Unit Unit 66

The meaning of English The meaning of English (I)(I)

ReviewReview

• What are common means of cohesion What are common means of cohesion in English?in English?

• What do we mean by conversational What do we mean by conversational repair?repair?

ContentsContents

7.1 The notion of semantics7.1 The notion of semantics

7.2 Semantic properties7.2 Semantic properties

7.3 Semantic relations7.3 Semantic relations

7.4 Sense and reference7.4 Sense and reference

7.1 The notion of semantics7.1 The notion of semantics

Semantics is the study of the Semantics is the study of the meaning of language (and the meaning of language (and the communication of meaning through communication of meaning through language).language).

The meaning of ‘mean’The meaning of ‘mean’

ASK: What does ‘mean’ mean in each of the following sentences?

(1) What does ‘tall’ mean?

(2) A nod means agreement. (3) I know the place you mean.(4) Your presence would mean a lot to me.(5) I am sorry. I didn’t mean to be late.(6) The boy wasn’t meant to be there.

(1)What does ‘tall’ mean? (signify)(2)A nod means agreement. (indicate)(3)I know the place you mean. (refer to)(4)Your presence would mean a lot to me. (matter)(5)I am sorry. I didn’t mean to be late. (intend)(6)The boy wasn’t meant to be there. (supposed to)

More:(7)He was meant to become a journalist rather than

a lawyer. (destined)(8)He doesn’t know the meaning of the word ‘fear’.

(sense)(9)If that’s the case, his sacrifice no longer has

any meaning. (significance)

Approaches to the study of Approaches to the study of meaningmeaningtraditional approachtraditional approachstructuralist approachstructuralist approachfunctional approachfunctional approachpragmatic approachpragmatic approachcognitive approach cognitive approach

Traditional approachTraditional approach

A. Naming/labeling vs. A. Naming/labeling vs. conventionconvention

““moon”moon”

• PP. 111-112 No. 10PP. 111-112 No. 10

Presentation SessionPresentation Session

• The naming of people in EnglishThe naming of people in English

Structuralist approachStructuralist approach

Treats meaning as semantic structures forTreats meaning as semantic structures formed by semantic components/ semantic med by semantic components/ semantic features -- componential analysis (features -- componential analysis ( 语义成语义成分分析）分分析） ..

Componential analysisComponential analysis

CA is a process that breaks down the meaninCA is a process that breaks down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive featurg of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties (semantic components /feates or properties (semantic components /features) using feature symbols (metalanguage ures) using feature symbols (metalanguage 元语言元语言 ).).

womanwoman--------[+HUMAN] [–MALE] [+ADULT][+HUMAN] [–MALE] [+ADULT] boy----boy----[+HUMAN] [+MALE] [–ADULT][+HUMAN] [+MALE] [–ADULT] girl--- [+HUMAN] [- MALE] [-ADULT]girl--- [+HUMAN] [- MALE] [-ADULT]

Functional approachFunctional approach

• Geoffrey Leech (1983), Geoffrey Leech (1983), SemanticsSemantics..

• Treats meaning with reference to its Treats meaning with reference to its function in context, to show how function in context, to show how linguistic, situational and social linguistic, situational and social contexts affects the meaning of contexts affects the meaning of language.language.

Seven types of meaningSeven types of meaning -conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive, denota-conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive, denota

tive content tive content -associative meanings: connotative meaning-associative meanings: connotative meaning social/stylistic meaning social/stylistic meaning affective meaning affective meaning reflected meaning reflected meaning

collocative meaningcollocative meaning -thematic meaning-thematic meaning

a. Conceptual meaning (a. Conceptual meaning ( 概念意义概念意义 ))

The conceptual or denotative meaning The conceptual or denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person, of a linguistic form is the person, object, abstract notion, event or state object, abstract notion, event or state which the word or sentence denotes.which the word or sentence denotes.

e.g. school, hospitale.g. school, hospital

b. Connotative meaningb. Connotative meaning

• Definition: it is the communicative Definition: it is the communicative value/subjective interpretation attached value/subjective interpretation attached to its purely conceptual meaning.to its purely conceptual meaning.

e.g.: The man is a e.g.: The man is a foxfox..

statesman, politicianstatesman, politician

CharacteristicsCharacteristics

• Connotations are relatively unstable. They Connotations are relatively unstable. They vary considerably according to society, vary considerably according to society, historical period, and the experience of the historical period, and the experience of the individual.individual.

• The connotative meaning can be the same The connotative meaning can be the same /different in different languages or /different in different languages or cultures.cultures.

e.g.: fox, machinee.g.: fox, machine BUTBUT: dragon, dog, elephant (White : dragon, dog, elephant (White

Elephant)Elephant)

ASK: What does ‘white elephant’ mean in English?

A B CPositive connotation Neutral Negative connotation stout fat corpulent investigator detective spy decease die pegged out slim thin skinny strong-minded firm pig-headed public servant government employee bureaucrat

Connotation:

c. Social/stylistic meaningc. Social/stylistic meaning

It refers to what language conveys It refers to what language conveys about the social circumstances of its about the social circumstances of its use. It relates to people’s recognition of use. It relates to people’s recognition of different dimensions and levels of style different dimensions and levels of style with the same language.with the same language.

