. Do not use the hyphen when the compound follows the word

it modifies: She is well known for her recipes. See hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.271 weltanschauung (n., often capitalized). Worldview.

4.2.272 wide-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated: wide receiver (n.),

wideawake (n.), widemouthed (adj.), widespread (adj.), wide-awake (adj.), wide-eyed (adj.),

wide-spreading (adj.). See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.273 -wide. Compounds ending in this term are written solid unless they are long and

cumbersome (i.e., if the suffix follows most words of three or more syllables) or unless they

include a proper noun: countrywide, nationwide, servicewide, statewide, theaterwide, worldwide,

but university-wide, Chicago-wide, Navy–wide. The hyphenated forms remain hyphenated both

before and after the words they modify: The rule applied university-wide. See compound words

(4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.274 wingspan (n.)

4.2.275 wiretap (n., v.)

4.2.276 wiretapper (n.)

4.2.277 work-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated: work ethic, workday,

work-up (n.). See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.278 work-around (n.)

4.2.279 work around (v.)

123

4.2.280 workforce (n.)

4.2.281 work hour(s) (n.). See also man-hour(s) (4.2.149).

4.2.282 workload (n.)

4.2.283 worldview (n.). See also weltanschauung (4.2.271).

4.2.284 worldwide (adj., adv.)

4.2.285 year-. Compounds with this term are solid, open, and hyphenated: year of grace,

yearbook, year-end. See compound words (4.2.52); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8).

4.2.286 zero (n. sing.), zeros (n. pl.), also zeroes (n. pl.). See (1.75).

4.2.287 zero hour (n.)

4.2.288 zero-sum (adj.)

4.3 Numbers

Spell out whole numbers zero through nine. Use figures for numbers greater than nine:

Katie read three books in two months. The convention center can hold 5,000 people.

You may use figures followed by million, billion, and so forth to express large numbers:

China has more than one (or 1) billion people. By the end of the year, the corporation was in debt by $2.3 million.

If a sentence contains several numbers, some of them 10 or above, follow the basic rule:

We are authorized six officers, 39 enlisted personnel, and three civilians in our two squadrons.

The general rule for spelling numbers also applies to ordinal numbers. Use nd and rd for

second and third, respectively (placed on the line rather than written as superscripts).

The use of d following military unit’s designation number is acceptable practice. (2d or 3d)

The 122nd and 123rd days of the strike were marked by renewed violence.

Spell out any number that starts a sentence:

Twelve people applied for the job.

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Apply to adjective modifiers the rules for spelling out whole numbers zero through nine and

for expressing large numbers:

four-mile hike 11-mile hike five-day week 40-hour week five-ton truck 9,000-ton ship two (or 2)-million-member union 10-million-vote margin four-year-old boy zero-based budgeting

In mathematical, statistical, technical, or scientific texts, express physical quantities such as

distances, lengths, areas, volumes, pressures, and so forth in figures:

60 miles 110 volts 40 acres 3 meters 15 yards 10 tons 3 1/3 cubic feet 45 pounds

In ordinary textual matter, apply the basic rule for the spelling of numbers:

Doris lost five pounds in a week. John’s car can go barely 60 miles an hour.

Spell out common fractions in textual matter:

More than one-third of the class failed the exam. My brothers and I live within three and one-half miles of each other.

Use figures to express a combination of mixed numbers and whole numbers:

He typed the report on 8½-by-11-inch paper.

If you abbreviate a unit of measure, express the quantity with a figure:

9 mi. 35 mm 30 lb. 20 km

For two or more quantities, the abbreviation or symbol is repeated if it is closed up to the

number, but not if it is separated:

35%–50% 2 x 5 cm

Use figures with symbols:

5½" 8˚ F

Use figures for decimal fractions:

He multiplied the number by 3.17.

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In textual matter, use the word percent preceded by word or figures; in a table or chart, or in

scientific or statistical text, you may use the symbol %.

One or 1 percent 50 percent

Spell out or use figures for amounts of money in U.S. currency in accordance with the basic

rule. If you spell out the number, spell out the unit of currency; if you use figures, use the symbols $

or ¢:

The commission raised the tax four cents. The club raised a total of $425.

Use a dollar sign, figures, and units of millions or billions to express large sums of money:

Jim signed with the Atlanta Falcons for $3 million.

Use figures for fractional amounts over one dollar, like other decimal fractions. When you

use whole-dollar amounts in the same context with fractional amounts, set the whole-dollar amounts

with zeros after the decimal point:

The music store sold CDs for $12.00 to $15.98.

In the body of the text, indicate inclusive years as follows: 1900–1901; 1907–8; 1968–72 or

from 1968 to 1972 (never from 1968–72). In endnotes, use 1968–1972. If you are composing a book

title that includes dates, repeat all digits: My High School Incarceration, 1965–1968. However, do

not alter a published title that includes abbreviated dates: Clarkson’s Antagonism, 1946–51. In

chapter titles, subheadings, and legends/captions, use the abbreviated form (in chapter 4,”From

Meeting to Marriage, 1932–38”).

Spell out references to particular centuries; spell out or use figures and apostrophes for

references to decades:

the twentieth century during the sixties and seventies the ’60s and ’70s

If you identify decades by their century, use figures:

the 1880s and 1890s

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Spell out times of day in even, half, and quarter hours:

We went to the theater at a quarter after seven. The service starts at five o’clock.

Use figures to emphasize an exact time:

The program is televised at 8:35 in the morning.

If you use the 24-hour system, do not punctuate between the hours and minutes:

The office opens at 0815. Our duty hours are from 0730 to 1100 and from 1130 to 1600.

Use the following style for inclusive page numbers:

First Number Second Number ExamplesLess than 100 Use all digits 3–10, 71–72, 96–117 100 or multiple of 100 Use all digits 100–104, 600–613,

1100–1123

101 through 109 Use changed part 107–8, 505–17, (in multiples of 100) only, omitting 1002–6 unneeded zeros 110 through 199 Use two digits, or 321–25, 415–32, (in multiples of 100) more if needed 1536–38, 1496–504,

14325–28, 11564–78, 13792–803

To avoid ambiguity, do not condense inclusive Roman numerals:

cvi–cix

Use an initial ordinal number (spelled out if ninth or less) to designate particular dynasties,

governments, and governing bodies:

First Continental Congress 98th Congress Third Reich 18th Dynasty Sixth International Fifth Republic

Use ordinal numbers to designate political divisions. The rule for spelling out numbers

applies:

Fifth Congressional District 12th Precinct Second Election District

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Form the plurals of spelled-out numbers just as you would form the plurals of other nouns;

add s (no apostrophe) to form the plurals of figures:

Hickock’s hand contained two pairs: aces and eights. The grades for the class were six 98s, three 100s, and the rest below 89.

In figures of one thousand or more (except page numbers), use a comma to set off groups of

three digits, counting from the right:

2,000 34,000

In spelled-out fractional numbers, connect the numerator and the denominator with a hyphen unless either contains a hyphen:

three-fourths six and seven-eighths four and one-half years seven and twenty-one thirty-seconds

4.3.1 air force (numbered). See numbered air force (4.3.19).

4.3.2 caliber (of weapons). Use whole numbers or decimals, depending on the type of weapon: .38-

caliber revolver, Colt .45, 9 mm automatic (no hyphen between a numeral and an abbreviation),

105 mm howitzer, 12-gauge shotgun.

4.3.3 centuries and decades. Spell out (in lowercase letters) references to particular centuries:

eighth century, twentieth century. Use figures if decades are identified by their century: the

1880s and 1890s. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.4 chapter (numbers). Use Arabic figures for chapter numbers, even if the chapter numbers in

the work cited are spelled out or in Roman numerals. The same principle holds true for other

divisions of a book: part 1, section 3, book 7, volume 2.

4.3.5 currency. See money (4.3.18); numbers (4.3).

4.3.6 dates. Write exact dates in the sequence day-month-year, without commas. Spell out the

month, use figures for the day, and use a four-digit year. When you use only the month and year,

no commas are necessary. FDR referred to 7 December 1941 as a day that would live in infamy. The date March 2003 was special to her.

128

Do not use the all-numeral style for dates (3/11/50, etc.) in formal writing. However, in text discussing the events of [11 September 2001], the use of 9/11 is acceptable (Chicago, 6.115). If documentation, figures, and tables contain numerous dates, you may abbreviate certain months (Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.) and use the sequence day-month-year without internal punctuation (7 Dec. 1941) to reduce clutter (Chicago, 9.39, 15.42, 17.225).

Choose one style for the documentation, figures, and tables, and use it consistently. For inclusive numbers, see 4.3.

4.3.7 decades. Use figures if decades are identified by their century: the 1880s and 1890s. Spell out

or use figures and apostrophes for particular decades: the eighties, the ’80s. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.8 dollars. See money (4.3.18); numbers (4.3).

4.3.9 Earth satellites. Use Arabic numerals in designations of artificial satellites: Skylab 2, Voyager

2. Earlier spacecraft used Roman numerals: Gemini II. Specific names of spacecraft and artificial

satellites are italicized. See spacecraft (4.4.21).

4.3.10 figures. See numbers (4.3) or illustrations (1.33).

4.3.11 fractions. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.12 highway (numbered). Use Arabic numerals to designate state, federal, and interstate

highways: Interstate 85, Alabama 41.

4.3.13 hundreds. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.14 Mach 2 (etc.). Use numerals with “Mach.”

4.3.15 measurements. Numerals precede abbreviations for units of measure:

3 mi. 50 lb. 55 mph 35 mm film

See abbreviations (2.0); hyphenated compound words (3.2.8); numbers (4.3).

4.3.16 military time. Measured in hours numbered zero to 23 (e.g., 0100, 0800, 1600, 2300), from

one midnight to the next; midnight is 0000, not 2400. No internal punctuation.

See numbers (4.3).

129

4.3.17 military units.

Air Force units. Use Arabic numerals to designate units up to and including wings. Spell out

the names of numbered air forces:

42nd Civil Engineer Squadron 31st Combat Support Group 22nd Fighter Wing Twenty-third Air Force

Army units. Use Arabic numerals to designate units up to and including divisions. Write

corps names with Roman numerals, and designate Army groups with Arabic numerals. Spell out

the names of numbered armies:

2d Armored Cavalry Regiment 210th Field Artillery Brigade 82nd Airborne Division XVIII Airborne Corps 3d Army Group First Army

Navy units. Use Arabic numerals to designate the number of task forces; spell out and all-cap

fleet and other unit numbers:

Task Force 58 FIFTH Fleet Destroyer Squadron TEN

Marine Corps units. Use the same designations as Army units.

For writing ordinal numbers (2d), see numbers (4.3).

4.3.18 money. Use a dollar sign and numerals to express large sums of money. See numbers (4.3).

Both companies agreed on a price of $2 million.

4.3.19 numbered air force. Spell out names of numbered air forces: Eighth Air Force, Twenty-

third Air Force. Use figures for a smaller unit: 15th Air Group. See military units (4.3.17).

4.3.20 percent. Always spell out percent in humanistic text, and precede it with Arabic numerals: a

10 percent increase. You may use the % symbol in tables and in scientific or statistical text. See

numbers (4.3).

130

4.3.21 quantities. See measurements (4.3.15); numbers (4.3).

4.3.22 satellites. See Earth satellites (4.3.9).

4.3.23 temperature. See numbers (4.3).

4.3.24 time. See military time (4.3.16); numbers (4.3).

4.3.25 units of measure. See measurements (4.3.15).

4.3.26 weights and measurements. See measurements (4.3.15); numbers (4.3).

4.3.27 year. Use figures to designate specific years unless the sentence begins with the year:

Nineteen forty-five was an eventful year. World War II ended in 1945.

In informal contexts, you may abbreviate the full number of a particular year: the spirit of ’76.

If you use the month with the year, do not use internal punctuation: The study began in May

1979. See dates (4.3.6); numbers (4.3).

4.3.28 zero, zeros (also zeroes). Use a 0 in tables to denote zero amount instead of using a dash or leaving the space blank.

4.4 Italics

Italicize titles and subtitles of published books, periodicals, pamphlets, manuals, proceedings

and collections, newspapers, and sections of newspapers published separately, as well as

abbreviations of those publications (The Art of War, The United States Strategic Bombing Survey,

USSBS, Fortune 500, Air and Space Power Journal, ASPJ, etc.). If you are marking a manuscript by

hand, use underlining to indicate italics.

Italicize titles of motion pictures, continuing television and radio series, long poems and

musical compositions, plays, and computer/video games. Put titles of TV shows, songs, and radio

programs in Roman type and enclose them in quotation marks:

Casablanca Handel’s Messiah public television’s Masterpiece Theater N.Y.P.D. Blue public radio’s All Things Considered “In the Mood” Paradise Lost radio’s “Christmas ‘99 at the Kennedy Center” Tomb Raider: Chronicles

131

If you use the names of newspapers, titles of books, or other italicized names in the plural, set

the plural inflection in Roman type: There were five Journals and two Tribunes on the shelf.

All punctuation marks should appear in the same font—Roman or italic—as the main or surrounding text, except for punctuation that belongs to a title or an exclamation in a different font (Chicago, 6.3).

Smith played the title role in Hamlet, Macbeth, and King Lear; after his final performance, he announced his retirement. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957 Many editors admire Wired Style: it is both elegant and easy to use. An Apache Life-way: The Economic, Social, and Religious Institutions of the Chiricahua Indians What is meant by random selection?

She is the author of What’s Next?

For light entertainment, he reads King Lear!

The manual Online! is always at my elbow.

We heard his cries of “Help!”

When a proper name is set in italics, the possessive ending (including the apostrophe) should be in

Roman:

the Pueblo’s captain

Parentheses and brackets should appear in the same font—Roman or italic—as the surrounding text, not in that of the material they enclose:

The Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) attacks maples. The letter stated that my check had been “received [sic] with thanks.”

When a phrase in parentheses or brackets appears on a line by itself, the parentheses or brackets are usually in the same font as the phrase (Chicago, 6.6):

[To be concluded]

Italicize the proper names of ships and submarines but not the accompanying abbreviations

(e.g., USS, SS, CSS): USS Wisconsin (BB-64), SS United States, CSS Alabama, Kiev-class aircraft

132

carrier. Capitalize but do not italicize the make of aircraft and ships and the names of space

programs: Boeing 707, Project Apollo, ICBM, U-boat, DC-3.

Do not italicize titles of forms or put them in quotation marks. Instead, capitalize the main

words: AF Form 673, Request to Issue Publication; AU Form 107, Request for Loan.

Italicize terms singled out as terms, and words referred to as words. See quotation marks

(3.2.14):

The standard meaning of the term leftist is an adherent of the left wing of a party or movement. Gladys cringed whenever anyone said ain't.

Italicize terms from languages other than English: Leutnant, sic transit gloria mundi, aux

armes. However, if foreign terms have become familiar enough to be included in the main listing of

a standard English dictionary, do not italicize them: weltschmerz, schadenfreude, ad hoc, fin de

siècle, blitzkrieg, détente, déjà vu, perestroika, raison d’être, vis-à-vis.

Isolated foreign proper nouns are not italicized, even when cited as foreign terms:

Moscow (in Russian, Moskva) has been the capital of the Russian national state since the late fourteenth century.

When you provide a translation of the title of a foreign work in the text, use headline-style capitalization for the translated title but do not italicize it if the translation has not been published. However, use italics and headline style capitalization if the translation has been published. Enclose the translation in parentheses (Chicago, 10.6):

Leonardo Fioravanti’s Compendio de i secreti rationali (Compendium of Rational Secrets) became a best-seller. Proust’s À la recherche du temps perdu (Remembrance of Things Past) was the subject of her dissertation.

When you cite the names of foreign institutions and businesses, capitalize them according to the usage of the country concerned. Unless they are transliterated from a non-Latin alphabet, do not italicize them. If you translate them, capitalize according to English usage (Chicago, 10.8).

He is a member of the Société d’entraide des membres de l’ordre national de la Légion d’honneur. He was comforted to learn of the Mutual Aid Society for Members of the National Order of the Legion of Honor.

133

Italicize the names of legal cases when they are mentioned in text; in notes, they may be written in Roman; v. (versus) is preferably written in italics rather than Roman (Chicago, 8.88):

Brown v. Board of Education

Italicize the shortened case name:

Miranda or the Miranda case

You may occasionally use italics (not boldface) to emphasize a point:

Effective intelligence is essential to military operations.

This device should be used sparingly. If your text is well written, the reader should have no problem

determining what you consider important. See emphasis (4.4.4).

4.4.1 aircraft. Do not italicize the class designation and class name of aircraft: F-15 Eagle, SR-71

Blackbird, Boeing 747. Italicize the name of a particular aircraft: Spirit of St. Louis, Enola Gay.

See italics (4.4).

4.4.2 doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives. Italicize the

title of the publication: Air Force Manual (AFMAN) 10-100, Airman’s Manual, AFMAN 10-

100; Army Field Manual (FM) 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, FM 27-10; Joint Publication

(JP) 3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations (JP 3-0).

4.4.3 Earth satellites. Specific names of spacecraft and artificial satellites are italicized: Skylab 2,

Voyager 2, Gemini II.

4.4.4 emphasis. If you use italics to emphasize a word or words in a quotation, indicate that you

have done so by adding a phrase such as “emphasis added” or “italics added” in parentheses

following the quotation, as in this block quotation:

Today we know that in wartime, even in a conventional war of limited duration, the two superpowers would fight a battle of attrition in space until one side or the other had wrested control. And the winner would use the surviving space system to decide the contests on land and sea.7 [emphasis added]

Similarly, you may use an appropriate phrase to show that an italicized part of a quotation is

not your doing but appears in the original, as in this run-in quotation:

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Gen Muir S. Fairchild noted that “each nation differs from all other nations, not only in its degree of vulnerability to air attack, but also in the kind of vulnerability.” [emphasis in original]21

In a quotation with a mixture of original and added italics, use bracketed phrases

immediately following the italicized passages to differentiate between them, as in this block

quotation:

Whether the means of protecting satellites will be adequate to ensure the survivability [emphasis added] of particular space-based BMD systems will depend in part on the kinds of systems deployed and in part on future Soviet antisatellite capabilities. Insufficient information is now available to resolve the survivability question.24 [emphasis in original]

4.4.5 epigraph. Do not enclose an epigraph in quotation marks. Set it in italics in the same sized

type as the text or in Roman a size smaller. See (1.26).

4.4.6 foreign terms. See italics (4.4).

4.4.7 forms (titles of). See italics (4.4).

4.4.8 instructions. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives

(4.4.2).

4.4.9 journals. Capitalize all main words of the title of a journal, and italicize both the full title and

its abbreviation: Air and Space Power Journal, ASPJ.

4.4.10 legal cases. See italics (4.4).

4.4.11 Luftwaffe. No italics.

4.4.12 magazines. See italics (4.4); journals (4.4.9).

4.4.13 manuals. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives

(4.4.2).

4.4.14 newspapers. Italicize the names of newspapers: Christian Science Monitor, Chicago Sun-

Times. In text, lowercase the and set it in Roman type: John read the Wall Street Journal

religiously. Omit the definite article in note references to newspapers.

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4.4.15 pamphlets. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives

(4.4.2).

4.4.16 periodicals. See italics (4.4); journals (4.4.9).

