Unit 1: Sections 1 & 2Unit 1: Sections 1 & 2

Psychology: What is it and Psychology: What is it and where did it come from?where did it come from?

Psychology: What is it?Psychology: What is it? Definition:Definition: The book The book

defines Psychology as defines Psychology as the study of behavior and the study of behavior and cognitive (private) cognitive (private) process.process.

What does that mean?What does that mean?

Is it the same for Is it the same for everyone?everyone?

How is it tested?How is it tested?

The Goals of PsychologyThe Goals of Psychology

DescriptionDescription

-Describe or gather info about a behavior.-Describe or gather info about a behavior.

ExplanationExplanation

-Why do people behave as they do?-Why do people behave as they do?

PredictionPrediction

-An attempt to predict, as a result of -An attempt to predict, as a result of accumulated knowledge, what people will think or accumulated knowledge, what people will think or

feel feel in various situations.in various situations.

InfluenceInfluence- Finding a way to influence behavior in positive - Finding a way to influence behavior in positive

ways.ways.

Some Definitions (booooo!)Some Definitions (booooo!) Hypothesis:Hypothesis: an assumption or prediction an assumption or prediction

about a behavior that is tested through about a behavior that is tested through scientific research.scientific research.

Theory:Theory: A set of assumptions used to A set of assumptions used to explain phenomena and offered for explain phenomena and offered for scientific study.scientific study.

Basic Science:Basic Science: The pursuit of The pursuit of knowledge about natural phenomena for knowledge about natural phenomena for its own sake.its own sake.

Applied Science:Applied Science: Discovering ways to Discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals.practical goals.

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

See Text Pg. 12 for chart!See Text Pg. 12 for chart!

QuestionQuestionHypothesisHypothesisExperimentExperiment

ResultsResultsConclusionConclusion

TheoryTheory

Differences in OpinionDifferences in Opinion

Throughout time, many psychologists have had a wide Throughout time, many psychologists have had a wide variety of views as to what psychology is and what it variety of views as to what psychology is and what it

should study.should study.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)•Founded the first psychological lab in 1879 at Leipzig in Germany.

•He saw Psychology as the study of conscious experience.

•He did this through introspection, asking a person to describe what was going on in his mind. This is an attempt to study Psychology, much as a chemist would study substances.

•He was a structuralist, which means he was interested in the basic elements of human experience.

Another OpinionAnother Opinion

William JamesWilliam James (1842-1910) (1842-1910)• The first “American” psychologist.The first “American” psychologist.• He was more interested in how the mind functions, than He was more interested in how the mind functions, than

how the body reacts.how the body reacts.• Believed that the mind should be viewed as a “whole” Believed that the mind should be viewed as a “whole”

and that you miss the point when you try to break it and that you miss the point when you try to break it down into different parts.down into different parts.

• He developed “functionalism” as an answer to the He developed “functionalism” as an answer to the problems he encountered with introspection and problems he encountered with introspection and structuralism. structuralism.

• Functionalism:Functionalism: The study of how animals and people The study of how animals and people adapt to their environments. The function, rather than adapt to their environments. The function, rather than the structure.the structure.

More Opinions…More Opinions…

John WatsonJohn Watson (1878-1958)(1878-1958)• Watson said “You can’t see the mind so how can you study Watson said “You can’t see the mind so how can you study

it?”it?”• According to Watson, “all we can see is observable According to Watson, “all we can see is observable

behavior and that is what psychology should study. behavior and that is what psychology should study. Skinner is also widely known for this view.Skinner is also widely known for this view.

• Watson was a behaviorist. Watson was a behaviorist. • BehavioristBehaviorist: Psychologists who stress investigating : Psychologists who stress investigating

observable behavior rather than the mind. How do observable behavior rather than the mind. How do organisms behave in response to their environment?organisms behave in response to their environment?

And now for a little break…And now for a little break…

What’s going on in this clip? Hmmmmmm……

And now back to the Show!And now back to the Show!

Mary CalkinsMary Calkins (1863-1930) (1863-1930)• The first woman to make a career in The first woman to make a career in

Psychology.Psychology.

• Unfortunately, because of prejudices Unfortunately, because of prejudices against women in 1895, she never received a against women in 1895, she never received a PhD.PhD.

• An understudy of William James.An understudy of William James.

• Side note:Side note: The first female psychologist The first female psychologist with a PhD was Margaret Washburn.with a PhD was Margaret Washburn.

I’m asleep…but awake? Odd…I’m asleep…but awake? Odd…

Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud (1856-1939) (1856-1939)• Was a physician who practiced in 1938.Was a physician who practiced in 1938.• He was more interested in the He was more interested in the

unconscious mind than the conscious unconscious mind than the conscious mind. Huh? What the heck does that mind. Huh? What the heck does that mean?mean?