（社会 / 文体意义）

steed (poetic) residence (formal)steed (poetic) residence (formal)

horse (general) abode (poetic) horse (general) abode (poetic)

nag (slang) home (general)nag (slang) home (general)

gee-gee (baby language) domicile (gee-gee (baby language) domicile (very very formal, officialformal, official) )

throw (general) tiny (colloquial)throw (general) tiny (colloquial)

chuck (casual, slang) diminutive (very chuck (casual, slang) diminutive (very formal)formal)

cast (literal,biblical) wee cast (literal,biblical) wee (colloquial,dialectal)(colloquial,dialectal)

d. Affective meaningd. Affective meaning

• It has to do with the personal feelings It has to do with the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about. It’s something he is talking about. It’s often explicitly conveyed through often explicitly conveyed through conceptual or connotative content of conceptual or connotative content of the words used.the words used.

（情感意义）

• ““You’re a vicious tyrant and villain and I You’re a vicious tyrant and villain and I hate you!”hate you!”

• I am terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder I am terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little.voices a little.

• Shut up!Shut up!

• Keep your mouth shut!Keep your mouth shut!

e. Reflected meaninge. Reflected meaning

• Reflected meaningReflected meaning: the meaning : the meaning which arises in cases of multiple which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word is so strong that it forms of a word is so strong that it forms part of our response to another sense.part of our response to another sense.

• Example: words having a taboo Example: words having a taboo meaning, such as ‘meaning, such as ‘gay’, ‘intercourse’gay’, ‘intercourse’

（反映意义）

f. Collocative meaningf. Collocative meaning

• It refers to the associations a word acquires It refers to the associations a word acquires on account of its mutual expectancy with on account of its mutual expectancy with some other words which tend to occur in its some other words which tend to occur in its environment.environment.

• Example: Example: prettypretty and and handsomehandsome

pretty pretty {{girl, boy, woman, flower, etc.girl, boy, woman, flower, etc.}}

handsome {boy, man, car, vessel, etc.}handsome {boy, man, car, vessel, etc.}

cowscows may may wanderwander, but may not , but may not strollstroll..

one one trembles trembles with with fearfear, but , but quiver quiver with with excitementexcitement..

（搭配意义）

g. Thematic Meaningg. Thematic Meaning

• It refers toIt refers to what is communicated by what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.ordering, focus, and emphasis.

• e.g.:e.g.: (1) He is familiar to me.(1) He is familiar to me. (2) I’m familiar with him.(2) I’m familiar with him.

（主位意义）

• a.a. A man is waiting in the hall. A man is waiting in the hall. b. There’s a man waiting in the hall.b. There’s a man waiting in the hall. • a. My brother owns the largest betting-shop a. My brother owns the largest betting-shop

in in London.London. b. The largest betting-shop in London b. The largest betting-shop in London

belongs to belongs to my brother.my brother.

• a. What I need is a ticket.a. What I need is a ticket.

b. A ticket is what I need.b. A ticket is what I need.

Pragmatic approachPragmatic approach

• Treat meaning as what is Treat meaning as what is communicated through language, communicated through language, taking into account the context, taking into account the context, language user, communicative language user, communicative conventions and principles, etc.conventions and principles, etc.

I’m in a bath.

Son: The phone is ringingDad, the phone is ringing!

ASK: What does the father mean?

Cognitive approachCognitive approach

• Meaning extensions of words seen as Meaning extensions of words seen as metaphorical or metonymic metaphorical or metonymic processes. [To be detailed in next processes. [To be detailed in next lecture]lecture]

7.2 Semantic properties7.2 Semantic properties

Words are seen as composed of universal Words are seen as composed of universal semantic properties or features.semantic properties or features.

P. 105P. 105

DiscussDiscuss

PP. 107-108 No. 2PP. 107-108 No. 2

7.3 Semantic relations7.3 Semantic relations

A. SynonymyA. SynonymyB. AntonymyB. AntonymyC. Hyponymy C. Hyponymy （上下义关系）（上下义关系）D. Meronymy (D. Meronymy ( 部分部分 -- 整体关系）整体关系）

SynonymySynonymyAbsolute synonymyAbsolute synonymy::

same in meaning; same in meaning; grammatically/stylistically/ contextually grammatically/stylistically/ contextually substitutable substitutable

Synonymy in a loose senseSynonymy in a loose sense::

buy-purchasebuy-purchase

fall-autumnfall-autumn

wide-broadwide-broad

handsome-pretty reach-arrive at/inhandsome-pretty reach-arrive at/in

mature-ripe influence-effect /affect mature-ripe influence-effect /affect

AntonymyAntonymy

a. gradable oppositesa. gradable opposites

b. complementary oppositesb. complementary opposites

c. relational oppositesc. relational opposites

a. Gradable oppositesa. Gradable oppositestall-short long-short old-youngtall-short long-short old-young--allow of intermediate states--allow of intermediate states--take -er/-est--take -er/-est--one in unmarked use--one in unmarked use How tall/old is he? He’s three months olHow tall/old is he? He’s three months ol

d.d.-relative/fuzzy-relative/fuzzy a big mouse, a small elephanta big mouse, a small elephant a big pearl/ball/house/mountain/countrya big pearl/ball/house/mountain/country