4.4.17 policy directives. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy

directives (4.4.2).

4.4.18 see, see also. Italicize these terms in an index but not in documentation (e.g., endnotes).

Capitalize only when they begin a sentence.

4.4.19 ships, names of. See italics (4.4).

4.4.20 sic (so; thus; in this manner). Use this term, italicized and bracketed, to indicate

misspelling or improper usage in original text:

The newscaster announced that “the pilot got out of his plane and layed [sic] down on the ground after his harrowing flight.”

See italics (4.4).

4.4.21 spacecraft. Italicize specific names of spacecraft and artificial satellites: Gemini II, Apollo

11. Also italicize names of particular space vehicles or components: Eagle (Apollo 11 lunar

module), Columbia (Apollo 11 command module or space shuttle), and Friendship 7 (Alan

Shepard’s Mercury capsule).

4.4.22 Spetsnaz. No italics.

4.4.23 words as words. Place words referred to as words in either italics or quotation marks: Tom

wasn’t sure whether airpower was one word or two.

4.5 Bullets

Bullets are typographical devices used to emphasize specific items; they are not

organizational devices used to subordinate textual elements. Use them when one item is no more

important than the others or when the items do not show a sequence. Entries may be either complete

or incomplete sentences but should be syntactically parallel and no longer than two or three

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sentences. Since bullets are used primarily for emphasis, use them sparingly and keep the

information as short as possible. Indent each entry, and align run-over lines with the first word after

the dot. A special court-martial tries intermediate, noncapital offenses. It may be convened by any of the following:

• Any person who may convene a general court-martial.

• A commander empowered by the secretary of the Air Force unless otherwise directed.

• A commander of a wing, group, or separate squadron of the Air Force unless otherwise

directed.

Specifically, the Office of Antiterrorism is charged with the following measures:

• Helping the newly formed Air Force Antiterrorism Council keep pace with related

developments. Members of the council include senior officers of various deputy and

assistant chiefs of staff, the Office of Security Police, the Office of the Judge Advocate

General, and other agencies.

• Developing policy and guidance concerning security measures and precautions.

• Monitoring terrorist trends and providing information on such matters to interested

agencies and commands.

The Camp David accords provide a process to facilitate the implementation of Resolution 242:

• a five-year transitional period for the West Bank and Gaza, providing full autonomy to

the inhabitants;

• negotiations on the final status of the West Bank and Gaza and on a peace treaty

between Jordan and Israel, to begin no later than three years into the transitional

period;

• a framework for peace negotiations between Israel and Egypt; and

• principles for peace treaties between Israel and its other neighboring states.

The following engineering-data support centers have been established:

• The Cryptologic-Equipment Engineering-Data Support Center

• The Nuclear-Ordnance Engineering-Data Support Center

• The Air and Space Guidance and Metrological Engineering-Data Support Center

• Communications-Electronics Engineering-Data Support Center

In classified reports, material emphasized by bullets is considered part of the paragraph that

introduced it, not as a separate paragraph.

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5.0 Documentation 5.1 Notes. Use the numbered endnote system of documentation. Number the notes

consecutively—beginning with 1—throughout a paper and throughout the list of notes at the end of

the paper. Do not place note numbers after epigraphs, chapter or article titles, or subheadings. In

text, put a superior (superscript) number at the end of a sentence or at least at the end of a clause,

following any punctuation mark (except a dash) or a closing parenthesis. A single note may contain

multiple references; the use of more than one note number in the same location (that is 6, 7 ) should

be avoided (Chicago, 16.34). In the note itself, place the number (full-sized, not superscript) on the

line and follow it with a period.

Strategic considerations were often discussed, and Arnold urged abandonment of the ”old ‘island to island’ theory.”6

Russia agreed to stop sales to Brazil—a longtime practice7—at the urging of the State Department. (When General Franks gave Bush a probable number of casualties, the president approved the attack.)8

3. Joseph S. Nye Jr., The Paradox of American Power: Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 8.

Include the following items in a full note reference to a book: (1) author’s or editor’s full

name (as it appears on the title page), first name first, or name of institution responsible for

writing the book (alternatively, the editor’s name may follow the title of the book); (2) title of the

book, including subtitle, in italics; (3) editor, compiler, or translator, if any; (4) edition, if not the

first; (5) number of volumes (if referring to a multivolume work as a whole); (6) volume number

of multivolume work (if referring to one specific volume); (7) title of volume, if applicable; (8)

series, if any, and number in the series; (9) facts of publication—city where published, publisher,

and date of publication, all in parentheses; (10) volume number (if citing a multivolume work, all

of whose volumes have the same title), followed by a colon; (11) page number(s) of the specific

citation; (12) an indication of the medium cited (DVD, CD-ROM) and for Internet sources, the

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URL as well as the date accessed, in parentheses. Note that the military rank or academic title

may be included in the body of the work, but does not appear in citations (Chicago 17.20).

1. Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1891), 29, http://www.whitmanarchive.org/archive1/works/leaves/1891/text/frameset.html (accessed 2 March 2003).

Include the following items in a full reference to an article in a periodical: (1) author’s full

name, first name first; (2) title of the article in quotation marks; (3) title of the periodical in

italics; (4) volume number (do not use the word volume or its abbreviation) and issue number

(use no. for number) of the periodical; (5) date of the volume or of the issue (enclosed in

parentheses and followed by a colon if volume and/or issue number are given; otherwise, the

date is set off with a pair of commas); (6) page number(s) of the particular citation; and (7) for

online periodicals, a URL and, in parentheses, the date accessed.

2. Rex R. Kiziah ,”The Emerging Biocruise Threat,” Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 85, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/spr03/spr03.pdf (accessed 1 May 2005).

For subsequent references to a source, use only (1) the last name of the author; (2) a

shortened form of the title (if the full title is more than four words long), omitting an initial ”A”

or ”The”; (3) a comma; and (4) the page number of the reference. If the notes include works by

authors with the same last name, use the full name or initials in subsequent references to

differentiate between them. (Chicago, 16.42, 16.44-45)

3. Edward M. Coffman, The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 215.

4. Hunter Liggett, Ten Years Ago in France (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1928), 84. 5. Robin Higham and Mark P. Parillo, ”Management Margin: Essential for Victory,” Aerospace

Power Journal 16, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 22, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj02/spr02/spr02.pdf (accessed 3 February 2004).

6. David W. Coffman, Operational Art and the Human Dimension of Warfare in the 21st Century (Newport, RI: Naval War College, 1911), 17.

7. Edward M. Coffman, War to End All Wars, 220. 8. Higham and Parillo, ”Management Margin,” 23.

The abbreviation ibid. (ibidem, ”in the same place”) refers to a single work cited in the note

immediately preceding. Never use ibid. if more than one work is cited in the preceding note. Do

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not italicize this abbreviation in your notes. Do not use op. cit. (opere citato, ”in the work cited”)

or loc. cit. (loco citato, ”in the place cited”). Instead, use the shortened form of the citation. You

may use ibid. within the note to indicate successive references to the same work

(Chicago, 16.48).

7. Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1993), 331.

8. Ibid., 301. 9. Richard B. Myers, ”A Word from the Chairman: Shift to a Global Perspective,” Air and Space

Power Journal 17, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 5, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/fal03/fal03.pdf (accessed 31 October 2004).”By shifting our view from a regional to a global perspective, we will better comprehend and respond to America’s security needs in the twenty-first century” (ibid., 8).

You may use idem (“the same”) rather than repeating the author’s name in subsequent

references in one note to works by the same author. However, since the term is used so rarely, it

might be better simply to repeat the author’s last name.

10. Dennis M. Drew, ”Inventing a Doctrine Process,” Airpower Journal 9, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 43, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/drew.pdf (accessed 6 January 2001); and idem [or Drew],”Educating Air Force Officers,” Airpower Journal 11, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 38, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/sum97/drew.pdf (accessed 6 January 2001).

You may use a shortened form the first time a work is cited in a chapter’s endnotes if a full

citation for that work has appeared in the notes to a previous chapter. If the notes are far apart,

you may use a cross-reference to help the reader locate the full reference (Chicago, 16.43).

11. Liggett, Ten Years Ago in France, 90 (see chap. 2, n. 2).

Always use Arabic figures for volume numbers even when they appear as Roman numerals

in the book or journal itself.

Examples of full and shortened notes:

3. Franz Schurman, Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the Origins of Modern China (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 206–8. 4. John K. Fairbank, ”The People’s Middle Kingdom,” Foreign Affairs 44, no. 4 (July 1966): 580. 5. Gerald G. O’Rourke, ”Our Peaceful Navy,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 115, no.4 (April 1989): 79–83. 6. Franz Schurman, Japan Today (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), 97–100.

Shortened form of note 3 with different page number.

7. Schurman, Imperial China, 174.

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All information the same as in the preceding note except page number.

8. Ibid., 176. 9. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 25. 10. James N. Stevens, The Foundations of Communist China, 2 vols. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), 1:150.

All information the same as in the preceding note except volume number and page number. 11. Ibid., 2:96.

The same volume number as in the preceding note. 12. Ibid., 147.

The same page number as in the preceding note. 13. Ibid.

In a work whose bibliography contains all of the material referred to in the notes, the notes

may be presented in a concise format—even first citations—since the reader can refer to the

bibliography for full details. In a work without a bibliography or whose bibliography does not

contain all of the material referred to in the notes, first citations should contain full details

(Chicago, 16.3).

For the benefit of the reader, you may wish to include a brief explanatory statement

preceding the first set of notes.

Bibliographic entry:

Reynolds, Richard T. Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air Campaign against Iraq. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 1995.

First note citation in a work with full bibliography:

Notes

(All notes appear in shortened form. For full details, see the appropriate entry in the bibliography.)

1. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm, 55.

First note citation in a work without full bibliography:

Notes

1. Richard T. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air Campaign against Iraq (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 1995), 55.

See appendix A of this guide or the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style for citations of

public documents and unpublished materials.

141

5.2 Bibliography. A bibliography is a list of books, articles, and other works used in preparing a

manuscript. It immediately precedes the index and may be arranged alphabetically or divided

into the kinds of materials used (books, theses and papers, government publications, periodicals,

etc.). It may include only selected titles that may or may not be annotated.

An alphabetical list is the most common type of bibliography. Arrange all sources

alphabetically by the last names of the authors, in a single list. When no author is given, use the

first word of the title (other than an article, a coordinating conjunction, or a preposition) as the

key word for alphabetizing. If a publication issued by an organization carries no author’s name,

use the name of the organization as the author, even if the organization is also the publisher.

In a lengthy bibliography, you may divide the references into kinds of sources (books,

articles, newspapers, depositories, or collections). Whatever the arrangement, do not list any

source more than once. You may annotate the bibliography to direct the reader to other works or

to briefly explain the contents, relevance, or value of specific sections of the book.

The form and content of bibliographic citations are very similar to those of notes with a few

exceptions. Invert the names of authors (i.e., last name first) and separate the various components

of information with periods. Indentations are different from notes. For journal articles, indicate

beginning and ending page numbers, if available. Specific page numbers that were cited in the

body of the work are generally not included in the bibliography except for periodical articles. As

for notes, URLs and date accessed need to be provided in the bibliography. The following are

examples of citations in bibliographic format:

Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD), Air Force Basic Doctrine, 17 November 2003. Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976. Cressey, George B. China’s Geographic Foundations: A Survey of the Land and Its People. New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1934.

142

Cuskey, Walter R., Arnold William Klein, and William Krasner. Drug-Trip Abroad: American Drug-Refugees in Amsterdam and London. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.

Drew, Dennis M. ”Joint Operations: The World Looks Different from 10,000 Feet.” Airpower Journal

2, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 4–16. http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj88/drew.html (accessed 1 May 2000).

Fairbank, John K. ”The People’s Middle Kingdom.” Foreign Affairs 44, no. 4 (July 1966): 574-586. Hall, Brian K. ”Air Expeditionary Access: The African Connection.” Air and Space Power Journal 17,

no. 3 (Fall 2003): 47–56. http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj03/fal03/fal03.pdf (accessed 16 October 2003).

Use a three-em dash to indicate same author as in the immediately preceding entry.

Schurman, Franz. China Today. New York: Vintage Books, 1970. ———.Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the Origins of Modern China. New

York: Vintage Books, 1967. Spencer, Scott. ”Childhood’s End.” Harper’s, May 1979, 16–19. Stevenson, Adlai E., III. The Citizen and His Government. Austin, TX : University of Texas Press,

1984. See appendix A of this guide ”Examples of Citations“ as well as The Chicago Manual of

Style for more examples and specific rules for developing a bibliography.

5.3 Quotations. Certain rules apply when you quote directly from the work of other writers. You

should credit your source by identifying it in an endnote. If you quote at length from a

copyrighted work, you should obtain written permission from the holder of the copyright.

Although in a direct quotation the wording, spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation of the original should be reproduced exactly, the following changes are generally permissible to make the passage fit into the syntax and typography of the surrounding text:

1. Single quotation marks may be changed to double, and double to single. 2. The initial letter may be changed to a capital or a lowercase letter. 3. The final period may be omitted or changed to a comma as required, and punctuation may be omitted where ellipsis points are used. 4. Original notes and note reference marks may be omitted unless omission would affect the meaning of the quotation. If an original note is included, the quotation should be set off as a block quotation, with the note in smaller type

143

at the end, or the note may be summarized in the accompanying text. Authors may, on the other hand, add note references of their own within quotations. 5. Obvious typographic errors may be corrected silently (without comment or sic) unless the passage quoted is from an older work or a manuscript source where idiosyncrasies of spelling are generally preserved. If spelling and punctuation are modernized or altered for clarity, readers must be so informed in a note, in a preface, or elsewhere. (Chicago, 11.8)

You may incorporate quotations in the text as a part of a sentence and enclose them in

quotation marks or set them off from the text as a block quotation (see 5.4). If the quoted matter

is eight or more lines or more than 100 words, you should usually set it off from the text.

Integrate short quotations into the text. When you use a quotation as part of a sentence,

lowercase the initial letter and omit or change the end punctuation (if appropriate), even though

the original is a complete sentence beginning with a capital letter. When the quotation is not

dependent on the rest of the sentence, capitalize the initial letter (a comma rather than a colon is

often used after said, replied, asked, and similar verbs). If a quotation that is only part of a

sentence in the original forms a complete sentence as quoted, you may change a lowercase letter

to a capital.

Colonel Green emphasized that “the military plays an important role in the political arena.”7 Colonel Green said, “The military plays an important role in the political arena.”7 Colonel Green made the following statement: “Military [power] plays an important role in the political arena.”7

5.4 Block quotations. Use a block quotation for passages easily set apart from the text, eight or

more typed lines, 100 words or more, or exceeding one paragraph. Indent from both sides and

single-space. Do not use quotation marks to enclose the block quotation, and do not indent its

paragraphs. Use double quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation within a block quotation.

Skip a line between paragraphs. The block quotation should reflect the paragraphing of the

original.

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In volume one of AFM 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force (March 1992), Gen Merrill A. McPeak remarks:

The guidance this manual provides will be valuable to those in field units and to those in headquarters, to those in operations and to those in support areas, to those who understand air and space power and to those who are just learning. In short, this manual will be valuable to the entire force.

I expect every airman and, in particular, every noncommissioned and commissioned officer to read, study, and understand volume I and to become fully conversant with volume II. The contents of these two volumes are at the heart of the profession of arms for airmen.1

Unless you introduce a block quotation with thus, as follows, or other wording that

requires a colon, you may precede the quotation with a period, although a colon is

acceptable. Select either style and use it consistently (Chicago, 11.22).

This assumes that the costs of undertaking the first part of the conflict are “sunk” once the decision for armed intervention is made. One conflict scenario in particular illustrates this point.

Regime change is forced during the course of the initial conflict. Additional marginal losses occur in both the military and civilian populations. Postconflict losses are minimal but still happen due to incidents that arise during nation-building efforts. The costs of nation building are significant, but the total expense is likely to be less than that of the other scenarios.22

5.5 Credit line. Identify the source of an illustration (see 1.33) with a credit line. Place it at the

end of the caption/legend (see 1.18), in parentheses or in different type (or both), introduced by

reprinted from or adapted from, depending upon whether you have copied the illustration or

modified it, respectively:

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs. (Adapted from Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New World Order,” Financial Journal 6, no. 3 [Fall 1992]: 51.)

A photographer’s name occasionally appears in small type parallel to the bottom side of a

photograph. For material that the author has obtained free and without restrictions, the word

“courtesy” may appear in the credit line (Chicago, 12.42, 12.46):

Photograph courtesy of CAPT Mike Schrieve. Mayor Lunsford at the groundbreaking ceremony for the industrial plant, September 2002. Courtesy of Cathi Fredericks.

Photographs from Navy and other government sources do not require a credit line although you

may include one if you wish (e.g., USN photo). If all photos derive from a single source, you

145

may omit individual credit lines and simply include an appropriate statement on the disclaimer

page (e.g., The photographs in this book are from U.S. Navy sources.).

Unless fair use applies [see appendix B], an illustration reproduced from a published work

under copyright requires permission (Chicago, 12.47).

Reproduced by permission from T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2000), facing 237.

If you reproduce a table from another source, identify it below the body of the table,

introduced by the word Source(s) (often in italics and followed by a colon). Since the word

source lacks specificity, consider using reprinted from or adapted from, depending upon whether

you have copied the table or modified it, respectively. Do not identify the source by placing a

note number after either the table number or the table title and then including an endnote in the

list of chapter notes. A note applying to the whole table follows any source note, is unnumbered,

and is preceded by the word “Note” and a colon (often in italics) (Chicago, 13.46).

Reprinted from: Department of the Navy, The United States Navy in “Desert Shield”/”Desert Storm” (Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, 1991); and author’s collation of published data. Note: These figures represent the most reliable information currently available.

5.6 Plagiarism. If you use someone else’s writing as if it were your own, you have committed

plagiarism. This serious offense not only can lead to a lawsuit but also can bring about severe

professional repercussions for the plagiarist. If you use another person’s wording or if you put

another person’s idea into your own words, you should identify the borrowed passage and credit the

author in a note.

Strategy [is] the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy. —B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy

If you use Liddell Hart’s definition of strategy in your text with the intention of leading

readers to believe that it is your own, you are guilty of plagiarism. Using another writer’s exact

146

wording is permissible only if you identify the passage in your text by enclosing it in quotation

marks and including an endnote:

Perhaps strategy is more properly defined as “the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy.”2

You should then credit your source by including a proper citation in your list of notes:

2. B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, rev. ed. (New York: Frederick Praeger, 1954), 335.

Similarly, you should identify and credit others’ writing that you put in your own words

(paraphrase). Paraphrasing, however, is not simply a matter of changing or rearranging a few

words here and there; you must recast the passage:

unacceptable paraphrase: Strategy is the art of applying and distributing military means to achieve the objectives of policy.2

acceptable paraphrase: B. H. Liddell Hart envisioned a country’s military as an instrument for carrying out national policy. The purpose of strategy, then, is deciding how to use the military toward this end.2

Ideally, you should introduce your paraphrase so that the reader has no question about where

your own commentary ends and where your paraphrase begins, as is the case in the example

above (i.e., mentioning the author’s name marks the beginning of the paraphrase, and the

endnote number shows where it ends). See quotations (5.3)

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APPENDIX A

Examples of Citations

148

Appendix A

CONTENTS By clicking on the section title you will be taken to that section.

