Unit-1 EEM

Department Of CSE UNIT-1 HST81 EEM

INTRODUCTION

ECONOMICSEconomics is the science that deals with the production and consumption of goods and services and the distribution and rendering of these for human welfare.The following are the economic goals.

A high level of employment Price stability Efficiency An equitable distribution of income Growth

Flow in an EconomyThe flow of goods, services, resources and money payments in a simple economy are shown in below figure.

Households and businesses are the two major entities in a simple economy. Business organizations use various economic resources like land, labour and

capital which are provided by households to produce consumer goods and services which will be used by them. Business organizations make payment of money to the households for receiving various resources.

The households in turn make payment of money to business organizations for receiving consumer goods and services. This cycle shows the interdependence between the two major entities in a simple economy.

Law of Supply and DemandWhen there is a decrease in the price of a product, the demand for the product increases and

its supply decreases. Also, the product is more in demand and hence the demand of the

P.Manjamadevy Asst.Prof/CSE Page 1


product increases. At the same time, lowering of the price of the product makes the producers restrain from

releasing more quantities of the product in the market. Hence, the supply of the product is decreased.

The point of intersection of the supply curve and the demand curve is known as the equilibrium point.

At the price corresponding to this point, the quantity of supply is equal to the quantity of demand. Hence, this point is called the equilibrium point.

Demand and supply curve.

Factors influencing demandThe shape of the demand curve is influenced by the following factors:

Income of the people Prices of related goods Tastes of consumers

Factors influencing supply

The shape of the supply curve is affected by the following factors: Cost of the inputs Technology Weather Prices of related goods

CONCEPT OF ENGINEERING ECONOMICS Science is a field of study where the basic principles of different physical systems are formulated and tested. Engineering is the application of science. It establishes varied application systems based on different scientific principles.Types of EfficiencyEfficiency of a system is generally defined as the ratio of its output to input. The efficiency can be classified into technical efficiency and economic efficiency.

Technical efficiency



It is the ratio of the output to input of a physical system. The physical system may be a diesel engine, a machine working in a shop floor, a furnace, etc.

Technical efficiency (%) = Output × 100 Input

The technical efficiency of a diesel engine is as follows:

Heat equivalent of mechanical

Technical efficiency (%) = energy produced × 100 Heat equivalent of fuel used

In practice, technical efficiency can never be more than 100%. This is mainly due to frictional loss and incomplete combustion of fuel, which are considered to be unavoidable phenomena in the working of a diesel engine.

Economic efficiency

Economic efficiency is the ratio of output to input of a business system.

Worth’ is the annual revenue generated by way of operating the business and ‘cost’ is the total annual expenses incurred in carrying out the business. For the survival and growth of any business, the economic efficiency should be more than 100%.

Economic efficiency is also called ‘productivity’. There are several ways of improving productivity.

1. Increased output for the same input2. Decreased input for the same output3. By a proportionate increase in the output which is more than the proportionate

increase in the input4. By a proportionate decrease in the input which is more than the proportionate

decrease in the output5. Through simultaneous increase in the output with decrease in the input.

Increased output for the same input. In this strategy, the output is increased while keeping the input constant. Let us assume that in a steel plant, the layout of the existing facilities is not

proper. By slightly altering the location of the billet-making section, and bringing it closer to the furnace which produces hot metal, the scale formation at the top of ladles will be considerably reduced. The molten metal is usually carried in ladles to the billet-making section.

In the long run, this would give more yield in terms of tonnes of billet produced.



In this exercise, there is no extra cost involved. The only task is the relocation of the billet-making facility which involves an insignificant cost.

Decreased input for the same output. In this strategy, the input is decreased to produce the same output. Let us

assume that there exists a substitute raw material to manufacture a product and it is available at a lower price.

If we can identify such a material and use it for manufacturing the product, then certainly it will reduce the input. In this exercise, the job of the purchase department is to identify an alternate substitute material.

The process of identification does not involve any extra cost. So, the productivity ratio will increase because of the decreased input by way of using cheaper raw materials to produce the same output.

Less proportionate increase in output is more than that of the input. Consider the example of introducing a new product into the existing product

mix of an organization. Let us assume that the existing facilities are not fully utilized and the R&D wing

of the company has identified a new product which has a very good market and which can be manufactured with the surplus facilities of the organization.