• He believed Consciousness was only the He believed Consciousness was only the “tip of the ice burg” and that our “tip of the ice burg” and that our unconscious mind and biological urges unconscious mind and biological urges are in conflict with the requirements of are in conflict with the requirements of society and morality.society and morality.

• According to Freud, these unconscious According to Freud, these unconscious conflicts are responsible for most human conflicts are responsible for most human behavior.behavior.

=

Ok, last bio…For now… Ok, last bio…For now… muahahaha!muahahaha!

Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov (1849- (1849-1936)1936)

• RussianRussian• Pavlov’s Dog experiment.Pavlov’s Dog experiment.

Pavlov rang a tuning fork each Pavlov rang a tuning fork each time he gave a dog some meat time he gave a dog some meat powder. When the powder powder. When the powder reached the dog’s mouth, it reached the dog’s mouth, it would salivate. After Pavlov would salivate. After Pavlov repeated this procedure several repeated this procedure several times, the dog would salivate times, the dog would salivate when he heard the tuning fork…when he heard the tuning fork…Even if there was no food. The Even if there was no food. The dog had been conditioned to dog had been conditioned to associate the sound with food.associate the sound with food.

Odd……..Odd……..

Yup…A few more definitionsYup…A few more definitions• Psychoanalyst:Psychoanalyst: A psychologist who studies how A psychologist who studies how

unconscious motives and conflicts determine behavior.unconscious motives and conflicts determine behavior.• Behaviorist:Behaviorist: A psychologist who analyzes how A psychologist who analyzes how

organisms learn or modify their behavior based on their organisms learn or modify their behavior based on their response to events in the environment.response to events in the environment.

• Humanist:Humanist: A psychologist who believes that each A psychologist who believes that each person has freedom in directing his or her future and person has freedom in directing his or her future and achieving personal growth.achieving personal growth.

• Cognitivist:Cognitivist: A psychologist who studies how we A psychologist who studies how we process, store, retrieve, and use information and how process, store, retrieve, and use information and how cognitive processes influence our behavior.cognitive processes influence our behavior.

• Psychobiologist:Psychobiologist: A psychologist who studies how A psychologist who studies how physical and chemical changes in our bodies influence physical and chemical changes in our bodies influence our behavior.our behavior.

Unit 1, Section 2 & 3Unit 1, Section 2 & 3Perspectives of Psychology & Psychology Perspectives of Psychology & Psychology

as a Professionas a Profession

Perspectives of PsychologyPerspectives of Psychology

• Today most psychologists believe overt behavior is central to Today most psychologists believe overt behavior is central to the field. What leads to behavior is debated however. the field. What leads to behavior is debated however. Therefore, there are a variety of perspectives on what the focus Therefore, there are a variety of perspectives on what the focus of study should be.of study should be.

•Cognitive Perspective:

• Cognition means thinking. The cognitive perspective holds that to understand how people behave you have to understand how they think, remember, and decide. That is what determines how they act.

•Physiological Perspective:

• Our brain is a complex biochemical organ that affects how we think and behave. To understand behavior you must understand the roots of behavior, the working of the brain and nervous system.

• Sociocultural Perspective:Sociocultural Perspective:• Behavior is strongly influenced by social and cultural factors. To fully Behavior is strongly influenced by social and cultural factors. To fully

understand behavior, you have to take into consideration the social understand behavior, you have to take into consideration the social and cultural environment in which it occurs.and cultural environment in which it occurs.

• Psychodynamic Perspective:Psychodynamic Perspective:• This is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud saw psychology This is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud saw psychology

as the study of unconscious because he believed unconscious as the study of unconscious because he believed unconscious motivation controlled behavior.motivation controlled behavior.

• Behavioral Perspective:Behavioral Perspective:• Probably the most dominant perspective today. This is the Probably the most dominant perspective today. This is the

continuation of Watson’s idea that overt behavior is the most continuation of Watson’s idea that overt behavior is the most important thing to study. A combination of this and the cognitive important thing to study. A combination of this and the cognitive perspective is also popular.perspective is also popular.

Psychology as a ProfessionPsychology as a Profession

TrainingTraining

Psychologist vs. PsychiatristPsychologist vs. Psychiatrist• Many People get these confused. Many People get these confused. • They are similar in that both may work in the They are similar in that both may work in the

diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. • They are different in that a They are different in that a psychiatristpsychiatrist is a is a

medical doctor who may prescribe medicine. A medical doctor who may prescribe medicine. A psychologistpsychologist generally has a PhD and cannot generally has a PhD and cannot prescribe medicine.prescribe medicine.

Major difference = DrugsMajor difference = Drugs

So you wanna job?So you wanna job?Clinical Psychology: This is what most people think of when they hear the work psychologist. They diagnose and treat mental disorders.