Section Page

Books 151 One author 151 Two authors 152 Three authors 152 More than three authors 152 No author given and sacred works 153 Editor, compiler, translator 153 Multivolume works and series 154 Association or institution as author 154 Work of one author in a work edited by another 155 Edition 155 Reprint Editions 156

Periodicals 156 Volume number not shown 156 Volume number shown 157 Electronic journals and magazines 157

Newspaper Items 158 Editorials 158 News Story 159 Online newspapers, news services, and other news sites 159

Encyclopedia and Dictionary Articles 160

Historical and Staff Studies 160 Historical Studies 160 Staff Studies 161 Unit And Staff Office Histories 161

Reports and Papers 162 Published 162 Unpublished 163

Manuscript Collections 165

Legal Citations 166

NATO, United Nation, and Treaties 166 NATO Documents 166 United Nations Documents 167 Treaties and International Agreements 167

149

Public Documents 168 Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents 168 Testimony and hearings 169 Congressional bills and resolutions 170 Executive department documents 171 Presidential proclamations, executive orders, strategies, other documents 171

Presidential Directives 173

Classified Sources 173

Declassified Sources 174

Letters and Endorsements 174 Memoranda 175 Regular memorandum 175 Draft Memorandum 175 Memorandum of understanding 175 Memorandum for record 175 Messages 175 Manuals, Instructions, Directives, and Other Publications 176 Source Cited and Quoted in Another Source 177 Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries, Digests, and Notes 178 Lectures and Addresses 179 Personal Communications 180 Interviews 180 Translation Services 181 Electronic Mailing Lists 181 Web Site Content 182 Blogs 183 Multimedia 183 Powerpoint Presentations 184 CD-Rom or DVD 184 Video Recordings and Slides 184

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Examples of Notes and Bibliographic Citations

Examples of citations for both notes (N) and bibliographies (B) appear below. Examples of citations are also given for materials which have been retrieved electronically; these are indicated N/E for notes and B/E for bibliographic entries. The shortened form of a note is indicated by N/S.

Place notes at the end of each chapter, not at the bottom of the page or at the end of the entire

work. If the work is not divided into chapters, notes appear at the end of the text. Bibliographic entries should be listed alphabetically. They are included here with their accompanying note citations for comparison purposes.

Please refer to the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style for further clarification and additional guidance. Note, however, that the Naval War College guide diverges from the Chicago publication in several respects. At the Naval War College:

• Omit titles and military ranks in notes and bibliographic citations except where noted as in memoranda, letters and endorsements, miscellaneous documents, messages, etc.

• In both notes and bibliographies, use two letter postal codes to designate place of publication in the United States, but spell out (do not abbreviate) place of publication for non-U.S. references.

• Indicate date accessed, in parentheses, for all electronic citations (e.g., accessed 1 June 2006).

• Use the military format for dates (10 May 2005 vice May 10, 2005). • Use uppercase letters to designate all U.S. services (the Navy; the Marine Corps; the Army;

the Air Force; the Coast Guard). • Refer to section 2.249 in the NWC Writing and Style Guide for military rank abbreviations.

BOOKS

Traditionally books are printed paper items. However, they can also be found in other formats. The format of the book should be included in the citation if it is something other than the print version. When citing electronic books available online, include as much of the information as can be determined that would also apply to printed books (author, title, volume, publisher, and so forth). Include the URL as part of the citation and the date accessed in parentheses. If the electronic book is provided through a subscription service, such as Net Library, only indicate the URL of the main entrance to the service (Chicago 17.359). One author N. 1. William C. Westmoreland, A Soldier Reports (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976), 112,

195–96. B. Westmoreland, William C. A Soldier Reports. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976.

151

Example of NWC Library’s electronic book service:

N/E. 2. Stephen Howarth, To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775-1998 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 231, http://www.netlibrary.com/ (accessed 10 May 2006).

B/E. Howarth, Stephen. To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775-1998. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. http://www.netlibrary.com/ (accessed 10 May 2006). N/E. 3. Richard T. Reynolds, Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air Campaign against Iraq

(Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 1995), 19, http://aupress.maxwell.af.mil/Books/b-55/heartstm.pdf (accessed 2 April 2006).

B/E. Reynolds, Richard T. Heart of the Storm: The Genesis of the Air Campaign against Iraq. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 1995. http://aupress.maxwell.af.mil/Books/b-55/heartstm.pdf

(accessed 2 April 2006). Two authors

List the authors’ names in the order in which they appear on the title page.

N. 4. John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars: Military Education and

National Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), 117–21. B. Masland, John W., and Laurence I. Radway. Soldiers and Scholars: Military

Education and National Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957.

Three authors

List the authors’ names in the order in which they appear on the title page.

N. 5. Robert Strausz-Hupe, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony, A Forward Strategy for

America (New York: Harper, 1961), 117. B. Strausz-Hupe, Robert, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony. A Forward

Strategy for America. New York: Harper, 1961. More than three authors

Give the name of the author listed first on the title page followed by ”et al.” or “and others.”

N. 6. Gerald Pomper et al., The Election of 1976 (New York: McKay, 1977), 61. N/S. 6. Pomper et al., Election of 1976, 61.

152

For four to 10 authors or editors, include all names in the bibliography.

B. Pomper, Gerald, William G. Mayer, Marjorie Randon Hershey, and Kathleen A. Frankovic. The Election of 1976. New York: McKay, 1977.

No author given and sacred works

Do not use Anonymous or Anon.

N. 7. Soviet Military Power (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983), 13-18. B. Soviet Military Power. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983. References to sacred works usually appear in notes, not in bibliographies. For biblical references in the notes, include the abbreviated form for the chapter and verse, never the page number; include the version of the Bible being cited. (Chicago, 17.246-17.249; 15.51-15.54). N. 321. Gen. 25:19-36:43 (New Revised Standard Version). N. 322. Qur’an 19:17-21. Editor, compiler, or translator

When both author and translator (editor or compiler) are provided for a publication, the words

edited by [ed]), translated by [trans.], and compiled by [comp.] are abbreviated in the notes and spelled out fully in the bibliography as shown in notes 9 and 10 (Chicago, 17.42). N. 8. Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957 (Princeton, NJ:

D. Van Nostrand, 1957), 7. N/S. 8. Goldberg, History of the United States Air Force, 7. B. Goldberg, Alfred, ed. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand, 1957. N. 9. J. P. Mayer, Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America, trans. George Lawrence (New

York: Doubleday, 1969), 648. B. Mayer, J. P. Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America. Translated by George

Lawrence. New York: Doubleday, 1969. N. 10. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton,

NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 145–47. B. Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976. N. 11. Marshal Foch, The Principles of War, trans. Hilaire Belloc (London: Chapman & Hall,

1918), 7, 18–19.

153

Multivolume works and series

Example of one volume in the series:

N. 12. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943 (1949; new imprint, Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 288–95.

Example of the entire series:

N. 13. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, 7 vols. (1948–1958; new imprint, Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983).

B. Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II.

7 vols. 1948–1958. New imprint, Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

For works listed consecutively by the same author in the bibliography, use 6 dashes in place of the author's name.

B. ———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943. 1949. New imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983. N. 14. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of Fate (Boston:

Houghton Mifflin, 1948), 521. N. 15. Warren A. Trest, Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past Effects and Future

Implications, CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future of the Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7 (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, December 1991), 12.

B. Trest, Warren A. Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past Effects and Future

Implications. CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future of the Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, December 1991.

Association or institution as author N. 16. U.S. President’s Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force, The Report of the

President’s Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1970), 3–9. This report is commonly referred to as the Gates Commission Report.

B. U.S. President’s Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force. The Report of the

President’s Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1970.

154

N. 17. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Work in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973), 104–6.

B. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Work in America. Cambridge,

MA: MIT Press, 1973. Work of one author in a work edited by another

If you are citing the entire chapter or contribution, include inclusive page numbers.

N. 18. John A. Warden III, ”Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century,” in Challenge and Response: Anticipating U.S. Military Security Concerns, ed. Karl P. Magyar et al. (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, August 1994), 320–21.

N/S. 18. Warden, “Air Theory,” 325. B. Warden, John A., III. ”Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century.” In Challenge and

Response: Anticipating U.S. Military Security Concern, edited by Karl P. Magyar et al. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, August 1994.

When you cite a different chapter/contribution in the same book as previously cited, include a

shortened citation for that book.

N. 19. Lewis B. Ware, “Regional Study 1: Conflict and Confrontation in the Post-Cold-War Middle East,” in Challenge and Response, 49.

N. 20. John T. Folmar, ”Desert Storm Chapstick,” in From the Line in the Sand: Accounts of

USAF Company Grade Officers in Support of Desert Shield/Desert Storm, ed. Michael P. Vriesenga (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, March 1994), 19–20.

Edition N. 21. John N. Hazard, The Soviet System of Government, 5th ed. (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1980), 23–25. B. Hazard, John N. The Soviet System of Government. 5th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. N. 22. Norbert Weiner, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society, 2nd ed. rev.

(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1951), 68–71. N/S. 22. Weiner, Human Use of Human Beings, 74.

155

Reprint editions N. 23. Neil Harris, The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790–1860 (1966;

repr., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 43–44. B. Harris, Neil. The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790-1860.

1966. Reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. N. 24. Giulio Douhet, The Command of the Air, trans. Dino Ferrari (1942; new imprint,

Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 67.

If you think it might be helpful to readers, you may indicate that a work is also available in forms other than the printed one (Chicago,17.144-17.145). N. 25. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders’ Constitution (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1987), also available online at http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/.

B. Kurland, Philip B., and Ralph Lerner, eds. The Founders’ Constitution. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1987. Also available online at http://press-pubs.uchicago/edu/founders/.

Identify the format of non-Internet sources.

N/E. 26. R. J. Hicks, Nuclear Medicine, from the Center of Our Universe (Victoria, Australia: ICE

T Multimedia, 1996), CD-ROM. B/E. Hicks, R. J. Nuclear Medicine, from the Center of Our Universe. Victoria, Australia: ICE T Multimedia, 1996. CD-ROM.

PERIODICALS

Include as much of the following information as possible: the name of the author, title of the article, title of the periodical, volume number, issue number, publication date, page numbers. For notes, cite the page(s) used. For bibliographies, cite the first and last page number of the entire article. Volume number not shown N. 27.”Congress Sends Nixon a Message,” Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39. B. “Congress Sends Nixon a Message.” Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39. N. 28. Jim Katzaman, ”Basics of Bombing,” Airman, June 1986, 10. B. Katzaman, Jim. “Basics of Bombing.” Airman, June 1986, 8-12. N. 29. Jay Finegan, ”Struggling with Inflation,” Times Magazine (supplement to Air Force

Times), 1 September 1980, 4.

156

Volume number shown N. 30. Richard F. Rosser, ”American Civil-Military Relations in the 1980s,” Naval War College

Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): 14–15.

Include the first and last page numbers of article in the bibliography. B. Rosser, Richard F. ”American Civil-Military Relations in the 1980s.” Naval War College Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): 14-20. N. 31. Donald S. Zagoria, ”China’s Quiet Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 62, no. 4 (Spring 1984):

879–904. N. 32. Philip Handler, “The American University Today,” American Scientist 64, no. 3 (May–

June 1976): 254–57. N/S. 32. Handler, “American University Today,” 256. Electronic Journals and Magazines

When citing electronic journals available online, include as much of the information as can be determined that would also apply to the printed version (author, title of article, volume, issue number, date, and so forth). Page number(s) should be included when available. Include the URL and the date accessed as part of the citation. “If a URL has become invalid before publication of the work in which it is cited or if the article comes from an online source for a fee, include only the address of the home page (note that such URLs end with a slash, as do other directory-level URLs)” (Chicago, 17.198). If the article was freely accessed on the Internet, include the full URL in the citation. In cases where the full URL is very long add a descriptive locator if you think it would be helpful to readers.

Example from EBSCO, a subscription database: N/E. 33. Michael D. Lemonick et al., ”How to Kick the Oil Habit,” Time, 31 October 2005,

http://www.ebsco.com/ (accessed 11 May 2006).

List all authors in the bibliography, up to 10 authors. (Chicago 17.29) B/E. Lemonick, Michael D., Lisa Takeuchi Cullen, Coco Masters, Eric Roston, Joseph R. Szczesny, and Michael Schuman. “How to Kick the Oil Habit.” Time, 31 October 2005. http://www.ebsco.com/ (accessed 11 May 2006). N/E. 34. Lawrence Osborne, “Poison Pen,” review of The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of

Robert Brasillach, by Alice Kaplan, Salon, 29 March 2000, http://www.salon.com/books/it/2000/03/29/kaplan/index.html (accessed 10 July 2001).

B/E. Osborne, Lawrence. “Poison Pen,” review of The Collaborator: The Trial and

Execution of Robert Brasillach, by Alice Kaplan. Salon, 29 March 2000. http://www.salon.com/books/it/2000/03/29/kaplan/index.html (accessed 10 July 2001).

157

Example of an article from JSTOR, a library subscription database:

N/E. 35. Yehuda Z. Blum, ”Proposals for UN Security Reform,” American Journal of

International Law 99, no. 3 (July 2005), 640, http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed 10 May 2006). B/E. Blum, Yehuda Z. ”Proposals for UN Security Reform.” American Journal of International Law 99, no. 3 (July 2005): 632-49. http://www.jstor.org/

(accessed 10 May 2006).

Example of an article from ProQuest, a library subscription database: N/E. 36. Charles Boix, ”The Roots of Democracy,” Policy Review 135 (February-March 2006),

18, http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed 9 May 2006). B/E. Boix, Charles. “The Roots of Democracy.” Policy Review 135 (February-March 2006): 3-21. http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed 9 May 2006).

In cases where the full URL is very long, add a descriptive locator if you think it would be helpful to readers. N/E. 37. Patricia Coomber and Robert Armstrong, ”Biosecurity,” Military Medical Technology 9,

no. 3 (5 May 2005), under “Search Archives,” http://mmt-kmi.com/ (accessed 10 May 2006). B/E. Coomber, Patricia, and Robert Armstrong. ”Biosecurity.” Military Medical Technology 9, no. 3 (5 May 2005). Under “Search Archives.”

http://mmt-kmi.com/ (accessed 10 May 2006).

NEWSPAPER ITEMS

“Newspapers are more commonly cited in notes or parenthetical references than in

bibliographies. A list of works cited need not list newspaper items if these have been documented in the text” (Chicago, 17.191-17.192). Include the edition of the newspaper (final edition, Midwest edition) if available. The section number containing the article should be provided, but page numbers are not necessary (Chicago, 17.188).

Editorial (unsigned)

Omit the initial the from titles of English language newspapers. N. 38. Editorial, “Security for Haiti,” Washington Post, 24 January 2006, final edition.

Use the name of the newspaper as author if the article is unsigned.

B. Washington Post, “Security for Haiti,” 24 January 2006, final edition.

158

News story N. 39. Laurie Goodstein and William Glaberson, ”The Well-Marked Roads to Homicidal Rage,”

New York Times, 10 April 2000, national edition, sec. 1. N. 40. William Robbins, “Big Wheels: The Rotary Club at 75,” New York Times, 17 February

1980, sec. 3. N. 41. Murphy A. Cheaney, ”Military’s Quality Medical Care for a Healthy Army,” Washington

Times, 16 December 1985, final edition. N. 42. New York Times, 17 February-11 March 1996.

If bibliographic entries are included, follow the examples below. B. Goodstein, Laurie, and William Glaberson. ”The Well-Marked Roads to

Homicidal Rage.” New York Times, 10 April 2000, national edition, sec. 1. B. Robbins, William. “Big Wheels: The Rotary Club at 75.” New York Times, 17

February 1980, sec. 3. B. Cheaney, Murphy A. “Military’s Quality Medical Care for a Healthy Army,”

Washington Times, 16 December 1985, final edition. Online newspapers, news services, and other news sites

When citing online newspapers or news articles posted by news services, include as much of the information as can be determined that would also apply to the printed version (author, title of article, date, and so forth). Include the URL and date accessed as part of the citation. Follow the recommendations for URLs made under Electronic Journals.

Example of an article from the NWC Library’s Lexis-Nexis database:

N/E. 43. Alison Mitchell and Frank Bruni, ”Scars Still Raw, Bush Clashes with McCain,” New

York Times, 25 March 2001, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/ (accessed 11 May 2006). B/E. Mitchell, Alison, and Frank Bruni. ”Scars Still Raw, Bush Clashes with McCain.” New York Times, 25 March 2001. http://www.lexis-nexis.com/

(accessed 11 May 2006).

Example of an Internet article still available at time of publication of the work. N/E. 44. Richard Stenger, ”Tiny Human-Borne Monitoring Device Sparks Privacy Fears,”

CNN.com, 20 December 1999, http://www.cnn.com/1999/TECH/ptech/12/20/implant.device/ (accessed 11 May 2006).

B/E. Stenger, Richard. “Tiny Human-Borne Monitoring Device Sparks Privacy Fears.” CNN.com, 20 December 1999. http://www.cnn.com/1999/TECH/ptech/12/20/implant.device/

(accessed 11 May 2006).

159

“If a URL has become invalid before publication of the work in which it is cited or if the article

comes from an online source for a fee, include only the main entrance … of the service… Note that main entrance (“home page”) and other directory-level URLs end with a slash.” (Chicago, 17.198) N/E. 45. Reuters, “Russian Blasts Kill 21, Injure More Than 140,” Yahoo! News, 24 March 2001,

http://dailynews.Yahoo.com/ (accessed 30 September 2002). B/E. Reuters. “Russian Blasts Kill 21, Injure More Than 140.” Yahoo! News, 24 March

2001. http://dailynews.Yahoo.com/ (accessed 30 September 2002).

ENCYCLOPEDIA AND DICTIONARY ARTICLES

Encyclopedias and dictionaries are cited in notes but not in bibliographies. Publication information may be omitted, but the edition should be included. (Chicago, 17.238-17.239) When citing online versions of encyclopedias and dictionaries, follow the format for the printed versions and always include an access date in addition to the URL.

Cite the item, preceded by s.v. (sub verbo, ”under the word”).

N. 46. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., s.v. ”canning, commercial.” N. 47. Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. ”Wadsworth, Jeremiah.” N/E. 48. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, s.v. ”Sibelius, Jean,”

http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=69347&sctn=1 (accessed 3 January 2002).

Sometimes it may be appropriate to include the author of an entry (Chicago, 17.239).

N/E. 49. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s.v. ”Sibelius, Jean” (by James Hepokoski), http://www.grovemusic.com/ (accessed 3 January 2002).

HISTORICAL AND STAFF STUDIES

Historical Studies N. 50. Robert T. Finney, History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940, USAF Historical

Study 100 (Maxwell AFB, AL: USAF Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 35–38. B. Finney, Robert T. History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940. USAF Historical Study 100. Maxwell AFB, AL: USAF Historical Division,

Air University, 1955. N. 51. R. Earl McClendon, Autonomy of the Air Arm (Maxwell AFB, AL: Documentary

Research Division, Air University, 1954), 16–21.