If the new product is taken up for production, it will lead to— an increase in the revenue of the organization by way of selling the new product in addition to the existing product mix and an increase in the material cost and operation and maintenance cost of machineries because of producing the new product.

If we examine these two increases closely, the proportionate increase in the revenue will be more than the proportionate increase in the input cost. Hence, there will be a net increase in the productivity ratio.

When proportionate decrease in input is more than that of the output. Let us consider the converse of the previous example, i.e. dropping an uneconomical

product from the existing product mix. This will result in the following:

o A decrease in the revenue of the organization

o A decrease in the material cost, and operation and maintenance cost of machinery

If we closely examine these two decreases, we will see that the proportionate decrease in the input cost will be more than the proportionate decrease in the revenue. Hence, there will be a net increase in the productivity ratio.

Simultaneous increase in output and decrease in input. Let us assume that there are advanced automated technologies like robots and

automated guided vehicle system (AGVS), available in the market which can be employed in the organization we are interested in. If we employ these modern tools, then:



There will be a drastic reduction in the operation cost. Initially, the cost on equipment would be very high. But, in the long run, the reduction in the operation cost would break-even the high initial investment and offer more savings on the input.

These advanced facilities would help in producing more products because they do not experience fatigue. The increased production will yield more revenue.

In this example, in the long run, there is an increase in the revenue and a decrease in the input. Hence, the productivity ratio will increase at a faster rate.

Definition and Scope of Engineering EconomicsEfficient functioning of any business organization would enable it to provide goods/services at a lower price. In the process of managing organizations, the managers at different levels should take appropriate economic decisions which will help in minimizing investment, operating and maintenance expenditures besides increasing the revenue, savings and other related gains of the organization.

Definition Engineering economics deals with the methods that enable one to take economic decisions towards minimizing costs and/or maximizing benefits to business organizations.

Scope The issues that are covered in this book are elementary economic analysis, interest formulae, bases for comparing alternatives, present worth method, future worth method, annual equivalent method, rate of return method, replacement analysis, depreciation, evaluation of public alternatives, inflation adjusted investment decisions, make or buy decisions, inventory control, project management, value engineering, and linear programming.

ELEMENTS OF COSTS Cost can be broadly classified into variable cost and overhead cost. Variable cost varies with the volume of production while overhead cost is fixed, irrespective of the production volume.

Variable cost can be further classified into direct material cost, direct labour cost, and direct expenses. The overhead cost can be classified into factory overhead, administration overhead, selling overhead, and distribution overhead.

Direct material costs are those costs of materials that are used to produce the product. Direct labour cost is the amount of wages paid to the direct labour involved in the production activities. Direct expenses are those expenses that vary in relation to the production volume, other than the direct material costs and direct labour costs.

Overhead cost is the aggregate of indirect material costs, indirect labour costs and indirect expenses. Administration overhead includes all the costs that are incurred in administering the business. Selling overhead is the total expense that is incurred in the promotional activities and the expenses relating to sales force. Distribution overhead is the total cost of shipping the items from the factory site to the customer sites. The selling price of a product is derived as shown below:



(a) Direct material costs + Direct labour costs + Direct expenses = Prime cost (b) Prime cost + Factory overhead = Factory cost

(c) Factory cost + Office and administrative overhead = Costs of production

(d) Cost of production + Opening finished stock – Closing finished stock = Cost of goods sold (e) Cost of goods sold + Selling and distribution overhead = Cost of sales (f) Cost of sales + Profit = Sales (g) Sales/Quantity sold = Selling price per unit

In the above calculations, if the opening finished stock is equal to the closing finished stock, then the cost of production is equal to the cost of goods sold.

OTHER COSTS/REVENUES

The following are the costs/revenues other than the costs which are presented in the previous section:

Marginal cost Marginal revenue Sunk cost Opportunity cost

Marginal Cost Marginal cost of a product is the cost of producing an additional unit of that product. Let the cost of producing 20 units of a product be Rs. 10,000, and the cost of producing 21 units of the same product be Rs. 10,045. Then the marginal cost of producing the 21st unit is Rs. 45.

Marginal Revenue Marginal revenue of a product is the incremental revenue of selling an additional unit of that product. Let, the revenue of selling 20 units of a product be Rs. 15,000 and the revenue of selling 21 units of the same product be Rs. 15,085. Then, the marginal revenue of selling the 21st unit is Rs. 85.