Counseling Psychology: The book says they treat people who do not have mental disorders, but in reality they do the same work as clynical psychologists although they are less likely to work with people with severe psychopathology.

Developmental Psychology: They study how people change physically, cognitively, and socially over the lifespan.

School Psychology: This is the third of the three main applied areas. They diagnose and treat children with learning, behavioral, and emotional problems with an emphasis on the school envirionment.

• Educational Psychology: They study psychological principles within an educational environment. They are different from school psychologists because they generally do not work with individual children but focus more on instruction, techniques, etc…

• Cognitive Psychology: their focus is on thinking, reasoning, language, and decision making.

• Industrial/Organizational Psychology: Studies aspects of behavior in work setting such as personnel selection, employee evaluation, work motivation, and leadership.

• Psychobiology: Also called physiological psychology. They are interested in the brain and how it works.

• Social Psychology: They are interested in social behavior. How do we act and react based on the social information we receive.

• Experimental Psychology: This covers almost all of the basic areas such as perception, learning, motivation, and animal behavior.

The end…of this Section!The end…of this Section!

Psychological Research Methods Psychological Research Methods and Statisticsand Statistics

MethodologyMethodology What is Methodology?What is Methodology?

- According to the text, - According to the text, methodologymethodology simply refers to the simply refers to the methods that we use to conduct methods that we use to conduct an investigation.an investigation.

• The goals of research are to The goals of research are to describe behaviordescribe behavior, to , to explain its explain its causescauses, to , to predictpredict the the circumstances under which certain circumstances under which certain behaviors may occur againbehaviors may occur again, and to , and to control certain behaviorscontrol certain behaviors. . Psychologists use various Psychologists use various methods of research to methods of research to accomplish each of these goals.accomplish each of these goals.

The different types of researchThe different types of research• Naturalistic Observation: Naturalistic Observation: A research method in which the A research method in which the

psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interfering. (In other words…Watch, but do not touch!)interfering. (In other words…Watch, but do not touch!)- - Note:Note: This is frequently informal and is usually the first step to This is frequently informal and is usually the first step to allow you to get a better understanding of the behavior which allows allow you to get a better understanding of the behavior which allows further, more in depth investigation.further, more in depth investigation.

• Case Studies: Case Studies: A research method that involves an intensive A research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more participants. (long term, very involved.)investigation of one or more participants. (long term, very involved.)- - Note:Note: By itself, a case study does not prove or disprove anything. By itself, a case study does not prove or disprove anything. The researchers conclusions may not be correct. This was the The researchers conclusions may not be correct. This was the technique used by Freud.technique used by Freud.

• Surveys: Surveys: A research method in which information is obtained by A research method in which information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions. This is usually asking many individuals a fixed set of questions. This is usually used to get an idea of the population’s attitudes toward something.used to get an idea of the population’s attitudes toward something.-- Note:Note: These are only accurate if they are representative of the These are only accurate if they are representative of the population as a whole.population as a whole.

A few more types of researchA few more types of research Longitudinal Study:Longitudinal Study: A research method in which data A research method in which data

is collected about a group of participants over a is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain change or number of years to assess how certain change or remain the same during development.remain the same during development.

- - Note:Note: These studies are very time consuming, but These studies are very time consuming, but are the best way to study changes over time.are the best way to study changes over time.

• Cross Sectional Studies:Cross Sectional Studies: A research method in which A research method in which data is collected from groups of participants of data is collected from groups of participants of different ages and compared so that conclusions can different ages and compared so that conclusions can be drawn about differences due to age.be drawn about differences due to age.

- - Note:Note: Less expensive that Longitudinal studies and Less expensive that Longitudinal studies and take less time, yet yield similar results.take less time, yet yield similar results.

What is Correlation?What is Correlation? Correlation:Correlation: The measure of a relationship between two variables or sets of The measure of a relationship between two variables or sets of

data.data. Whaaaaaaaaaaaaaa?Whaaaaaaaaaaaaaa? There are 2 types of Correlation. Positive and Negative.There are 2 types of Correlation. Positive and Negative. For example, there is a For example, there is a positive correlationpositive correlation between IQ scores and between IQ scores and

academic success. Low IQ scores tend to go with low grades.academic success. Low IQ scores tend to go with low grades. Still confused…No problem! Still confused…No problem! (High score = High score, Low score = Low (High score = High score, Low score = Low

score)score) Another example, there is a Another example, there is a negative correlationnegative correlation between the number of between the number of

hours you practice catching a football and the number of times you get hit in hours you practice catching a football and the number of times you get hit in the face with it. In other words, the more you practice, the less you will get the face with it. In other words, the more you practice, the less you will get hit in the face! hit in the face! (High score = Low score, Low score = High score)(High score = Low score, Low score = High score)

It is important to remember that while the word correlation describes the It is important to remember that while the word correlation describes the relationship between 2 things, it does not always mean that one thing relationship between 2 things, it does not always mean that one thing causes the other. causes the other. Why?Why?