160

N. 52. Chase C. Mooney and Martha E. Layman, Organization of Military Aeronautics, 1907–

1935, Army Air Forces Historical Study 25 (Washington, DC: Army Air Forces Historical Division, 1944), 29–32.

N. 53. Herman S. Wolk, USAF Plans and Policies: Logistics and Base Construction in

Southeast Asia, 1967 (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1968), 36–39. N. 54. Thomas H. Greer, The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air Arm, 1917–1941,

USAF Historical Study 89 (Maxwell AFB, AL: USAF Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 9–10.

Staff Studies N. 55. Evaluation Division, Air University, To Analyze the USAF Publications System for

Producing Manuals, staff study, 13 July 1948. B. Evaluation Division, Air University. To Analyze the USAF Publications System for Producing Manuals. Staff study, 13 July 1948. N. 56. Charles G. Williamson, Chief, Status of Operations Division, Directorate of

Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, to Directorate of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, Status of Operations Report, staff study, 3 March 1943.

N/S. 56. Williamson, Status of Operations Report. B. Williamson, Charles G. Chief, Status of Operations Division, Directorate of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, to Directorate of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, Status of Operations Report. Staff study, 3 March 1943.

Unit And Staff Office Histories N. 57. History, Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of Plans,

Headquarters USAF, July–December 1958, 114, 163–64. B. U.S. Air Force. Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of Plans. History. Headquarters USAF. July–December 1958. N. 58. U.S. Air Force, History of the Office of the Inspector General USAF, Directorate of Special Investigations, 1 January–30 June 1963, 45–47.

161

REPORTS AND PAPERS

Published N. 59. U.S. Department of Commerce, Management of Internet Names and Addresses, U.S.

Government White Paper (Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, June 1998), 2. B. U.S. Department of Commerce. Management of Internet Names and Addresses.

U.S. Government White Paper. Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, June 1998.

N. 60. U.S. Department of State, The China White Paper, August 1949 (Stanford, CA: Stanford

University Press, 1967), 7. N. 61. John Erickson, The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics, USSI Report 73-3

(Washington, DC: United States Strategic Institute, 1973), 5. B. Erickson, John. The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics. USSI Report 73-3. Washington, DC: United States Strategic Institute, 1973. N. 62. Richard V. L. Cooper, Military Manpower and the All-Volunteer Force, RAND Report

R-1450-ARPA (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, September 1977), 86–94. N. 63. Comptroller General of the United States, Report to the Congress: Student Attrition at the

Five Federal Service Academies (Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 1976), 16–23.

N. 64. Nancy Guinn, Identification of Service Irritants, AFHRL-TR-75-52 (Brooks AFB, TX:

Air Force Systems Command, 1973). N. 65. James E. Dougherty and Diane K. Pfaltzgraff, Eurocommunism and the Atlantic Alliance,

special report (Cambridge, MA: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1977), 6. B. Dougherty, James E., and Diane K. Pfaltzgraff. Eurocommunism and the Atlantic Alliance. Special report. Cambridge, MA: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1977. N. 66. U.S. Department of Defense, Annual Report of the Secretary of Defense and the Annual

Reports of the Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Air Force, July 1, 1958 to June 30, 1959 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1960), 44.

N. 67. Mark A. Cochran, Unit-Level Automation for Air Force Contingency Operations in Low-

Intensity Conflict, Research Report no. AU-ARI-91-4 (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, June 1992), 21.

B. Cochran, Mark A. Unit-Level Automation for Air Force Contingency Operations in Low-

Intensity Conflict. Research Report no. AU-ARI-91-4. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, June 1992.

162

N. 68. U.S. Government Accountability Office, Homeland Security: Recommendations to Improve Management of Key Border Security Program Need to Be Implemented: Report to Congressional Requesters (Washington, DC: GAO, 2006), 16.

B. U.S. Government Accountability Office. Homeland Security: Recommendations to

Improve Management of Key Border Security Program Need to Be Implemented: Report to Congressional Requesters. Washington, DC: GAO, 2006.

N. 69. Amy Belasco, The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror

Operations Since 9/11 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2006), 9. B. Belasco, Amy. The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror

Operations Since 9/11. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2006. N. 70. James P. Terry, The Regulation of International Coercion: Legal Authorities and

Political Constraints, Newport Papers no. 25 (Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 2005), 22.

B. Terry, James P. The Regulation of International Coercion: Legal Authorities and

Political Constraints. Newport Papers no. 25. Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 2005.

Example of a citation of an entire article in an edited series:

N. 71. Robert O. Work, “On Sea Basing,” in Reposturing the Force: U.S. Overseas Presence in

the Twenty-first Century, Newport Papers no. 26, ed. Carnes Lord (Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 2006), 95-181.

B. Work, Robert O. “On Sea Basing.” In Reposturing the Force: U.S. Overseas

Presence in the Twenty-first Century, Newport Papers no. 26, edited by Carnes Lord, 95-181. Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 2006.

N. 72. Chief of Naval Operations, Naval Intelligence, Naval Doctrine Publication (NDP) 2

(Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, CNO, 1994), 3. B. U.S. Navy. Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. Naval Intelligence. Naval

Doctrine Publication (NDP) 2. Washington DC: Department of the Navy, CNO, 1994.

Unpublished (including student papers, conference papers, master’s theses, PhD dissertations, and working papers) (see Chicago, 17.210-17.214) Titles of unpublished works are put in quotation marks and not italicized. N. 73. James A. McNaught, “Getting It Right—Operationalizing Civilian Capacity for Conflict

and Post-Conflict Environments” (research paper, Newport, RI: U.S. Naval War College, Joint Military Operations Department, 2005), 15.

B. McNaught, James A. “Getting It Right—Operationalizing Civilian Capacity for Conflict and Post-Conflict Environments.” Research paper, Newport, RI:

U.S. Naval War College, Joint Military Operations Department, 2005.

163

N. 74. Joel A. Doolin, ”Operational Art for the Proliferation Security Initiative” (research paper, Newport, RI: U.S. Naval War College, Joint Military Operations Department, 2005), 4-7, http://stinet.dtic.mil/ (accessed 16 June 2006). Available as Defense Technical Information Center Report (DTIC) ADA422878.

B. Doolin, Joel A. ”Operational Art for the Proliferation Security Initiative.” Research paper, Newport, RI: U.S. Naval War College, Joint Military Operations Department, 2005.

http://stinet.dtic.mil/ (accessed 16 June 2006). N. 75. John B. Hungerford Jr., ”Organization for Military Space: A Historical Perspective”

(research report no. 82-1235, Maxwell AFB, AL: Air Command and Staff College, 1982), 9–19.

B. Hungerford, John B., Jr. ”Organization for Military Space: A Historical Perspective.” Research Report no. 82-1235, Maxwell AFB, AL: Air Command and Staff College, 1982. N. 76. Richard K. Betts, ”Soldiers, Statesmen, and the Resort to Force: American Military

Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1975” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1975), 78–86. N/S. 76. Betts, ”Soldiers, Statesmen, and the Resort to Force,” 80. B. Betts, Richard K. ”Soldiers, Statesmen, and the Resort to Force: American Military Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1975.” PhD diss., Harvard University, 1975. N. 77. Dorothy Ross, ”The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study in Social Mobility”

(master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d.), 142–55. B. Ross, Dorothy. ”The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study in Social Mobility.” Master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d. N. 78. P. Thomas, ”Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military” (paper presented at the

RAND Conference on Defense Manpower, Santa Monica, CA, February 1976), 8. N/S. 78. Thomas, “Utilization of Enlisted Women,” 7. B. Thomas, P. “Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military.” Paper presented at the RAND Conference on Defense Manpower, Santa Monica, CA, February 1976. N. 79. Deborah D. Lucki and Richard W. Pollay, “Content Analyses of Advertising: A Review

of the Literature” (working paper, History of Advertising Archives, Faculty of Commerce, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1980).

N/E. 80. L. A. Adamic and B. A. Huberman, “The Nature of Markets in the World Wide Web” (working paper, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 1999), http://www.parc.xerox.com/istl/groups/iea/www/webmarkets.html (accessed 1 March 2001).

164

B/E. Adamic, L. A., and B. A. Huberman. ”The Nature of Markets in the World Wide Web.” Working paper, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 1999. http://www.parc.xerox.com/istl/groups/iea/www/webmarkets.html

(accessed 1 March 2001).

MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS

“Full identification of most unpublished material usually requires giving the title and date of the

item, series title (if applicable), name of the collection, and name of the depository. Except for

placing the cited item first (in a note), there is no general agreement on the sequence of the

remaining elements in the citation... Whatever sequence is adopted, however, should be used

consistently throughout the same work.”(Chicago, 17.222) Specific items are not included in a

bibliography unless only one item from a collection is cited. Examples of citations for a single item in a collection: N. 81. Thomas B. Buell, ”Letter from Raymond A. Spruance to Margaret Spruance,” December

1942, Research Materials Relating to the Life and Career of ADM Raymond A. Spruance, USN, box 23, Naval Historical Collection, U.S. Naval War College, Newport, RI.

B. Buell, Thomas B. ”Letter from Raymond A. Spruance to Margaret Spruance,” December

1942. Research Materials Relating to the Life and Career of ADM Raymond A. Spruance, USN. Box 23. USN. Naval Historical Collection, U.S. Naval War College, Newport, RI.

N. 82. Alvin Johnson, memorandum, 1937, file 36, Horace Kallen Papers, YIVO Institute, New York.

B. Johnson, Alvin. Memorandum, 1937. File 36. Horace Kallen Papers. YIVO Institute, New York. N. 83. Joseph Dinkel, description of Louis Agassiz written at the request of Elizabeth Cary

Agassiz, Agassiz Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University. B. Dinkel, Joseph. Description of Louis Agassiz written at the request of Elizabeth Cary

Agassiz. Agassiz Papers. Houghton Library, Harvard University. Examples of an entire collection cited in the bibliography: N. 84. Charles H. Stockton, London Naval Conference Agenda, 1930, Papers: 1886-1936, box

4, Naval Historical Collection, U.S. Naval War College, Newport, RI. B. Stockton, Charles H. Papers: 1886-1936. Naval Historical Collection, U.S. Naval War College, Newport, RI. N. 85. James Oglethorpe to the Trustees, letter, 13 January 1733, Phillipps Collection of Egmont

Manuscripts, 14200:13, University of Georgia Library. B. Egmont Manuscripts. Phillipps Collection. University of Georgia Library.

165

N. 86. George Creel to Colonel House, letter, 25 September 1918, Edward M. House Papers,

Yale University Library. B. House, Edward M. Papers. Yale University Library.

LEGAL CITATIONS

The examples of legal citations included here assume inclusion in a nonlegal work and, therefore, have been adapted to the style of documentation presented in this appendix. Thus, the format for citations of legal books/treatises and articles in periodicals is the same as that shown in the appropriate sections of this appendix. For citations styled for inclusion in legal works, see the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style, 17.275. N. 87. AT&T Corporation v. Iowa Utilities, in United States Supreme Court Reports, vol. 525

(1999), 366. B. AT&T Corporation v. Iowa Utilities. In United States Supreme Court Reports.

Vol. 525, 1999. N. 88. United States v. Dennis, in Federal Reporter, vol. 183 (2nd U.S. Circuit Court of

Appeals, 1950), 201.

N/S. 88. United States v. Dennis, 201. N. 89. Lugosi v. Universal, in California Reports, 3rd series, vol. 25 (California Supreme Court,

1976), 813. N/S. 89. Lugosi v. Universal, 813. B. Lugosi v. Universal. In California Reports. 3rd series. Vol. 25. California Supreme Court, 1976.

NATO, UNITED NATIONS, AND TREATIES NATO Documents N. 90. North Atlantic Treaty Organization, "African Union Asks for Further NATO Assistance,”

NATO Update, 7 June 2006, http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2006/06-june/e0607a.htm (accessed 30 June 2006).

B. North Atlantic Treaty Organization. "African Union Asks for Further NATO

Assistance." NATO Update. 7 June 2006. http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2006/06-june/e0607a.htm (accessed 30 June 2006).

N. 91. North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Military Agency for Standardization, Troop Trial

Principles and Procedures-Combat Clothing and Personal Equipment, 4th ed., STANAG no. 2138 (Brussels, Belgium: NATO, 31 May 1996), 2, http://www.nato.int/docu/stanag/2138/sta2138e.pdf (accessed 20 June 2006).

166

B. North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Military Agency for Standardization. Troop Trial

Principles and Procedures-Combat Clothing and Personal Equipment. 4th ed. STANAG no. 2138. Brussels, Belgium: NATO, 31 May 1996. http://www.nato.int/docu/stanag/2138/sta2138e.pdf (accessed 20 June 2006).

United Nations Documents N. 92. United Nations, Security Council, “The Situation in the Middle East,” S/Res/1685, 2006,

http://www.un.org/documents (accessed 30 June 2006). B. United Nations. Security Council. “The Situation in the Middle East.” S/Res/1685. 2006. http://www.un.org/documents (accessed 30 June 2006). N. 93. United Nations, General Assembly, 55th Session, Report of the Economic and Social

Council for 2002, A/57/3/Rev. 1, 120-123 (New York: UN, 2003), http://www.un.org/documents (accessed 29 June 2006).

B. United Nations. General Assembly. 55th Session. Report of the Economic and

Social Council for 2002. A/57/3/Rev. 1. New York: UN, 2003. http://www.un.org/documents (accessed 29 June 2006).

Treaties and International Agreements N. 94. “Council of Europe: Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human

Beings,” 16 May 2005, International Legal Materials 45, no. 1 (2006): 31.

B. “Council of Europe: Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings.” 16 May 2005. International Legal Materials 45, no. 1 (2006): 12-76.

N. 95. “International Convention for the High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific Ocean,” 9

May 1952, TIAS 2786, article 3, United States Treaties and Other International Agreements 4, pt. 1 (1953).

B. “International Convention for the High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific

Ocean.” 9 May 1952. TIAS 2786. United States Treaties and Other International Agreements 4, pt. 1 (1953): 380-420.

N/E. 95. “International Convention for the High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific Ocean,” 9 May 1952, article 2, http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/nphs.htm (accessed 30 June 2006)

167

PUBLIC DOCUMENTS

When you use an endnote citing congressional hearings and other public documents, include the following information: 1. Author (name of house, committee, and subcommittee if any) 2. Title of document 3. Number of Congress and session number 4. Date of publication (year) 5. Part and number of report or document, if applicable 6. Page number(s) 7. If found online, include the URL and the date accessed.

Sometimes you may need to include additional information. Take all information from the title page of the document. N/E. 96. Illinois Constitution, art. 2, sec. 2,

http://www.legis.state.il.us/commission/lrb/conmain.htm (accessed 15 November 1999).

B/E. Illinois Constitution, art. 2, sec. 2. http://www.legis.state.il.us/commission/lrb/conmain.htm

(accessed 15 November 1999).

N/E. 97. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division, “Health Insurance Coverage Status and Type of Coverage by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1987 to 2004,” Historic Health Insurance Tables, Table HI-1, 2005, http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/hlthins/historic/hihistt1.html (accessed 23 May 2006).

B/E. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division. “Health

Insurance Coverage Status and Type of Coverage by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1987 to 2004.” Historic Health Insurance Tables. Table HI-1, 2005. http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/hlthins/historic/hihistt1.html (accessed 23 May 2006).

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents N. 98. House, A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased for Use by the

Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, HR 1341, 1–4.

B. U.S. Congress. House. A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased for Use by the Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards. 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959. H. R. 1341. N. 99. House, Organization and Management of Missile Programs, Eleventh Report by the

Committee on Government Operations, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, HR 1121, 154–56. N/S. 99. House, Organization and Management, HR 1121, 155. N. 100. House Committee on Education and Labor, White House Conference on Aging: Report

to Accompany S. J. Res. 117, 90th Cong., 2nd sess., 1968, 5.

168

N. 101. Senate, Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility Corporations, 70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935, S. Doc. 92, pt. 71A.

B. U.S. Congress. Senate. Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility Corporations. 70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935. S. Doc. 92. N. 102. House, United States Defense Policies in 1958, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, H. Doc. 227,

114. N. 103. H. Rep. 871, 78th Cong., 1st sess., 1943, 49. N. 104. Senate, Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and Use of Outer

Space, 1954–1962, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, S. Doc. 18, 55–56. B. U.S. Congress. Senate. Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1954–1962. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963. S. Doc. 18. N. 105. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Foreign Policy, 86th Cong., 2nd

sess., 1960, Committee Print 1, 729. N. 106. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Central America, 1981: Report to the Committee

on Foreign Affairs, prepared by Gerry E. Studds, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981, Committee Print 31.

N/S. 106. House Committee, Central America, 1981, 30.

Testimony and hearings N. 207. David Albright, “Testimony,” House, Pathways to the Bomb: Security of Fissile Materials

Abroad: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack of the Committee on Homeland Security, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 2005, 23.

N/E. 207. David Albright, “Testimony,” House, Pathways to the Bomb: Security of Fissile Materials

Abroad: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack of the Committee on Homeland Security, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 2005, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/ (accessed 13 August 2007).

B. U.S. Congress. House. Pathways to the Bomb: Security of Fissile Materials Abroad: Hearing before The Subcommittee on Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack of the Committee on Homeland Security. 109th Cong., 1st sess., 2005.

B/E. U.S. Congress. House. Pathways to the Bomb: Security of Fissile Materials Abroad: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack of the Committee on Homeland Security. 109th Cong., 1st sess., 2005. http://www.lexis-nexis.com/ (accessed 13 August 2007). N. 107. Senate, Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Air Force of the

Committee on Armed Services, 84th Cong., 2nd sess., 1956, 52. N/S. 107. Senate, Study of Air Power, 1727. B. U.S. Congress. Senate. Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Air Force of the Committee on Armed Services. 84th Cong., 2nd sess., 1956.

169

N. 108. House, Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services: Hearings before the

Select Committee on Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services, 69th Cong., 2nd sess., 1925, pt. 4:2269–70.

B. U.S. Congress. House. Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services: Hearings before the Select Committee on Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services. 69th Cong., 2nd sess., 1925, pt. 4. Congressional bills and resolutions

Known as public laws or statutes, bills and resolutions first appear in the Congressional Record, then in United States Statutes at Large, often in the United States Code Annotated, and finally in the United States Code. N. 109. Food Security Act of 1985, H. R. 2100, 99th Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record 131

(8 October 1985): H 8461. B. U.S. Congress. House. Food Security Act of 1985. 99th Cong., 1st sess., H. R. 2100. Congressional Record, 131, no. 132, daily ed. (8 October 1985): H 8461–66. N. 110. HR 11818, 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1956, sec. 301(a). N. 111. S. Res. 218, 83rd Cong., 2nd sess., 1954. B. Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Public Law 585. 79th Cong., 2nd sess., 1 August 1946.

Citations to the statutes are to volume, year, and page number. N. 112. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, U.S. Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 767, 774. B. Atomic Energy Act of 1946. U.S. Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 755–75.

Citations to the code are always to section number, not page. N. 113. Declaratory Judgment Act, U.S. Code, vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952). N/S. 113. Declaratory Judgment Act, secs. 2201–2. B. Declaratory Judgment Act. U.S. Code. Vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

170

Executive department documents N. 114. U.S. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration of the

Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (Washington, DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Logistics, March 1982), 19.