Sunk Cost This is known as the past cost of an equipment/asset. Let us assume that an equipment has been purchased for Rs. 1,00,000 about three years back. If it is considered for replacement, then its present value is not Rs. 1,00,000. Instead, its present market value should be taken as the present value of the equipment for further analysis. So, the purchase value of the equipment in the past is known as its sunk cost. The sunk cost should not be considered for any analysis done from nowonwards.

Opportunity Cost In practice, if an alternative (X ) is selected from a set of competing alternatives (X,Y ), then the corresponding investment in the selected alternative is not available for any



other purpose. If the same money is invested in some other alternative (Y ), it may fetch some return. Since the money is invested in the selected alternative (X ), one has to forego the return from the other alternative (Y ). The amount that is foregone by not investing in the other alternative (Y ) is known as the opportunity cost of the selected alternative (X ). So the opportunity cost of an alternative is the return that will be foregone by not investing the same money in another alternative.

Consider that a person has invested a sum of Rs. 50,000 in shares. Let the expected annual return by this alternative be Rs. 7,500. If the same amount is

invested in a fixed deposit, a bank will pay a return of 18%. Then, the corresponding total return per year for the investment in the bank is Rs. 9,000. This return is greater than the return from shares. The foregone excess return of Rs. 1,500 by way of not investing in the bank is the opportunity cost of investing in shares.

BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS The main objective of break-even analysis is to find the cut-off production volume from where a firm will make profit. Let

s = selling price per unit v = variable cost per unit FC = fixed cost per period Q = volume of production

The total sales revenue (S) of the firm is given by the following formula:

S = s Q

The total cost of the firm for a given production volume is given as TC = Total variable cost + Fixed cost

= v Q + FC

The linear plots of the above two equations are shown in Fig. The intersection point of the total sales revenue line and the total cost line is called



Break-even chart.the break-even point. The corresponding volume of production on the X-axis is known as the break-even sales quantity. At the intersection point, the total cost is equal to the total revenue. This point is also called the no-loss or no-gain situation. For any production quantity which is less than the break-even quantity, the total cost is more than the total revenue. Hence, the firm will be making loss. For any production quantity which is more than the break-even quantity, the total revenue will be more than the total cost. Hence, the firm will be making profit.

The formulae to find the break-even quantity and break-even sales quantity

The contribution is the difference between the sales and the variable costs. The

margin of safety (M.S.) is the sales over and above the break-even sales. The formulae to



compute these values are

Contribution = Sales – Variable costsContribution/unit = Selling price/unit – Variable cost/unit

M.S. = Actual sales – Break-even sales

= Profit × salesContribution

M.S. as a per cent of sales = (M.S./Sales) 100

EXAMPLE.1 Alpha Associates has the following details: Fixed cost = Rs. 20,00,000

Variable cost per unit = Rs. 100Selling price per unit = Rs. 200

Find(a) The break-even sales quantity, (b) The break-even sales(c) If the actual production quantity is 60,000, find (i) contribution; and(ii) margin of safety by all methods.

SolutionFixed cost (FC) = Rs. 20,00,000Variable cost per unit (v) = Rs. 100Selling price per unit (s) = Rs. 200

(a) Break-even quantity = FC = 20,00,000 s-v 200 − 100

= 20,00,000/100 = 20,000 units

(b) Break-even sales = FC s − v s (Rs.)

= 20,00,000 200 − 100

= 20,00,000100

200

200 = Rs. 40,00,000

(c) (i) Contribution = Sales – Variable cost

= s Q –v Q

= 200 60,000 – 100 60,000

= 1,20,00,000 – 60,00,000



= Rs. 60,00,000

(ii) Margin of safety

METHOD I

M.S. = Sales – Break-even sales

= 60,000 200 – 40,00,000

= 1,20,00,000 – 40,00,000 = Rs. 80,00,000METHOD II

M.S. = ProfitContribution

Sales

Profit = Sales – (FC + v Q)

= 60,000 200 – (20,00,000 + 100 60,000)

= 1,20,00,000 – 80,00,000

= Rs. 40,00,000

PROFIT/VOLUME RATIO (P/V RATIO)

P/V ratio is a valid ratio which is useful for further analysis. The different formulae for the P/V ratio are as follows:

The relationship between BEP and P/V ratio is as follows:

BEP = Fixed costP/V ratio


The following formula helps us find the M.S. using the P/V ratio:

EXAMPLE 2 Consider the following data of a company for the year 1997:

Sales = Rs. 1,20,000 Fixed cost = Rs. 25,000 Variable cost = Rs. 45,000

Find the following: (a) Contribution(b) Profit (c) BEP (d) M.S.