Negative CorrelationNegative Correlation

Not enough practice = Hit in face with football.

Experimental TermsExperimental Terms Hypothesis:Hypothesis: An educated guess about the relationship An educated guess about the relationship

between 2 variables.between 2 variables. Variable:Variable: Any factor that is capable of change. Any factor that is capable of change.

Note: There are 2 types of variables; the Note: There are 2 types of variables; the independent variableindependent variable (the one experimenters change or alter so that they can observe (the one experimenters change or alter so that they can observe its effects.), and the its effects.), and the dependent variabledependent variable (the one that can only be (the one that can only be directly effected by the dependent variable.) directly effected by the dependent variable.) In other words, The In other words, The number of hours you study effects your academic performance.number of hours you study effects your academic performance.

Experimental Group:Experimental Group: The group to which an independent The group to which an independent variable is applied.variable is applied.

Control Group:Control Group: The group that is treated in the same way The group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group except that the experimental as the experimental group except that the experimental treatment (the independent variable) is not applied.treatment (the independent variable) is not applied.

Ethical IssuesEthical Issues Ethics:Ethics: The methods of conduct, or standards, for The methods of conduct, or standards, for

proper and responsible behavior.proper and responsible behavior. In 1992 the American Psychological Association published a set of In 1992 the American Psychological Association published a set of

ethical principles regarding the collection, storage, and use of ethical principles regarding the collection, storage, and use of psychological data.psychological data.

The Principles Published by the American Psychological Association:

1. Psychologists are responsible for the dignity and welfare of participants. Psychologists are also responsible for all research they perform or is performed by others under their supervision.

2. Psychologists obey all state and federal laws and regulations as well as professional standards governing research.

3.3. Except for anonymous surveys, naturalistic observations, and similar Except for anonymous surveys, naturalistic observations, and similar research, psychologists reach an agreement regarding the rights and research, psychologists reach an agreement regarding the rights and responsibilities of both participants and researcher(s) before research is responsibilities of both participants and researcher(s) before research is started.started.

4.4. When consent is required, psychologists obtain a signed, informed When consent is required, psychologists obtain a signed, informed consent before starting any research with a participant.consent before starting any research with a participant.

5.5. Deception is used only if no better alternative is available. Under no Deception is used only if no better alternative is available. Under no condition is there deception about (negative) aspects that might influence condition is there deception about (negative) aspects that might influence a participant’s willingness to participate.a participant’s willingness to participate.

6.6. Other issues covered include sharing and utilizing data, offering Other issues covered include sharing and utilizing data, offering inducements, minimizing evasiveness, and providing participants with inducements, minimizing evasiveness, and providing participants with information about the study.information about the study.

Note:Note: Recently the use of animals in research has caused much concern and Recently the use of animals in research has caused much concern and debate. While some people oppose subjecting animals to pain for debate. While some people oppose subjecting animals to pain for research purposes, others point to the enormous gains in knowledge and research purposes, others point to the enormous gains in knowledge and reduction in human suffering that have resulted from such research.reduction in human suffering that have resulted from such research.

What do you think?What do you think?

Animal Testing?Animal Testing?

Problems and Solutions in ResearchProblems and Solutions in Research

Problem #1:Problem #1: The “Self-Fulfilling” prophecy:The “Self-Fulfilling” prophecy: A situation in which a A situation in which a

researcher’s expectations influence that person’s own researcher’s expectations influence that person’s own behavior, and thereby influence the participants behavior. behavior, and thereby influence the participants behavior.

How do you fix it? There are a few options:How do you fix it? There are a few options:

1.1. Single-blind experiment:Single-blind experiment: An experiment in which the An experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment.treatment.

2.2. Double-blind experiment:Double-blind experiment: An experiment in which neither An experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment.participants received which treatment.

Problem #2:Problem #2:

The “Placebo” effect: The “Placebo” effect: A change in a participant’s illness or A change in a participant’s illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the actual treatment.effect, rather than the actual treatment.

How can this be viewed as a positive?How can this be viewed as a positive?

How can this be viewed as a negative?How can this be viewed as a negative?

Is this fair to do to someone?Is this fair to do to someone?

Should a Person be notified that they are in effect being “tricked?”Should a Person be notified that they are in effect being “tricked?”

??? Some Questions ?????? Some Questions ???

Why should psychologists question the results of Why should psychologists question the results of an experiment that they have conducted for the an experiment that they have conducted for the first time?first time?

How do scientists attempt to avoid the self-How do scientists attempt to avoid the self-fulfilling prophecy?fulfilling prophecy?

How can a psychologist attempt to justify How can a psychologist attempt to justify deceiving patients in testing? Should they?deceiving patients in testing? Should they?