N/S. 114. U.S. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth, 23. B. U.S. Department of Defense. Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Washington, DC: Office of the

Assistant Secretary of Defense, Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Logistics, March 1982.

N. 115. U.S. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve Manpower Strengths and

Statistics, Fiscal Year 1985 Summary (Washington, DC: Assistant Secretary of Defense, Reserve Affairs, n.d.), 8.

N/S. 115. U.S. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve, 16. N. 116. Chairman, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, The National Military Strategy of the United

States of America: A Strategy for Today; A Vision for Tomorrow (Washington, DC: CJCS, 2004), 7-10.

B. U.S. Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The National Military

Strategy of the United States of America: A Strategy for Today; A Vision for Tomorrow. Washington, DC: CJCS, 2004.

Presidential proclamations, executive orders, strategies, and other documents (Chicago, 17.316-17.317) N. 117. U.S. President, Proclamation, ”Supplemental Quota on Imports of Long-Staple Cotton,”

Federal Register 15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127, microfiche. B. U.S. President. Proclamation. ”Supplemental Quota on Imports of Long-Staple Cotton.” Federal Register 15, no. 196, 10 October 1950. Microfiche. N. 118. U.S. President, Proclamation, "Honoring the Memory of the Victims of the Indian

Ocean Earthquake and Tsunamis, Proclamation 7859," Code of Federal Regulations, title 3 (2005 Comp.): 1.

N/E. 118. U.S. President, Proclamation, "Honoring the Memory of the Victims of the Indian

Ocean Earthquake and Tsunamis, Proclamation 7859," Code of Federal Regulations, title 3 ( 2005 Comp.), http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/ (accessed 2 June 2006).

B. U.S. President. Proclamation. "Honoring the Memory of the Victims of the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunamis, Proclamation 7859." Code of Federal Regulations, title 3, 2005 Comp.

171

B/E. U.S. President. Proclamation. "Honoring the Memory of the Victims of the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunamis, Proclamation 7859." Code of Federal Regulations, title 3, 2005 Comp. http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/

(accessed 2 June 2006).

In a complete set of CFR volumes, do not use Comp. N. 119. "Certifications and Exemptions under the International Regulations for Preventing

Collisions at Sea, 1972," Code of Federal Regulations, title 32, sec. 706.1 (2005): 173. B. "Certifications and Exemptions under the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972." Code of Federal Regulations, title 32, sec. 706.1, 2005. N. 120. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

"Fisheries Off West Coast States and in the Western Pacific; Coastal Pelagic Species Fisheries; Annual Specifications," Federal Register 71, no. 10 (17 January 2006): 2510-11.

B. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Fisheries Off West Coast States and in the Western Pacific; Coastal Pelagic Species Fisheries; Annual Specifications." Federal Register 71, no. 10, 17 January 2006. N. 121. U.S. President, Executive Order no. 13382, "Blocking Property of Weapons of Mass

Destruction Proliferators and Their Supporters," Code of Federal Regulations, title 3, sec. 4 (January 2005 Comp.).

B. U.S. President. Executive Order no. 13382. "Blocking Property of Weapons of Mass Destruction Proliferators and Their Supporters." Code of Federal Regulations, title 3, sec. 4, January 2005 Comp. N. 122. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957

(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1958), 796. N/S. 122. Public Papers: Eisenhower, 274–90. B. Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1958. N. 123. U.S. President, ”Statement on House of Representatives Action to Extend Normal Trade

Relations With China,” 22 July 1998, Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 34, no. 30 (27 July 1998): 1455.

B. U.S. President. ”Statement on House of Representatives Action to Extend Normal Trade Relations With China.” 22 July 1998, Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 34, no. 30, 27 July 1998. N. 124. U.S. President, The National Security Strategy of the United States of America,

(Washington, DC: White House, 2002).

172

B. U.S. President. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America.

Washington, DC: White House, 2002. B/E. U.S. President. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America. Washington, DC: White House, 2002. http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc.nss.pdf (accessed 30 June 2006).

PRESIDENTIAL DIRECTIVES

“Each administration through the Clinton administration assigned new names for the directives. Thus, NSSMs and NSDMs became Presidential Review Memoranda (PRMs) and Presidential Decision Directives (PDDs) in the Clinton administration. The practice of separating decision and study directives ended when President George W. Bush signed National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD) 1 in February 2001. That directive abolished both the Presidential Decision Directives (PDDs) and Presidential Review Directives (PRDs) of the Clinton administration and replaced both with the NSPD series.” (Digital National Security Archive, http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com) N/E. 125. National Policy on Ballistic Missile Defense, National Security Presidential

Directive/NSPD-23 (16 December 2002), http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd-23.htm/ (accessed 2 June 2006).

B/E. National Policy on Ballistic Missile Defense. National Security Presidential

Directive/NSPD-23, 16 December 2002. http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd-23.htm/ (accessed 2 June 2006).

CLASSIFIED SOURCES

Mark classified documents with the classification of the title (immediately following the title) and with the overall classification of the document (at the end of the publication data). If you take unclassified information from a classified source, put a statement to that effect after the overall classification marking. N. 126. TAF SON 302-81, Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack Capabilities (U), 2

November 1982. (Secret) B. TAF SON 302-81. Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack Capabilities (U), 2 November 1982. (Secret) N. 127. Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence, "Linebacker II: 18–29 December 72" (U),

supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information extracted is unclassified. B. Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence. "Linebacker II: 18–29 December 72" (U). Supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

173

N. 128. Robert L. Faloon, Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U) (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 1983), 37. (Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

B. Faloon, Robert L. Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U). Maxwell AFB, AL:

Air University Press, 1983. (Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

DECLASSIFIED SOURCES

N. 129. Central Intelligence Agency, National Intelligence Estimate Number 11-5-57

(Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 1957), 62. Document is now declassified. B. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. National Intelligence Estimate Number 11-5-57. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 1957. Document is now declassified.

LETTERS AND ENDORSEMENTS

Military rank and professional titles may be included in letters and endorsements. N. 130. Maj W. G. Kilner, executive, Office of Chief of Air Service, to commandant, Air

Service Tactical School, letter, 12 April 1925. B. Kilner, Maj W. G., executive, Office of Chief of Air Service. To commandant,

Air Service Tactical School. Letter, 12 April 1925. N. 131. Lt Col C. C. Culver to chief of Air Corps, letter, 9 June 1928; 1st end., Maj L. W.

McIntosh, executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps, to commandant, Air Corps Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

B. Culver, Lt Col C. C. To chief of Air Corps. Letter, 9 June 1928. 1st end. Maj L. W. McIntosh, executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps. To commandant,

Air Corps Tactical School, 1 September 1928. N. 132. The Adjutant General to commanding generals, all corps areas et al., letter, 31

December 1934. N. 133. Capt Harry A. Johnson, Command and General Staff School, to chief, Air Corps, letter,

18 January 1935; 2d end., Lt Col H. A. Pratt, chief, Air Corps, Materiel Division, to chief, Air Corps, 16 February 1935; 3d end., Col A. G. Fisher, president, Air Corps Board, to chief, Air Corps, 15 July 1935.

174

MEMORANDA

Military rank and professional titles may be included in memoranda.

Regular memorandum N. 134. Lt Col G. W. Bundy, War Plans Division, War Department General Staff, to Lt Col

Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division, memorandum, 18 July 1941. B. Bundy, Lt Col G. W. War Plans Division, War Department General Staff. To Lt Col Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division. Memorandum, 18 July 1941. N. 135. Col William W. Momyer, deputy commandant for evaluation, Air War College, to Maj

Gen John DeF. Barker, deputy commanding general, Air University, memorandum, 17 September 1952.

N/S. 135. Momyer to Barker, memorandum.

Draft memorandum N. 136. Chief, Air Corps, to chief of staff, Army, draft memorandum, 28 March 1938. B. Chief, Air Corps. To chief of staff, Army. Draft memorandum, 28 March 1938. Memorandum of understanding N. 137. Secretary of the Army to secretary of the Air Force, memorandum of understanding, 2

October 1951. B. Secretary of the Army. To secretary of the Air Force. Memorandum of understanding, 2 October 1951. Memorandum for record N. 138. Gen Nathan F. Twining, vice-chief of staff, U.S. Air Force, memorandum for record, 17

November 1950. B. Twining, Gen Nathan F., vice-chief of staff, U.S. Air Force. Memorandum for record, 17 November 1950.

MESSAGES

Military rank and professional titles may be included in messages. N. 139. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. To commanding general, Strategic Air Command, message

TST-587, 13 April 1949. B. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff to commanding general, Strategic Air Command. Message TST- 587, 13 April 1949.

175

N. 140. U.S. Air Force to commanding general, Far East Air Forces, message AFCVC-5141314,

August 1950. N. 141. U.S. Air Force to commanding general, Far East Air Forces, message 281415Z OCT 90,

28 October 1990. B. U.S. Air Force. To commanding general, Far East Air Forces, Message. 281415Z OCT 90.

28 October 1990.

MANUALS, INSTRUCTIONS,

DIRECTIVES, AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS

Note: For presidential directives, see page 172. Acronyms and abbreviations may be used in subsequent references.

N. 142. Chairman, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Legal Support to Military Operations, final

coordination, Joint Publication (JP) 1-04 (Washington, DC: CJCS, 6 March 2006), 15. B. U.S. Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Legal Support to Military

Operations. Final coordination. Joint Publication (JP) 1-04. Washington, DC: CJCS, 6 March 2006.

N. 143. Chief of Naval Operations, "Undersea Warfare Training Committee," OPNAVINST

3502.2C (Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, CNO, 24 July 1998). B. U.S. Navy. Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. "Undersea Warfare Training

Committee." OPNAVINST 3502.2C. Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, CNO, 24 July 1998.

N. 144. U.S. Marine Corps, Marine Corps Operations, Marine Corps Doctrine Publication

(MCDP) 1-0 (Washington, DC: Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, 2001), 3. B. U.S. Marine Corps. Marine Corps Operations. Marine Corps Doctrine

Publication (MCDP) 1-0. Washington, DC: Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, 2001. N. 145. U.S. Army, Army Pre-Positioned Afloat Operations, Field Manual (FM) 100-17-1

(Washington, DC: Headquarters Department of the Army, 27 July 1996), 2.0-2.8. B. U.S. Army. Army Pre-Positioned Afloat Operations. Field Manual (FM) 100-17-1.

Washington, DC: Headquarters Department of the Army, 27 July 1996.

N/E. 146. U.S. Air Force, Air Force Basic Doctrine, Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1 (Washington, DC: Department of the Air Force, 17 November 2003), 105-106, http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/ (accessed 29 June 2006).

N/S. 146. AFDD 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine, 5.

176

B/E. U.S. Air Force. Air Force Basic Doctrine. Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1. Washington, DC: Department of the Air Force, 17 November 2003. http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/ (accessed 29 June 2006).

N. 147. War Department, Air Corps: Employment of the Air Forces of the Army, War

Department Training Manual (WDTR) 440-15/2 (Washington, DC: GPO, 15 October 1935). N/S. 147. WDTR 440-15, Employment of the Air Forces. B. U.S. War Department. Air Corps: Employment of the Air Forces of the Army. War

Department Training Manual (WDTR) 440-15/2. Washington, DC: GPO, 15 October 1935.

N. 148. U.S. Air Force, Psychological Operations, AFDD 2-5.5 (Washington, DC: Department

of the Air Force, 22 February 1997), 20-23. B. U.S. Air Force. Psychological Operations. AFDD 2-5.5. Washington, DC:

Department of the Air Force, 22 February 1997. N. 149. U.S. Air Force, Air Force Basic Doctrine, Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1

(Washington, DC: Department of the Air Force, 17 November 2003), 105-106, http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/ (accessed 29 June 2006).

B. U.S. Air Force. Air Force Basic Doctrine. Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1.

Washington, DC: Department of the Air Force, 17 November 2003. http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/ (accessed 29 June 2006).

N. 150. Department of Defense, DoD Records Management Program, Department of Defense

Directive (DODD) 5015.2 (Washington, DC: DoD, 6 March 2000), 3.

B. U.S. Department of Defense. DoD Records Management Program. Department of Defense Directive (DODD) 5015.2. Washington, DC: DoD, 6 March 2000.

B/E. U.S. Department of Defense. DoD Records Management Program. Department of

Defense Directive (DODD) 5015.2. Washington, DC: DoD, 6 March 2000. http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf2/d50152p.pdf (accessed 29 June 2006).

SOURCE CITED AND QUOTED IN ANOTHER SOURCE Whenever possible, it is best to retrieve information from primary source documents, especially when quoting a work. In cases where the primary document cannot be found and a secondary source is used, both the original and secondary sources must be cited in notes and bibliographies. (Chicago, 17.274) N. 151. Louis Zukofsky, ”Sincerity and Objectification,” Poetry 37 (February 1931): 269,

quoted in Bonnie Costello, Marianne Moore: Imaginary Possessions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 78.

B. Zukofsky, Louis. “Sincerity and Objectification.” Poetry 37 (February 1931). Quoted in

Bonnie Costello, Marianne Moore: Imaginary Possessions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981.

177

N. 152. Samuel P. Huntington, “Democracy Fights a Limited War: Korea, 1950–1953,” quoted

in Merrill F. Peterson and Leonard W. Levy, eds., Major Crises in American History: Documentary Problems (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962), 2:481.

N. 153. Douglas MacArthur, General, U.S. Army, letter to B. H. Liddell Hart (1959), quoted in

Peter G. Tsouras, ed., The Greenhill Dictionary of Military Quotations (London: Greenhill Books, 2000), 243.

B. MacArthur, Douglas. General U.S. Army. Letter to B. H. Liddell Hart (1959). Quoted in

Peter G. Tsouras, ed., The Greenhill Dictionary of Military Quotations. London: Greenhill Books, 2000.

DIARIES, MINUTES, CHRONOLOGIES, SUMMARIES, DIGESTS, AND NOTES

N. 154. Diary of Fleet Adm William D. Leahy, 8 February 1946, William D. Leahy Papers,

Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. B. Leahy, Fleet Adm William D. Diary. William D. Leahy Papers. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. N. 155. Minutes of the War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October 1905,

quoted in Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906, 61. B. Minutes. War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October 1905.

In Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906. N. 156. Minutes of monthly meetings of Army Air Forces Board, 2 January 1945. N. 157. Minutes of the Patch Sword II Conference conducted at Headquarters AFSC, Andrews

AFB, MD, October 1981, 26. N. 158. Chronology, Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966), 252, 305, 373. B. Chronology. Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966). N. 159. Air Staff Summary Sheet, Lt Col Andrew C. Barbee, Policy and Plans Group, “Report

of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and Space Administration,” 20 March 1967. B. Barbee, Lt Col Andrew C. Policy and Plans Group. Air Staff Summary Sheet. “Report of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and Space Administration.”

20 March 1967. N. 160. Daily Staff Digest, Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967. B. Daily Staff Digest. Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

178

N. 161. Notes, Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951. B. Notes. Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951. N. 162. Briefing, 6127th Air Terminal Group, subject: Air Terminal Detachments in Korea, 1

March 1951. B. Briefing. 6127th Air Terminal Group. Subject: Air Terminal Detachments in Korea,

1 March 1951. N. 163. Brig Gen Mervin E. Gross, chief, Requirements Division, Aviation Section, Signal

Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces, record and routing (R&R) sheet, subject: Centralization of Certain Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, FL, 27 November 1944.

N/S. 163. Gross, R&R sheet. B. Gross, Brig Gen Mervin E., chief, Requirements Division, Aviation Section, Signal Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces. Record and Routing (R&R) sheet. Subject: Centralization of Certain Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, FL, 27 November 1944. N. 152. FM 90-14,”Rear Battle,” final draft, 19 November 1984, i. B. Field Manual (FM) 90-14.”Rear Battle.” Final draft, 19 November 1984.

LECTURES AND ADDRESSES NWC Non-Attribution Policy (NWC Instruction 5721.3) “To enhance academic freedom, NWC personnel must avoid discussing or citing oral statements made in the academic environment in any manner which would identify the source of those statements to persons outside the College, unless express consent has been given for the attribution . . . During occasions in which the nature of the event or the composition of the audience makes application of this policy inappropriate, the non-attribution policy will not apply. Such events may include the Media Conference, Current Strategy Forum and evening lecture series, or other events open to the public or where large numbers of private citizens are invited to attend. At the request of the individual, written statements will be treated as not for attribution, except those formal papers that are intended for retention and distribution based on quality . . . ” Note: For Powerpoint presentations, see the section on multimedia. N. 165. Maj Gen Mason M. Patrick, “The Army Air Service” (lecture, Army War College,

Carlisle Barracks, PA, 9 November 1925). N/S. 165. Patrick, “Army Air Service.” B. Patrick, Maj Gen Mason M. ”The Army Air Service.” Lecture. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, PA, 9 November 1925.

179

N. 166. Gen Curtis E. LeMay, chief of staff, U.S. Air Force (address, Air Force Association

Convention, Philadelphia, PA, 21 September 1961). B. LeMay, Gen Curtis E., chief of staff, U.S. Air Force. Address. Air Force Association Convention, Philadelphia, PA, 21 September 1961. N. 167. Gen Earle G. Wheeler (graduation address, Industrial College of the Armed Forces,

Washington, DC, 11 June 1963). B. Wheeler, Gen Earle G. Graduation address. Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Washington, DC, 11 June 1963.

PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Personal communications include conversations (whether face-to-face or by telephone), letters, e-mail messages, and other similar messages received by the author. They are rarely listed in a bibliography (Chicago, 17.208), but may be included in the body of the text or given as a note. N. 168. Wayne Rowe, e-mail message to author, 24 June 2005. N. 169. H. J. Brody, telephone call with author, 4 July 1996.

INTERVIEWS

It is not necessary to include interviews in a bibliography. You may wish to include a transcript of an interview in the paper's appendix, however. N. 170. Jerry Gibson (MCI Communications Corp.), interview by the author, 7 March 1983. N. 171. Gerald Sorbet (vice president, Fred’s Frozen Foods, Bismarck, ND), in discussion with

the author, 21 October 2003. N/S. 171. Sorbet, discussion. N. 172. Richard Voit, Warren Brasselle, and Kerry Deimer, interview by the author during visit

to MCI Communications Corp., Southern Region, Atlanta, GA, 22 April 1983. N. 173. Maj Gen C. E. McKnight Jr. (U.S. Army Communications Command, Fort Huachuca,

AZ), interview by the author, 24 February 1983. N/S. 173. McKnight, interview. N. 174. Capt Joseph M. Ruppert, interview by Ens. James C. Masterson, 30 October 1996,

transcript, 24, U.S. Naval Academy Library, Annapolis, MD.

180

N. 175. McGeorge Bundy, interview by Robert MacNeil, MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, PBS, 7

February 1990. N. 176. Interview with captain from Naval Air Systems Command, 7 February 2004.

(unattributed interview)

TRANSLATION SERVICES N. 177. Sergey Agafonov, ”Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo to Open in

Moscow,” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992, 7, in FBIS [Foreign Broadcast Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia, FBIS-USR-92-079, 29 June 1992, 4.