DiscussDiscuss

• PP. 109-110 No. 5PP. 109-110 No. 5

b. Complementary oppositesb. Complementary opposites

alive-dead male-female boy-girlalive-dead male-female boy-girl

present-absent true-falsepresent-absent true-false

hit-misshit-miss

c. Relational/converse oppositesc. Relational/converse opposites

buy-sell lend-borrow buy-sell lend-borrow

parent-child teacher-studentparent-child teacher-student

above-below before-after above-below before-after

Hyponymy Hyponymy （上下义关系）（上下义关系）

• HyponymyHyponymy is a relation of inclusion. is a relation of inclusion. A hyponym or a A hyponym or a specificspecific word word includesincludes the meaning of a more the meaning of a more generalgeneral word word

• e.g. e.g. dog dog and and cat cat are hyponyms of are hyponyms of animalanimal

Superordinates, hyponyms, co-hyponymsSuperordinates, hyponyms, co-hyponyms

Living Things

Animal

PlantCreature

Insect Vegetable Flower Tree

Horse Dog Snake

（上义词） （下义词） （同属下义词）

Meronymy Meronymy （部分（部分 -- 整体关系）整体关系）

Meronymy is part-whole relationship between Meronymy is part-whole relationship between lexical items. lexical items.

e.g. a "finger" is a part of a "hand", a "hand" is a e.g. a "finger" is a part of a "hand", a "hand" is a part of an "arm", an "arm" is a part of a "body". part of an "arm", an "arm" is a part of a "body".

Linguistics call the part-whole relation Linguistics call the part-whole relation meronymy, from "meros" (part) + "nym" (name). meronymy, from "meros" (part) + "nym" (name). Therefore, "finger" is a meronym of "hand", Therefore, "finger" is a meronym of "hand", "hand" is a meronym of "arm", "arm" is a "hand" is a meronym of "arm", "arm" is a meronym of "body".meronym of "body".

Discuss Discuss

PP. 108-109 No. 3PP. 108-109 No. 3

Homonymy, homophony, homography anHomonymy, homophony, homography and polysemyd polysemyhomonymy homonymy （同形同音异义）（同形同音异义） : I drove to the : I drove to the bb

ankank this morning. this morning. homophonyhomophony （同音异义）（同音异义） : flour-flower swee: flour-flower swee

t-suite waist-waste meet-meatt-suite waist-waste meet-meatHomographyHomography （同形异音异义）（同形异音异义） : lead(: lead( 铅）铅） lealea

dd （引导） （引导） wind wind （风）（风） wind (wind ( 蜿蜒）蜿蜒）Polysemy Polysemy （多义性）（多义性） : : operationoperation “ “ （外科）手（外科）手

术”、“（机器） 操作”、“（商）经术”、“（机器） 操作”、“（商）经营”、“（复）军事演习、作战”、营”、“（复）军事演习、作战”、“（数）运算”“（数）运算”

• ‘‘打’打’ 电话 电话 // 饭饭 // 字字 // 人人 // 火火 // 听听 // 灯灯 // 水水// 草草 // 盹盹 // 颤颤 , etc., etc.

PracticePractice

What is the semantic relation between What is the semantic relation between the following pairs of words?the following pairs of words?

(a) shallow/ deep (b) mature/ ripe (a) shallow/ deep (b) mature/ ripe

(c) table/furniture (d) single/married (c) table/furniture (d) single/married

(e) move/run (f) parent/child(e) move/run (f) parent/child

(g) school-college (h) body-belly (g) school-college (h) body-belly

Semiotic triangle (Ogden and Richards 1923)Semiotic triangle (Ogden and Richards 1923)

Symbol/Word Referent/Object/Thing

Reference/Thought/Concept

Stand for

Refer toSymbolize

7.4 Sense and reference7.4 Sense and reference

• Sense [Sense [ 意义意义 ]: abstract conceptual property/c]: abstract conceptual property/contentontent

• Reference [Reference [ 所指所指 ]: concrete entity]: concrete entity

• A word may have sense but no reference, like A word may have sense but no reference, like ‘but’, ‘to’.‘but’, ‘to’.

• ASKASK: Do we have other words that have sense : Do we have other words that have sense but not reference?but not reference?

• the man who married my sisterthe man who married my sister• the man who is my brother-in-lawthe man who is my brother-in-law

• The Morning Star is the Evening StarThe Morning Star is the Evening Star• The Morning Star is the Morning Star.The Morning Star is the Morning Star. What’s the difference?What’s the difference?

AssignmentsAssignments

• P. 107 No. 1 P. 113 No. 1P. 107 No. 1 P. 113 No. 1

• P. 115 No. 8, 9P. 115 No. 8, 9