B. Agafonov, Sergey. “Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo to Open in Moscow.” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992. In FBIS [Foreign Broadcast Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia. FBIS-USR-92-079, 29 June 1992. N/E. 178.”Chinese Ambassador Vows to Help Boost Investment in Uganda,” Xinhua, 22 June

2006, http://www.opensource.gov/ (accessed 22 June 2006). For Official Use Only N/E. 179. Hiroyuki Sugiyama, ”China Voices Opposition to N. Korea Missile Launch,” Yomiuri,

22 June 2006, http://www.opensource.gov/ (accessed 22 June 2006). For Official Use Only B/E. Sugiyama, Hiroyuki. ”China Voices Opposition To N. Korea Missile Launch.” Yomiuri,

22 June 2006. http://www.opensource.gov/ (accessed 22 June 2006). For Official Use Only

Subsequent reference to same FBIS issue.

N. 180. A. Boldinyuk, ”The Karelian Issue: Does It Exist, and If So, in What Form?” Pravda,

11 June 1992, 3, in FBIS-USR-92-079, 2.

Subsequent reference to different FBIS issue but same coverage (i.e., Central Eurasia) N. 181. Robert Minasov, ”Gosznak Is Not Equal to the Task,” Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 18 June

1992, 1, in FBIS-USR-92-080, 1 July 1992, 6. N. 182.”Opposition Parties Oppose Election Postponement,” Korea Times, 25 June 1992, 2, in

FBIS Daily Report: East Asia, FBIS-EAS-92-123, 25 June 1992, 23.

ELECTRONIC MAILING LISTS

Note: For e-mail communication, see Personal Communications.

“To cite material from an electronic mailing list that has been archived online, include the name of the list, date of the individual posting, and the URL.” (Chicago, 17.236) Also include the date accessed.

181

N/E. 183. John Powell, e-mail to Grapevine mailing list, 23 April 1998,

http://www.electriceditors.net/grapevine/issues/83.txt (accessed 10 May 2006). B/E. Powell, John. E-mail to Grapevine mailing list, 23 April 1998. http://www.electriceditors.net/grapevine/issues/83.txt

(accessed 10 May 2006).

WEB SITE CONTENT

“For original content from online sources other than periodicals, include as much of the following as can be determined: author of the content, title of the page, title or owner of the site, URL.” (Chicago, 17.237) Also include the date the site was accessed. N/E. 184. Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees, “Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan,

2000–2010: A Decade of Outreach,” Evanston Public Library, http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-oo.html (accessed 18 July 2002).

B/E. Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees. “Evanston Public Library Strategic Plan, 2000–2010: A Decade of Outreach.” Evanston Public Library. http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-oo.html (accessed 18 July 2002).

If there is no author, you may substitute the owner of the site. (Chicago, 17.237) N/E. 185. Federation of American Scientists, “Resolution Comparison: Reading License Plates

and Headlines,” http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/resolve5.htm (accessed 20 September 1999). B/E. Federation of American Scientists. “Resolution Comparison: Reading License Plates and Headlines.” http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/resolve5.htm

(accessed 20 September 1999).

Since very informal Web sites, such as personal home pages and fan sites, may have no titles, you may use descriptive phrases. (Chicago, 17.237) N/E. 186. Camp Taconic Alumni, 1955 photo gallery, http://www.taconicalumni.org/1955.html

(accessed 5 April 2003). N/E. 187. Pete Townshend’s official Web site, “Biography,”

http://www.petetownshend.co.uk/petet_bio.html (accessed 5 April 2003). B/E. Pete Townshend’s official Web site. “Biography.” http://www.petetownshend.co.uk/petet_bio.html (accessed 5 March 2003).

If a Web site ceases to exist before publication of the work in which it is cited, say so parenthetically at the end of the citation, separated from the access date, if any, by a semicolon. (Chicago, 17.237)

182

N/E. 188. Pete Townshend’s official Web site, “Biography,”

http://www.petetownshend.co.uk/petet_bio.html (accessed 15 December 2001; site now discontinued).

Blogs

"A weblog, which is usually shortened to blog, is a website where regular entries are made

(such as in a journal or a diary) and presented in reverse chronological order. Blogs often offer commentary or news on a particular subject, such as food, politics, or local news; some function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, web pages, and other media related to its topic." (Wikipedia, accessed 21 June 2006)

Although the 15th edition of Chicago does not address blogs, the editing staff at Chicago University Press has suggested that blogs be handled like any Web site, with the author's name and the date of the posting. As with e-mails and newspapers, citations for blogs should be included in notes, but not necessarily in bibliographies. Date accessed should be included in the citation. N/E. 189. Gary Becker, "Are CEOs Overpaid?" The Becker-Posner Blog, entry posted 14 May 2006, http://www.becker-posner blog.com/archives/2006/05 (accessed March 28, 2006). If the word "blog" is not found in the title of the Web site, indicate "blog entry" in the citation note. N/E. 190. American Soldier, "Al Zaqawi," American Soldier, blog entry posted 8 June 2006, http://www.solderlife.com/2006/6/8/al-zaqawi (accessed 21 June 2006).

MULTIMEDIA

When citing online multimedia, include such information as the name of the composer, writer, performer, or person responsible for the content; the title, in italics; the name of the recording company or publisher; the identifying number of the recording; the URL; and the type of medium. You need not include the date accessed unless the material is particularly time-sensitive (Chicago, 17.266, 17.270). N/E. 191. A. E. Weed, At the Foot of the Flatiron (American Mutoscope and Biograph, 1903), 2

min., 19 sec.; 35 mm; from Library of Congress, The Life of a City: Early Films of New York, 1898–1906, MPEG, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html (accessed 14 August 2001).

B/E. Weed, A. E. At the Foot of the Flatiron. American Mutoscope and Biograph, 1903;

2 min., 19 sec.; 35 mm. From Library of Congress, The Life of a City: Early Films of New York, 1898–1906. MPEG. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/papr/nychome.html (accessed 14 August 2001).

183

Powerpoint Presentations N. 192. Richmond Lloyd, “Economic Power and National Security,” Powerpoint, 28 March

2006, Newport, RI: Naval War College, NSDM Department. B. Lloyd, Richmond. “Economic Power and National Security.” Powerpoint. 28 March 2006. CD-ROM or DVD

Citations to works issued on CD-ROM are similar to those for printed works. You may omit place of publication and date unless they are relevant (Chicago, 17.271). N. 193. Complete National Geographic: 110 Years of National Geographic Magazine, CD-

ROM, Mindscape, 2000. B. Complete National Geographic: 110 Years of National Geographic Magazine.

CD-ROM. Mindscape, 2000. Video Recordings and Slides N. 194. Morris Massey, What You Are Is, CBS-Fox Video, 30 min., 1983, videocassette. B. Massey, Morris. What You Are Is. CBS-Fox Video. 30 min., 1983. Videocassette. N. 195. Louis J. Mihalyi, Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa (Santa Barbara, CA: Visual

Education, 1975), slides. B. Mihalyi, Louis J. Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa. Santa Barbara, CA:

Visual Education, 1975. Slides.

184

APPENDIX B

Sample Format for a

Naval War College Paper

185

NAVAL WAR COLLEGE Newport, R.I.

TITLE OF PAPER

by

Name

Rank and Service

A paper submitted to the Faculty of the Naval War College in partial satisfaction of the requirements of the Department of (identify department or organization that requires the paper; e.g., Joint Military Operations). The contents of this paper reflect my own personal views and are not necessarily endorsed by the Naval War College or the Department of the Navy.

Signature: __________________________

[Date] [Month] [Year] (Date of submission of paper)

If distribution of paper is limited in accordance with the DON ISPR, show Distribution Statement here.

This is page ”i” but the ”i” is not typed on the page.

186

Contents (Optional but recommended)

Introduction 1 Heading 2 xx Heading 3 xx Recommendations xx Conclusion xx Selected Bibliography xx

A table of contents (usually titled simply Contents) is optional. It lists the parts of the paper and their corresponding pagination. It provides the reader with a summary of the scope and order of development of the author's argument.

This is page ii.

187

List of Illustrations (Optional)

Figure Title Page

1. Title of Figure 1 xx

If three or more maps, charts, graphs, or illustrations are used in the paper, provide a list of illustrations. List each entry as "Figure 1" or "Figure n" using Arabic numerals.

This is page iii.

188

List of Tables (Optional)

Table Title Page

A. Title of Table xx

If three or more tables are incorporated in the text, they should be indicated in a list of tables. For each table, the number of the table, its title, and corresponding pagination are given. Tables are numbered consecutively with capital Roman numerals.

This is page iv.

189

Preface (Optional)

Include a preface only if absolutely necessary to address matters that cannot be incorporated in the

paper's introduction. The author may wish to state reasons for addressing the topic at hand, or to

describe methods of research (e.g., questionnaires, interview techniques, sources of literature). In

addition, the preface acknowledges, when applicable, special research assistance from persons and

institutions. Ordinarily, the advice a student receives from a research advisor is not acknowledged.

This is page v.

190

Abstract

Start typing here (this also goes in the DTIC report documentation page, SF-298, block 14)

Example of an acceptable Abstract for paper titled: Civil Considerations & Operational Art: Polluting the Process or Method to the Madness?

The recent inclusion of “civil considerations” into the METT-T process is justifiable

provided one defines the term and applicability to operational art. Analysis of the term

indicates it is neither properly defined nor understood. An objective evaluation of civil

considerations shows the considerations vary among the strategic, operational, and tactical

levels of war. A proper assessment of these considerations is crucial for combining all

instruments of national power to achieve a desired end state. This paper defines the

considerations at the strategic and operational levels, and their applicability to coherent

campaign planning. It explains the nature of a crisis in the 21st Century and provides a

rudimentary understanding of how civil considerations become a significant factor in

resolving the crisis. Finally, the paper draws conclusions concerning the civil aspect of

conflict, and recommends areas for further research and analysis toward codifying civil

considerations into an effective system as part of the military decision making process.

This is page vi.

191

INTRODUCTION Start typing here….

BACKGROUND Start typing here….

DISCUSSION / ANALYSIS Start typing here….

CONCLUSIONS Start typing here….

RECOMMENDATIONS or LESSONS LEARNED

Start typing here….

NOTES This section is required when the author uses end-notes. Note formats are provided in the Naval War College Writing and Style Guide.

APPENDIX The appendix is employed to present relevant material not essential to the basic text. Examples include information of an unusually technical and complex nature; discussion of methodology used in preparation of the paper, with sample questionnaires and a description of other data collection techniques presented; case studies too lengthy to be incorporated in the text; and documents not generally available to the reader. The appendix supplements the text, and authors must avoid the inclusion of material unrelated to the text.

GLOSSARY

Include a glossary if you use a number of unfamiliar or technical terms in your text. See 1.30

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliographic entries have different format than Notes. See Naval War College Writing and Style Guide. NOTE: First page of the Introduction is numbered”1” and this pagination continues to the last page of the Bibliography. Pages prior to”1” are numbered with small Roman numerals.

192

APPENDIX C

Copyright

193

An “original work of authorship” is protected by the copyright laws of the United

States, regardless of whether is published and whether it is registered with the United States

Copyright Office (a department of the Library of Congress).”Works of authorship” include

written manuscripts and other literary works, as well as original graphic or pictorial material,

visual art, audiovisual works, motion pictures, and sound recordings. The owner of a

copyright has exclusive rights of reproduction, adaptation, publication, performance, and

display of the work (if the work is to be published, he or she may transfer some or all of these

rights to the publisher by formal agreement). For that reason, if you intend to use another

person’s work (e.g., text, graphs, tables, photographs, paintings, film clips, music clips, etc.)

in a work of your own, you must obtain written permission from the copyright owner,

whether individual or publisher. Two important exceptions to this principle follow.

First, you need not obtain permission if the work is in the public domain. Such works

are considered public property and may be used by anybody. A work of the United States

government (defined as a work prepared by an officer or employee of the United States

government as part of that person’s official duties) is in the public domain, as is a work

whose copyright has expired. Effective January 1, 1978, the Copyright Act of 1976 provided

that duration of a copyright is the life of the author plus 70 years. In the case of a “work

made for hire,” the law regards the employer or other controlling party as the “author” and

provides a term of 95 years from the date of publication or 120 years from the date of

creation, whichever is shorter, for the duration of copyright. When the author is unknown or

has published under a pseudonym, the same length of time applies as for a work made for

hire (95 years from the date of publication or 120 years from the date of creation). If, after

publication, the author’s name is revealed and recorded with the Copyright Office, the “life

plus 70” principle takes over (unless the work was made for hire). For unpublished works

194

under the old copyright law (prior to 1978), their copyright extends at least to December 31,

2002. If they were published before that date, protection lasts until December 31, 2047,

giving them a term of 70 years from the date the new law went into effect and longer if the

authors’ lives extended beyond 1977. Works published before December 31, 1922, are in the

public domain. Works published from 1923 through 1963 are still protected if their copyright

was renewed in the 28th year after first publication. The renewal term for these works is now

67 years rather than 28, but if no initial registration or renewal was properly filed, they are

in the public domain. Works published from 1964 through 1977 are protected for 95 years

from first publication. If you have any doubts about the currency of a work’s copyright,

check with the Copyright Office (Chicago, 4.9, 4.22–.26).

Second, you need not obtain permission if you use material in accordance with the

doctrine of fair use. This doctrine allows you to use another person’s work for purposes of

criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research. For example, you

may quote passages of copyrighted material for purposes of critical analysis and review or

for purposes of supporting your own work. You may also reproduce copyrighted pictorial

material for critical purposes (e.g., use of a photograph to facilitate commentary on

techniques of photographic composition). In determining whether a use is fair, the doctrine

considers the following four factors:

1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a

commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes. Commercial use

generally is presumed to be unfair. On the other hand, nonprofit educational use is

not deemed automatically to be fair, but it is more likely to be so treated,

particularly if a public benefit results from the use.

195

2. The nature of the copyrighted work. The use of creative works, as opposed to

informational ones, is less likely to be deemed fair use. Fictional works are

afforded more protection than factual ones.

3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted

work as a whole. The doctrine of fair use does not specify a particular number of

words, lines, graphs, and so forth, that you may use without permission. A rule of

reasonableness applies, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Generally speaking,

you cannot reproduce a work in its entirety—a poem, an essay, a song, or an

individually copyrighted article in a journal or magazine—without obtaining

permission. Nor can you use the “heart of the work” (i.e., the key or essential

material) without obtaining permission.

4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyrighted

work. While all of the factors must be considered in determining the applicability

of the fair-use doctrine, this fourth and final factor is the single most important

element of the analysis. Commercial use is presumptively harmful to the future

value of the work used. Noncommercial use, however, requires a meaningful (and

demonstrable) likelihood of future harm before the use is considered unfair.

Whether or not you obtain permission from the copyright owner to use part of a work,

you should always credit the author and the source of the borrowed material (see also

plagiarism [5.6]). Merely acknowledging the source does not substitute for obtaining

permission if circumstances so dictate. If you do obtain permission, you should identify your

source, followed by a statement such as “Reprinted by permission of the publisher.” An

illustration should be accompanied by a note such as “Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum

of Art.”

196

The rapid expansion of electronic communications and the growth of the Internet

have given rise to complex legal issues that are as yet unresolved. Pending legislation and

ongoing litigation will no doubt have an effect on how copyright laws are applied online. In

the meantime, you would do well to assume that the same principles of copyright protection

that apply to traditional written and pictorial material also apply to materials found online.

That is, you should obtain permission to use any text, photographs, artwork, and so forth that

you find online unless that material is in the public domain or you reproduce it in accordance

with the doctrine of fair use (and you should credit your source in any case). Likewise, you

should apply the same principles that apply to materials you use in your printed writings to

any materials you want to use in electronic or multimedia creations, such as CD-ROM or

DVD-ROM.

197

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adler, Mortimer J., and Charles Van Doren. How to Read a Book: the Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading. Rev. ed. New York: Touchstone, 1972.

Barzun, Jacques, and Henry F. Graff. The Modern Researcher. 5th ed. Fort Worth, TX:

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992.

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.

Chicago Manual of Style. 15th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. Copperud, Roy H. American Usage and Style: The Consensus. New York: Van Nostrand

Reinhold, 1980. Ebbitt, Wilma R., and David R. Ebbitt. Index to English. 8th ed. Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1990. Evans, Bergen, and Cornelia Evans. A Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage. New

York: Random House, 1957. Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. New York: Modern

Language Association of America, 1999. Heflin, Woodford Agee, ed. The United States Air Force Dictionary. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air

University Press, 1956. Lipton, James. An Exaltation of Larks. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1989. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster,

2003. Siegal, Allan M. The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage. New York: Times Books,

1999. Strunk, William Jr., and Elwyn Brooks White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed. Boston, MA:

Allyn and Bacon, 2000. Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves: Tthe Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation. New

York: Gotham Books, 2003. Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

198

U. S. Department of the Navy. Correspondence Manual. SECNAVINST 5216.5D. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), 1996.

U. S. Government Printing Office. United States Government Printing Office: Style Manual.

Washington, DC: GPO, 1984. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged.

Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam, 1981.

199

INDEX Note: numbers (e.g., 2.1) pertain to the Style Guide numbering system that begins on page 21. AAA (antiaircraft artillery), 2.1 AAM (air-to-air missile), 2.2 a/an, 1.1 AB (air base), 2.3 abbreviations, 2.0 ABCCC (airborne battlefield command and control center), 2.4 ABM (antiballistic missile), 2.5 above, 1.2 academic courses, 4.1, 4.1.1 academic degrees and titles, 2.6 ACC (Air Combat Command), 2.7 ACSC (Air Command and Staff College), 2.8 active Air Force, 4.1.2 active duty, 4.1.3 active voice, 3.1.1 acts, 4.1.4 AD (anno Domini), 2.9, 4.1.5 administration, 4.1.6 ADVON (advanced echelon), 2.10 AEF (air and space expeditionary force), 2.11 AEG (air expeditionary group), 2.12 aerospace, 1.3 AETC (Air Education and Training Command), 2.13 AETF (air and space expeditionary task force), 2.14 AEW (airborne early warning; air expeditionary wing), 2.15 AFB (Air Force base), 2.16 AFCC (Air Force component commander), 2.17 AFRC (Air Force Reserve Command), 2.33 African-American, 4.2.1 AFROTC (Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps), 2.34 AFSOC (Air Force Special Operations Command), 2.35 agency, 4.1.7 AI (air interdiction), 2.18 AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), 2.19 aiming point, 4.2.3 air base, 4.1.8, 4.2.4 air chief marshal, 4.2.5 aircraft, 1.4, 3.1.2, 4.4.1 aircrew, 4.2.6 airdrop (n.), 4.2.7 air-drop (v.), 4.2.8 air-droppable (adj.), 4.2.9 airfield, 4.2.10

200

air force, 1.5, 4.1.9 Air Force, 1.60 Air Force base, 4.1.10 air force (numbered), 4.3.1 Air Force One, 4.1.11 Air Force–wide, 1.6 airframe, 4.2.11 airhead, 4.2.12 airland, 4.2.13 AirLand Battle, 4.1.12, 4.2.14 air lane, 4.2.15 airlift, 4.2.16 Airman, Airmen, 4.1.13, 4.2.17 air marshal, 4.2.18 air-minded, 4.2.19 air-mindedness, 4.2.20 airmobile, 4.2.21 airpower, 4.2.22 airspace, 4.2.23 air and space, 1.7 airspeed, 4.2.24 Air Staff, 4.1.14 air strike, 4.2.25 airstrip, 4.2.26 air vice-marshal, 4.2.27 airworthiness, 4.2.28 airworthy, 4.2.29 ALCM (air launched cruise missile), 2.20 allied, 4.1.15 allies, 4.1.15 al-Qaeda, 4.2.30 a.m. (ante meridiem [before noon]), 2.21, 4.1.16 AMC (Air Mobility Command), 2.22 amendments, 4.1.4, 4.1.17 ampersand (&), 2.23 AMRAAM (advanced medium-range air-to-air missile), 2.24 and/or, 1.8 ANG (Air National Guard), 2.25 anti-, 4.2.31 AO (area of operations), 2.26 AOC (air and space operations center), 2.27 AOR (area of responsibility), 2.28 apostrophe, 3.2.1 appendix, 4.1.18 ARM (antiradiation missile), 2.29 armed forces, 4.1.19 arms control (n.), 1.9 arms-control (adj.), 1.10

201

Army, 1.61 army, 4.1.20 ARNG (Army National Guard), 2.30 art, 1.11 article (part of a document), 4.1.21 artwork, 1.11 ASAP (as soon as possible), 2.31 ASAT (antisatellite weapon), 2.32 ASBC (Air and Space Basic Course), 2.33 associate’s degree, 4.1.22 ATACMS (Army Tactical Missile System), 2.34 ATAF (Allied Tactical Air Force [NATO]), 2.35 ATO (air tasking order), 2.36 AU (Air University), 2.37 AUL (Air University Library), 2.38 AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System), 2.39 AWC (Air War College), 2.40 AWOL (absent without leave), 2.41 Ba’ath Party, 4.2.32 bachelor’s degree, 4.1.23 back matter, 1.12 base, 2.42 battalion, 4.1.24 battle, 4.1.25 battlefield, 4.2.33 battlefront, 4.2.34 battleground, 4.2.35 battle line, 4.2.36 battlespace, 4.2.37 BC (before Christ), 2.43, 4.1.26 BCE (before the common era), 2.44 BDA (battle damage assessment), 2.45 beddown (n.), 4.2.38 bed down (v.), 4.2.39 below, 1.13 Berlin airlift, 4.1.27 Berlin Wall, 4.1.28 biannual, 1.14 bibliography, 5.2 biennial, 1.14 bills (congressional), 4.1.4, 4.1.29 bimonthly, 1.15 bin Laden, Osama, 4.2.40 biplane, 4.2.41 biweekly, 1.16 black (people), 1.17, 4.1.30 block quotations, 5.4

202

BMD (ballistic missile defense), 2.46 BMDO (Ballistic Missile Defense Organization), 2.47 board, 4.1.31 Bosnian crisis, 4.1.32 BRAC (base realignment and closure), 2.48 brackets, 3.2.2 Brookings Institution, 4.2.42 building names, 4.1.33 buildup (n.), 4.2.43 build up (v.), 4.2.44 bullets, 3.2.3 bureau, 4.1.34 BVR (beyond visual range), 2.49 by-product, 4.2.45 C2 or C2 (command and control), 2.50 C3 or C3 (command, control, and communications), 2.51 C3I or C3I (command, control, communications, and intelligence), 2.52 C4 or C4 (command, control, communications, and computers), 2.53 C4I or C4I (command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence), 2.54 CA (civil affairs), 2.54.1 CADRE (College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education), 2.55 CALCM (conventional air-launched cruise missile), 2.56 caliber (of weapons), 4.3.2 call sign (n.), 4.2.46 CAOC (combat [or combined] air operations center), 2.57 CAP (Civil Air Patrol; combat air patrol; crisis action planning), 2.58 capitalization, 4.1 caption, 1.18 CAS (close air support), 2.59 CBRNE (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear effects), 2.60 CBU (cluster bomb unit), 2.61 CBW (chemical and biological warfare), 2.62 CC (Community College), 2.63 CE (of the common era), 2.64 cease-fire, 4.2.47 centuries and decades, 4.3.3 CEPME (College for Enlisted Professional Military Education), 2.65 CFACC (combined force air component commander), 2.66 chapter, 2.67 chapter (numbers), 4.3.4 chief of staff, 4.1.35 choke point, 4.2.48 CHOP (change of operational control), 2.68 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 2.69 CINC (commander in chief), 2.70 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), 2.71 citizen-soldier, 4.2.49

203

civil service, 4.1.36 CJCS (chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff), 2.72 click, 1.19 CMC (Commandant, US Marine Corps), 2.73 CMO (civil military operations), 2.75.1 CNA (computer network attack), 2.74 CNC&S (College of Naval Command & Staff), 2.75 CNO (chief of naval operations), 2.76 CNW (College of Naval Warfare), 2.77 CO (commanding officer), 2.78 coalition forces, 4.1.37 COC (combat operations center), 2.79 COCOM (Combatant command), 280 code name (n.), 4.2.50 code-name (v.), 4.2.51 COG (center of gravity), 2.81 cold war or Cold War, 4.1.38 colon, 3.2.4 COMAFFOR (commander, Air Force forces), 2.82 comma, 3.2.5 committee, 4.1.39 communism, 4.1.40 communist, 4.1.41 Communist bloc, 4.1.42 Communist Party, 4.1.43 compound words, 4.2.52 COMPUSEC (computer security), 2.283 COMSAT (communications satellite), 2.84 Congress, 4.1.44 congressional, 4.1.45 congressional committees and subcommittees, 4.1.46 congressman, 4.1.47 congresswoman, 4.1.47 CONOPS (concept of operations), 2.85 CONPLAN (Concept Plan), 2.86 constitutional amendments, 4.1.48 CONUS (continental United States), 2.87 copilot, 4.2.53 copyright, 1.20 Corps, the, 1.62 cost-effective, 4.2.54 cost-effectiveness, 4.2.55 counter-, 4.2.56 countries, 4.2.57 courses, academic, 4.1.49 court-martial (n., v.), 3.1.3, 4.2.58 courts-martial (n., plural), 3.1.3, 4.2.58 coworker, 4.2.59

204

CRAF (civil reserve air fleet), 2.88 credit line, 5.5 crew member, 4.2.60 cross-train (v.), 4.2.61 CSA (chief of staff, United States Army) 289 CSAF (chief of staff, United States Air Force), 2.90 CSAR (combat search and rescue), 2.91 CSG (aircraft carrier strike group), 2.92 Cuban missile crisis, 4.1.50 currency, 4.3.5 CV (conventionally-powered aircraft carrier; carrier), 2.93 CVN (nuclear-powered aircraft carrier), 2.94 CW (chemical warfare), 2.95 cyberspace, 4.2.62 dangling modifier, 3.1.4 DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), 2.96 dash, 3.2.6 data, 3.1.5 database, 4.2.63 data link (n.), 4.2.64 data-link (v., adj.), 4.2.65 dates, 1.21, 4.3.6 daytime, 4.2.66 DC (District of Columbia), 2.97 D-day (n., adj.), 4.2.67 DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration), 2.98 decades, 4.3.7 decision maker, 4.2.68 decision making (n.), 4.2.69 decision-making (adj.), 4.2.70 de-emphasize, 4.2.71 DEFCON (defense readiness condition), 2.99 democracy, 4.1.51 Democrat(s) (member[s] of the party), 4.1.51 Democratic Party, 4.1.51 department, 4.1.52 DET (detachment), 2.100 DFAS (Defense Finance and Accounting Service), 2.101 DHS (Department of Homeland Security), 2.102 DIA (Defense Intelligence Agency), 2.103 directions, 4.1.53 director, directorate, 4.1.54 direct quotations, 1.22 dive-bomb (v.), 4.2.72 dive-bomber, 4.2.73 DMPI (designated [or desired] mean point of impact), 2.104 DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program), 2.105

205

DMZ (demilitarized zone), 2.106 doctorate, 4.1.55 doctrine documents, 2.107, 4.4.2 DOD (Department of Defense), 2.108 DODD (Department of Defense directive), 2.109 DODI (Department of Defense instruction), 2.110 DODM (Department of Defense manual), 2.111 DODR (Department of Defense regulation), 2.112 dollars, 4.3.8 dot-com, 1.23 downsize (v.), 4.2.74 Dr. (doctor), 2.113 drawdown (n.), 4.2.75 draw down (v.), 4.2.76 DRU (direct reporting unit), 2.114 DSN (Defense Switched Network), 2.115 EAF (expeditionary air and space forces), 2.116 earth, 4.1.56 Earth satellites, 4.3.9, 4.4.3 Earth station, 4.1.57 East Berlin, 1.24 East Germany, 1.24 EBO (effects-based operations), 2.117 e.g. (for example), 2.118 ELINT (electronic intelligence), 2.119 ellipses, 3.2.7 e-mail (n., sing. and pl.), 4.1.58, 4.2.77 e-mail (v.), 4.1.59, 4.2.78 e-mailer (n.), 4.1.60, 4.2.79 emphasis, 4.4.4 empire, 4.1.61 endgame, 4.2.80 endnotes, 4.2.81 end state (n.), 4.2.82 end-state (adj.), 4.2.83 en masse, 4.2.84 en route (adv., adj.), 4.2.85 ensure, 4.2.86 entitle, 1.25 EO (executive order), 2.120 epigraph, 1.26, 4.4.5 ESG (Expeditionary Strike Group), 2.121 et al. (and others), 2.122 etc. (and so forth), 2.123 EU (European Union), 2.124 EW (early warning; electronic warfare), 2.125 exercises, 4.1.62

206

FAC (forward air controller), 2.126 fact finder, 4.2.87 fact-finding, 4.2.88 fait accompli, 4.2.89 FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), 2.127 FBIS (Foreign Broadcast Information Service), 2.128 FEBA (forward edge of the battle area), 2.129 federal, 4.1.63 federal government, 4.1.63, 4.1.73 feedback, 4.2.90 FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), 2.130 FFC (Fleet Forces Command), 2.131 field marshal, 4.2.91 field test (n.), 4.2.92 field-test (v.), 4.2.93 fighter-bomber, 4.2.94 fighter pilot, 4.2.95 figures, 1.27, 1.33, 4.3.10 firearm, 4.2.96 firebomb (n., v.), 4.2.97 firepower, 4.2.98 first, 3.1.6 firsthand (adj., adv.), 4.2.99 firstly, 3.1.6 first person, 3.1.7 First World War, 1.72 flight crew, 4.2.100 flight line (n.), 4.2.101 flight-line (adj.), 4.2.102 flight path, 4.2.103 flight suit, 4.2.104 flight-test (v.), 4.2.105 FLIR (forward-looking infrared), 2.132 floor leader, 4.1.64 FLOT (forward line of own troops), 2.133 FM (field manual [Army]), 2.134 FOA (field operating agency), 2.135 FOIA (Freedom of Information Act), 2.136 followership, 4.2.106 follow-on (n.), 4.2.107 follow-up (n.), 4.2.108 follow up (v.), 4.2.109 footnote, 4.2.110 foreign military services, 4.1.65 foreign terms, 4.4.6 foreword, 1.28, 4.2.111 forms (titles of), 4.4.7

207

fort, 4.1.66 FOUO (for official use only), 2.137 FP (force protection), 2.138 FPCON (force protection condition), 2.139 fractions, 4.3.11 FRAG (fragmentation code), 2.140 FRAGO (fragmentary order), 2.140.1 free world or Free World, 4.1.67 frequencies, 2.141, 2.335 frontline (adj.), 4.2.113 front line (n.), 4.2.112 front matter, 1.29 FSCL (fire support coordination line), 2.143 führer or fuehrer, 4.1.68, 4.2.114 full time (n.), 4.2.115 full-time (adj., adv.), 4.2.116 FW (fighter wing), 2.144 FY (fiscal year), 2.145 Gadhafi, Mu‘ammar, 4.2.117 GAO (Government Accountability Office), 2.146 GBU (guided bomb unit), 2.147 GCA (ground controlled approach), 2.148 GCI (ground control intercept), 2.149 general (military rank), 2.150, 4.1.69 Geneva convention(s), 4.1.70 GEO (geosynchronous Earth orbit), 2.151 geo-, 4.2.118 g-force, 2.152, 4.1.71, 4.2.119 GHz (gigahertz), 2.153 GLCM (ground launched cruise missile), 2.154 global war on terrorism, 4.1.72 glossary, 1.30 GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), 2.155 GO (general order), 2.156 government, 4.1.73 GPS (global positioning system), 2.157 Great War, 1.72 group, 4.1.74 GSA (General Services Administration), 2.158 G suit, 4.1.75, 4.2.120 Gulf War, 4.1.76 HA (humanitarian assistance), 2.158.1 half-, 4.2.121 half century, 4.2.122 HARM (high-speed antiradiation missile), 2.159 he, 3.1.8

208

headings, 1.31 headquarters, 4.1.77 HF (high frequency), 2.160 H hour (specific time an operation or exercise begins), 2.161 high-, 4.2.123 highway, 4.1.78 highway (numbered), 4.3.12 him, 3.1.8 his, 3.1.8 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 2.162 HMMWV (high mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle), 2.163 HMW (health, morale, and welfare), 2.164 Ho Chi Minh Trail, 4.1.79 home page, 4.2.124 house (Congress), 4.1.80 HRO (humanitarian relief organizations), 2.165 HUD (head-up display), 2.166 HUMINT (human intelligence), 2.167 HUMRO (humanitarian relief operation), 2.168 hundreds, 4.3.13 Hussein, Saddam, 4.2.125 hyphenated compound words, 3.2.8 Hz (hertz), 2.169 I, 3.1.11 IA (information attack), 2.170 IADS (Integrated Air Defense System), 2.171 ibid. (in the same place), 2.172 ICAF (Industrial College of the Armed Forces), 2.173 ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missile), 2.174 idem (the same), 1.32 i.e. (that is), 2.175 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), 2.176 IFF (identification, friend or foe), 2.177 IG (inspector general), 2.178 ill-, 4.2.126 illustrations, 1.33 IMA (individual mobilization augmentee), 2.179 IMINT (imagery intelligence), 2.180 important, 3.1.9 importantly, 3.1.9 inbrief (v.), 4.2.127 inbriefing (n., v.), 4.2.128 in-depth (adj.), 4.2.130 in depth (adv.), 4.2.129 index, 1.34 INFOCON (information operations condition), 2.181 information age, 4.1.81

209

INFOSEC (information security), 2.182 in-process (v.), 4.2.131 INS (inertial navigation system), 2.183 instructions, 4.4.2 insure, 4.2.132 INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization), 2.184 inter-, 4.2.133 international date line, 4.1.82 Internet, 4.1.83 Internet address, 1.35 in-theater (adj., adv.), 4.2.134 IO (information operations), 2.185 I/O (input/output), 2.186 IOS (International Officer School), 2.187 IR (infrared), 2.188 iron curtain, 4.1.84 ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance), 2.189 it, 3.1.10 italics, 4.4 IW (information warfare), 2.190 I&W (indications and warning), 2.191 J-1 (manpower and personnel directorate of a joint staff), 2.192 J-2 (intelligence directorate of a joint staff), 2.193 J-3 (operations directorate of a joint staff), 2.194 J-4 (logistics directorate of a joint staff), 2.195 J-5 (plans directorate of a joint staff), 2.196 J-6 (command, control, communications, and computer systems directorate of a joint staff), 2.197 J-7 (Operational Plans and Joint Force Development, Joint Staff), 2.198 J-8 (Director for Force Structure, Resource, and Assessment, Joint Staff), 2.199 JAG (judge advocate general), 2.200 JAOC (joint air [and space] operations center), 2.201 JAOP (joint air [and space] operations plan), 2.202 JASSM (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile), 2.203 JAWS (Joint Advanced Warfighting School), 2.204 JCS (Joint Chiefs of Staff), 2.205 JDAM (Joint Direct Attack Munition), 2.206 jeep, 4.1.85 JFACC (joint force air [and space] component commander), 2.207 JFC (joint force commander), 2.208 JFLCC (joint force land component commander), 2.209 JFMCC (joint force maritime component commander), 2.210 JFSOCC (joint force special operations component commander), 2.211 JOC (joint operations center), 2.212 joint doctrine, 4.1.86 Joint Staff, 4.1.87 journals, 4.1.88, 4.4.9 JP (joint publication), 2.213

210

Jr., 2.214 JSOW (joint standoff weapon), 2.215 JSTARS (Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System), 2.216 JTF (joint task force), 2.217 judicial branch, 4.1.89 -keeper, 4.2.135 kg (kilogram), 2.218 kHz (kilohertz), 2.219 KIA (killed in action), 2.220 km (kilometer), 2.221 Korean conflict, 4.1.90 Korean War, 4.1.91 landmass, 4.2.136 land power, 4.2.137 LANDSAT (land satellite), 2.222 LANTFLT (US Atlantic Fleet), 2.223 LANTIRN (low-altitude navigation and targeting infrared for night), 2.224 latitude, 1.36, 2.225 laws, 4.1.4, 4.1.92 legal cases, 4.4.10 legend, 1.18 legislative bodies, 4.1.93 legislative branch, 4.1.93 LEO (low Earth orbit), 2.226 LF (low frequency), 2.227 LGB (laser-guided bomb), 2.228 LGM (laser-guided missile), 2.229 LGW (laser-guided weapon), 2.230 LIC (low intensity conflict), 2.231 LIMFAC (limiting factor), 2.232 lists, 1.37 LOC (line of communications), 2.233 localities, 4.1.94 loc. cit. (loco citato), 2.234 log-in (n.), 4.2.139 log in (v.), 4.2.138 logistic or logistical, 4.2.140 logistics (n.), 3.1.12 log-off (n.), 4.2.142 log off (v.), 4.2.141 log-on (n.), 4.2.144 log on (v.), 4.2.143 longitude, 1.36 long term (n.), 4.2.145 long-term (adj.), 4.2.146 longtime (adj.), 4.2.147

211

LORAN (long-range aid to navigation), 2.235 Luftwaffe, 4.4.11 MAAP (master air attack plan), 2.236 Mach 2 (etc.), 4.3.14 magazines, 4.4.12 MAGTF (Marine air-ground task force), 2.237 MAJCOM (major command [USAF]), 2.238 man-, 4.2.148 man-hour(s), 4.2.149 MANPADS (man-portable air defense system), 2.239 manuals, 4.4.2 marine, 4.1.95 Marine Corps, 1.62, 4.1.95 Marine(s), 4.1.95 Marshall Plan, 4.1.96 master’s degree, 4.1.97 material, 4.2.150 matériel (or materiel), 4.2.150 MAW (Marine aircraft wing), 2.240 measurements, 4.3.15 medals, 4.1.98 MEDEVAC (medical evacuation), 2.241 media, 3.1.13 MEO (medium Earth orbit), 2.242 Messrs., 2.243 MET (mission essential task), 2.244 MHz (megahertz), 2.245 MIA (missing in action), 2.246 microcomputer, 4.2.151 mid-, 4.2.152 Middle Ages, 4.1.99 MiG(s), 2.247, 4.1.100 military abbreviations, 2.248 military establishment, 4.1.101 military-industrial complex, 4.1.102 military terms, 4.1.103 military time, 4.3.16 military titles and offices, 2.249, 4.1.104 military units, 4.3.17 militia, militias, 4.2.153 Milosevic, Slobodan, 4.2.154 mind-set (n.), 4.2.155 minelayer (n.), 4.2.156 mine laying (n.), 4.2.157 mine-laying (adj.), 4.2.158 minesweeper (n.), 4.2.159 minesweeping (n., v.), 4.2.160

212

MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle), 2.250 MISREP (mission report), 2.251 missileman, 4.2.161 MITRE Corp. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research Corporation), 2.252 MOA (memorandum of agreement), 2.253 MOE (measure of effectiveness), 2.254 money, 4.3.18 months of the year, 2.255 moon, 4.1.105 MOOTW (military operations other than war), 2.256 MOS (military occupational specialty), 2.257 mottoes, 1.38, 4.1.106 MOU (memorandum of understanding), 2.258 mph (miles per hour), 2.259 Mr., 2.260 MRE (meal, ready to eat), 2.261 Mrs., 2.243, 2.260 Ms., 2.243, 2.260 MTO (Maritime Tasking Order), 2.262 MTW (major theater war), 2.263 multi-, 4.2.162 must-read (n.), 4.2.163 NAF (nonappropriated funds; numbered air force), 2.264 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 2.265 NATC (Naval Air Test Center), 2.266 nation-state, 4.2.164 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 2.267 naval forces, 4.1.107 naval station, 4.1.108 NAVCENT (Naval Forces, US Central Command), 2.268 NAVEUR (US Naval Forces Europe), 2.269 NAVSAT (navigation satellite), 2.270 Navy, 1.63, 4.1.109 NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical), 2.271 NCA (National Command Authorities), 2.272 NCO (noncombat operations; noncommissioned officer), 2.273 NCOIC (noncommissioned officer in charge), 2.274 NDU (National Defense University), 2.275 NEA (northeast Asia), 2.276 near real time (n.), 4.2.165 near-real-time (adj.), 4.2.166 near term (n.), 4.2.167 near-term (adj.), 4.2.168 Negro, 1.39 Negroes, 1.39 NEO (noncombat evacuation operation), 2.277 newspapers, 4.4.14

213

NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency), 2.278 NGB (National Guard Bureau), 2.279 NGO (nongovernmental organization), 2.280 nicknames, 1.40 nighttime, 4.2.169 NIPRNET (Nonsecure Internet Protocol Router Network), 2.281 nm (nautical mile), 2.282 no., 2.283 NOFORN (not releasable to foreign nationals), 2.284 non-, 4.2.170 none, 3.1.14 NOPC (Naval Operational Planner Course, US Navy), 2.285 NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command), 2.286 NOTAM (notice to Airmen), 2.287 notes, 5.1 NRO (National Reconnaissance Office), 2.288 NSA (National Security Agency), 2.289 NSC (National Security Council), 2.290 nuclear triad, 4.1.110 numbered air force, 4.3.19 numbers, 4.3 NVG (night vision goggle), 2.291 NWC (National or Naval War College), 2.292 NWDC (Navy Warfare Development Command), 2.293 OCA (offensive counterair), 2.294 OCI (offensive counterinformation), 2.295 OCS (offensive counterspace), 2.296 officials, government, 4.1.111 off-line (adj., adv.), 4.2.171 off-load (v.), 4.2.172 OJT (on-the-job training), 2.297 OL (operating location), 2.298 O&M (operation and maintenance), 2.299 OMB (Office of Management and Budget), 2.300 omissions, 3.2.9 onboard (adj.), 4.2.173 on board (adv.), 4.2.174 ongoing (adj.), 4.2.175 online (adj., adv.), 4.2.176 onload (v.), 4.2.177 on-station (adj.), 4.2.178 on station (adv.), 4.2.179 OODA (observe, orient, decide, act), 2.301 op. cit. (opere citato), 2.302 OPCON (operational control), 2.303 operations, names of, 4.1.112 OPLAN (operation plan), 2.304

214

OPM (Office of Personnel Management), 2.305 OPORD (operation order), 2.306 OPR (office of primary responsibility), 2.307 OPTEMPO (operating tempo), 2.308 organizations, 4.1.113 OSD (Office of the Secretary of Defense), 2.309 OT&E (operational test and evaluation), 2.310 OTS (Officer Training School), 2.311 outbrief (v.), 4.2.180 outbriefing (n., v.), 4.2.181 out-process (v.), 4.2.182 over-, 4.2.183 PA (Public Affairs), 2.312 PACAF (Pacific Air Forces), 2.313 PACFLT (US Pacific Fleet), 2.314 pacts, 4.1.149 pamphlets, 4.4.2 panzer, 4.1.114 parentheses, 3.2.10 part-time (adj., adv.), 4.2.184 part-timer (n.), 4.2.185 party (political), 4.1.115 passive voice, 3.1.15 PAWS (phased array warning system), 2.315 PCS (permanent change of station), 2.316 peacekeeper, 4.2.186 peacekeeping, 4.2.187 peacemaker, 4.2.188 peacemaking, 4.2.189 peacetime, 4.2.190 per annum, 4.2.191 per capita, 4.2.192 percent, 1.41, 4.3.20 period, 3.2.11 periodicals, 4.4.16 Persian Gulf War, 4.1.116 PGM (precision-guided munitions), 2.317 Philippines, 4.2.193 PIREP (pilot report), 2.318 PJE (professional joint education), 2.318.1 PKO (peacekeeping operations), 2.319 plagiarism, 5.6 plans, 4.1.117, 4.1.149 p.m. (post meridiem [after noon]), 2.320, 4.1.118 PME (professional military education), 2.321 POC (point of contact), 2.322 POL (petroleum, oil, and lubricants), 2.323

215

policy directives, 4.4.2 policy maker (n.), 4.2.194 policy making (n.), 4.2.195 policy-making (adj.), 4.2.196

pre-, 4.2.198

Prime BEEF (Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force), 2.327

proactively (adv.), 4.2.201

POM (program objective memorandum), 2.324 possessive, 3.2.12 post-, 4.2.197 POW (prisoner of war), 2.325 PPBS (Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System), 2.326

preliminaries, 1.42 president, 4.1.119

pro-, 4.2.199 proactive (adj.), 4.2.200

problem solver (n.), 4.2.202 problem solving (n.), 4.2.203 problem-solving (adj.), 4.2.204 profanity, 1.43 proofreaders’ marks, 1.44 PSYOP (psychological operations), 2.328 PSYWAR (psychological warfare), 2.329 pub (publication), 2.330 quantities, 4.3.21 question mark, 3.2.13 quotation marks, 3.2.14 quotations, 5.3 RAF (Royal Air Force [United Kingdom]), 2.331 RAND or RAND Corporation, 4.1.120 rank, 2.232 rates of speed, 2.333 RCC (regional combatant commander), 2.333.1 RCS (radar cross section), 2.334 R&D (research and development), 2.335 RDA (research, development, and acquisition), 2.336 RDT&E (research, development, test, and evaluation), 2.337 re-, 4.2.205 real time (n.), 4.2.206 real-time (adj.), 4.2.207 real-world (adj.), 4.2.208 RECCE (reconnaissance), 2.338 RECON (reconnaissance), 2.339 RED HORSE (Rapid Engineers Deployable Heavy Operations Repair Squadron, Engineers), 2.340 regiment, 4.1.121 regions, 4.1.94

216

regions of the world, 4.1.122 regular, 4.1.123 Republican Party, 4.1.124 Republican(s), 4.1.124 Reserve(s), 4.1.125 retired military personnel, 1.45 risk taking (n.), 4.2.209 risk-taking (adj.), 4.2.210 RMA (revolution in military affairs), 2.341 road map (n.), 4.2.211 ROE (rules of engagement), 2.342 ROK (Republic of Korea), 2.343 ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps), 2.344 RPV (remotely piloted vehicle), 2.345 RRF (rapid reaction force), 2.346 running heads, 1.46 Russia, Russian, 1.47 SAASS (School of Advanced Air and Space Studies, US Air Force), 2.347 SACEUR (Supreme Allied Command, Europe), 2.348 SACTRANS (Supreme Allied Command, Transformation), 2.349 SAF (secretary of the Air Force), 2.350 Saint, 2.351 SAM (surface-to-air missile), 2.352 SAMS (School of Advanced Military Studies, US Army), 2.353 SAOC (sector air operations center), 2.354 SAR (search and rescue; synthetic aperture radar), 2.355 SATCOM (satellite communications), 2.356 satellites, 4.3.22 SAW (School of Advanced Warfighting, US Marine Corps), 2.357 SBIRS (space-based infrared system), 2.358 SBR (space-based radar), 2.359 SBSS (space-based space surveillance), 2.360 SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 2.361 SEA (Southeast Asia), 2.362 SEAD (suppression of enemy air defenses), 2.363 SEAL (sea-air-land team), 2.364 sea-lane, 4.2.212 sealift (n., v.), 4.2.213 sea power, 4.2.214 seasons, 4.1.126 SECNAV (Secretary of the Navy), 2.365 Second World War, 1.73 security classification, 4.1.127 see, see also, 4.4.18 self-, 4.2.215 semi-, 4.2.216 semiannual, 1.48, 4.2.217

217

semicolon, 3.2.15 Senate, 4.1.128 senator, 4.1.129 series of items, 3.2.16 service, 4.1.130 sexist language, 1.49 SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, Europe), 2.366 Shiite, 4.2.218 ships, names of, 4.4.19 short-range, 4.2.219 short term (n.), 4.2.220 short-term (adj.), 4.2.221 show of force, 4.1.131 sic (so; thus; in this manner), 1.50, 4.4.20 SIGINT (signals intelligence), 2.367 Signal Corps, 4.1.132 SIOP (Single Integrated Operational Plan), 2.368 SIPRNET (Secret Internet Protocol Router Network), 2.369 SITREP (situation report), 2.370 SJA (staff judge advocate), 2.371 SLAM (standoff land attack missile), 2.372 SLAR (side-looking airborne radar), 2.373 slash, 3.2.17 SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missile), 2.374 SLCM (sea-launched cruise missile), 2.375 SLOC (sea line of communications), 2.376 SNDL (Standard Navy Distribution list), 2, 377 Smithsonian Institution, 4.1.133 SO (special order), 2.378 SOC (special operations command; Squadron Officer College), 2.379 so-called, 1.51 socialism, 4.1.134 socialist (advocate of socialism), 4.1.134 Socialist (member of the party), 4.1.134 Socialist Party, 4.1.134 SOF (special operations forces), 2.380 SOP (standing [or standard] operating procedure), 2.381 SORTS (Status of Resources and Training System), 2.382 SOS (Squadron Officer School), 2.383 South, 4.1.135 Soviet(s), 1.52 Soviet Union, 1.52 SP (security police), 2.384 space-, 4.2.222 spacecraft, 4.4.21 space lift (n.), 4.2.223 space-lift (v., adj.), 4.2.224 space power, 4.2.225

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space programs, 4.1.136 space shuttle, 4.1.137 Speaker, the (of the House), 4.1.138 spelling and word formation, 4.2 Spetsnaz, 4.1.139, 4.4.22 SPINS (special instructions), 2.385 Sputnik, 4.1.140 squadron, 4.1.141 Sr., 2.386 SROE (standing rules of engagement), 2.387 SSA (space situational awareness), 2.388 SSBN (fleet ballistic missile submarine), 2.389 SSM (surface-to-surface missile), 2.390 SSN (attack submarine, nuclear), 2.391 standby (n., adj., adv.), 4.1.142, 4.2.226 stand by (v.), 4.2.227 standoff (n.), 4.2.228 stand off (v.), 4.2.229 state of the art (n.), 4.2.230 state-of-the-art (adj.), 4.2.231 state names, 2.392 stealth bomber, 4.1.143 stealth technology, 4.1.143 STO (space tasking order), 2.393 STOL (short takeoff and landing), 2.394 STOVL (short takeoff and vertical landing aircraft), 2.395 sub-, 4.2.232 subheadings, 1.53 subtitle, 1.54 sun, 4.1.144 superpower, 4.2.233 Supreme Court (of the United States), 4.1.145 SWA (Southwest Asia), 2.396 tables, 1.55 TACAIR (tactical air), 2.397 TACON (tactical control), 2.398 TACP (tactical air control party), 2.399 TAF (tactical air force), 2.400 takeoff (n.), 4.2.234 take off (v.), 4.2.235 takeover (n.), 4.2.236 take over (v.), 4.2.237 TAW (tactical airlift wing), 2.401 TBM (tactical/theater ballistic missile), 2.402 TDY (temporary duty), 2.403 T&E (test and evaluation), 2.404 temperature, 4.3.23

219

TEMPEST (telecommunications electronics material protected from emanating spurious transmissions; transient electromagnetic pulse emanation standard), 2.405

TERCOM (terrain contour matching), 2.406 test-fly (v.), 4.2.238 that, 3.1.16, 3.1.17 the, 1.56 theater or theatre, 4.1.146, 4.2.239 there are, 3.1.18 there is, 3.1.18 third-, 4.2.240 third world or Third World, 4.1.147 this, 3.1.19 time, 4.3.24 title, 1.25 titles of persons and offices, 2.407 titles of works, 4.1.148 TLAM (Tomahawk land-attack missile), 2.408 TMD (theater missile defense), 2.409 TO (technical order), 2.410 TOF (time of flight), 2.411 TOT (time on target), 2.412 TOW (tube launched, optically tracked, wire guided), 2.413 TPFDD (time-phased force and deployment data), 2.414 TPFDL (time-phased force and deployment list), 2.415 trademarks, 1.57 TRADOC (US Army Training and Doctrine Command), 2.416 trans-, 4.2.241 treaties, 4.1.149 tri-, 4.2.242 TRS (tactical reconnaissance squadron), 2.417 Truman, Harry S., 1.58 TTP (tactics, techniques, and procedures), 2.418 UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle), 2.419 U-boat, 4.2.243 UCMJ (Uniform Code of Military Justice), 2.420 UCP (Unified Command Plan), 2.421 UHF (ultrahigh frequency), 2.422 UK (United Kingdom), 2.423 ultra-, 4.2.244 UMD (unit manning document), 2.424 un-, 4.2.245 UN (United Nations), 2.425 under-, 4.2.246 underway (adj.), 4.2.247 under way (adv.), 4.2.248 UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), 2.426 United States, 1.59

220

United States Air Force, 1.60 United States Army, 1.61 United States Marine Corps, 1.62 United States Navy, 1.63 units of measure, 4.3.25 UNPROFOR (United Nations protection force), 2.427 upon, 1.64 URL (uniform [or universal] resource locator), 2.428 U.S. (United States), 2.429 U.S. Air Force, 1.60 U.S. Army, 1.61 U.S. government, 4.1.73 U.S. Marine Corps, 1.62 U.S. Navy, 1.63 USA (United States Army), 1.61, 2.430 USAF (United States Air Force), 1.60, 2.431 USAFE (United States Air Forces in Europe), 2.432 USAFR (United States Air Force Reserve), 2.433 USC (United States Code), 2.434 USCENTAF (United States Central Command Air Forces), 2.435 USCENTCOM (United States Central Command), 2.436 USCG (United States Coast Guard), 2.437 USEUCOM (United States European Command), 2.438 USJFCOM (United States Joint Forces Command), 2.439 USMC (United States Marine Corps), 1.62, 2.440 USN (United States Navy), 1.63, 2.441 USNORTHCOM (United States Northern Command), 2.442 USPACOM (United States Pacific Command), 2.443 USSBS (United States Strategic Bombing Survey), 2.444 USSOCOM (United States Special Operations Command), 2.445 USSOUTHAF (United States Air Force, Southern Command), 2.446 USSOUTHCOM (United States Southern Command), 2.447 USSPACECOM (United States Space Command), 2.448 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), 2.449 USSR, 1.52 USSTRATCOM (United States Strategic Command), 2.449 USTRANSCOM (United States Transportation Command), 2.450 USW (undersea warfare), 2.451 UTC (unit type code), 2.452 v. (versus), 2.453 VF (Navy fighter squadron), 2.453a VFR (visual flight rules), 2.454 VHF (very high frequency), 2.455 vice, 1.65 vice-, 4.2.249 vice versa, 4.2.250 Vietcong, 4.2.251

221

Vietminh, 4.2.252 Vietnamese (n., sing. and pl.; adj.), 3.1.20 Vietnam War, 4.1.150 viz., 2.456 VLF (very low frequency), 2.457 V/STOL (vertical and/or short takeoff and landing aircraft), 2.458 VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing), 2.459 walk-, 4.2.253 war-, 4.2.254 war, the, 1.72, 1.73 war fighter (n.), 4.2.255 war fighting (n.), 4.2.256 war-fighting (adj.), 4.2.257 war game (n.), 4.2.259 war-game (v.), 4.2.258 war gamer (n.), 4.2.260 war gaming (n.), 4.2.261 war-gaming (adj.), 4.2.262 warhead, 4.2.263 war making (n.), 4.2.264 war-making (adj.), 4.2.265 WARNORD (warning order), 2.460 warplane, 4.2.266 wars, 4.1.151 Warsaw Pact, 4.1.152 Warsaw Pact nations, 4.1.152 warship, 4.2.267 wartime, 4.2.268 Washington, DC, 2.461 wavelength(s), 4.2.269 we, 3.1.11 weapon system(s), 1.66 weapons system(s), 1.66 Web, 4.1.153 Web address, 1.67 Web site (n.), 4.1.153 Web-site (adj.), 4.1.153 weights and measurements, 4.3.26 well-, 4.2.270 weltanschauung, 4.2.271 West Berlin, 1.68 West(ern), 4.1.154 western front (World War I), 4.1.155 Western Hemisphere, 4.1.156 West Germany, 1.68 what, 3.1.17 whether, 3.1.21

222

which, 3.1.16, 3.1.17, 3.1.22 while, 1.69 white paper, 4.1.158 white (people), 1.70, 4.1.158 who, 3.1.17 WIA (wounded in action), 2.462 wide-, 4.2.272 -wide, 4.2.273 wing, 4.1.159 wingspan, 4.2.274 wiretap (n., v.), 4.2.275 wiretapper (n.), 4.2.276 WMD (weapons of mass destruction), 2.463 word division, 1.71 words as words, 4.4.23 work-, 4.2.277 work-around (n.), 4.2.278 work around (v.), 4.2.279 workforce, 4.2.280 work hour(s), 4.2.281 workload, 4.2.282 work order, 4.1.160 world war, 1.72, 1.73 World War I (or 1), 1.72 World War II (or 2), 1.73 worldview, 4.2.283 worldwide, 4.2.284 Wright brothers, 4.1.161 WRSK (war readiness/reserve spares kit), 2.464 WWW (World Wide Web), 2.465 Xerox, 1.74, 4.1, 4.1.162 XO (executive officer), 2.466 year, 4.3.27 year-, 4.2.285 year (punctuation with), 3.2.18 zero, zeros (also zeroes), 1.75, 4.2.286, 4.3.28 zero hour (n.), 4.2.287 zero-sum (adj.), 4.2.288 zip (n.), 1.76 zip code (n.), 1.76, 3.2.19, 4.1.163 zip-code (v.), 1.76, ZIP (zone improvement plan) code, 1.76, 3.2.19, 4.1.163 ZULU (time zone indicator for Universal Time or Greenwich Mean Time), 2.468

223