Solution

(a) Contribution = Sales – Variable costs= Rs. 1,20,000 – Rs. 45,000= Rs. 75,000

(b) Profit = Contribution – Fixed cost= Rs. 75,000 – Rs. 25,000= Rs. 50,000

(c) BEP


NATIONAL INCOME

National income is the money value of all final goods and services produced by a country during a year It can be defined as the total market value of all goods and service produced in a year.

National income concepts:

(i) GDP: Gross Domestic product

(a)It is the total money value of goods and services produced during an accounting year by a country.

(b)GDP can be measured at current price and constant price. When an domestic product is estimated at domestic product is estimated at a prevailing price then it is called as GDP at current price .when a domestic product has been estimated using base year at a fixed price, then it is said to be GDP at constant price.

(II) GNP: Gross national Product

it is the total measure of the flow of goods and services at market value resulting from current production during a year in a country, including net income from abroad.It includes four types of final goods and services

Goods and services produced by government Net exports of goods and services Consumer goods and services to satisfy the immediate wants of the people Gross private domestic investment in capital goods consisting of fixed capital formation

(III)NNP: Net National product

NNP can be estimated by detecting the depreciation amount from the GNP (Gross National Product)

NNP = GNP – Depreciation

(IV)PERSONAL INCOME

Personal income includes sum of all income by all individuals of a country.

IV)DISPOSABLE INCOME

If the remaining amount of money realized by an individual after paying the income and property tax.

National income at constant price=national income at current price *100

Price index


Methods of measuring national income

1. Output method

Under this method, the economy is divided into different sectors such as agriculture, mining, manufacturing, small enterprises, commerce, transport, communication and other services.

2. Income method

Under this method, national income is obtained by summing up of the income of all individuals of a country.

3. Expenditure method

This method arrives at national income by adding up all the expenditure made on goods and services during a year. Income can be spent either on consumer goods or investment goods. Hence we get national income by summing up all consumption expenditure and investment expenditure made by all individuals as well as government during a year.

Difficulties in computing national income:

1. Changes in price level

2. Difference in purchasing power of money

3. Availability of data.

INFLATION

Inflation may be defined as state of disequilibrium in which an expansion of purchasing power tends to cause or in the effects of an increase of the price level.

Types of inflation

1. DEMAND PULL INFLATION:

Demand pull inflation is caused by an increase in the aggregate demand for goods and services are either stagnant or increasing gradually.

2. COST PUSH INFLATION:

The cost push inflation arises due to changes in the supply or cost independently of any excess demand in product and factors markets.

3. CREEPING INFLATION:

Creeping inflation is a mild type of inflation in which there is a slow and gradual increase in prices.


4. WALKING INFLATION:

The rate of increase in prices is considered to be at a faster rate, if this type of inflation is not properly checked, the rate of inflation will be intensified.

5. RUNNING INFLATION:

The rate of annual increase in price level is approximately at the rate of five percent. If this type of inflation persists for a longer period, the inflationary pressure will increase further.

6. GALLOPING INFLATION:

This is otherwise known as hyper inflation .there is a persistent increase in the price level. Theoretically, such a type of inflation is expected to set beyond the level of full employment. This type of inflation occurred during the I AND II WORLD WARS.

Causes of inflation

1. Growth of public expenditure

2. Growth of private consumption and investment expenditures.

3. The increase in supply of currency and credit.

4. Growth of population tend to raise the price level.

5. Deficit financing induces inflationary pressure.

6. Slow growth of agricultural output may increase the price level.

Measures control of inflation

The methods of controlling inflation can be grouped as follows:

A. Monetary measures

B. Fiscal measures and

C. Other measures

MONETARY MEASURES:

Monetary Measures refers to demand and supply of money circulated in the economy. The monetary policy is formulated by the central bank. The central bank will make adjustments in bank rate when there is inflation.

FISCAL MEASURES:


Fiscal measures to control inflation are taxes, public expenditure and public borrowings. Taxation can be used as a powerful anti –inflationary weapon in all economics.

OTHER MEASURES:

Over valuation of the currency in terms of foreign currencies also produce anti-inflationary effects. It will reduce exports and increase imports.

a) RATIONING : Rationing of essential goods is adopted as an effective method of checking inflationary prices.

b) PRICE CONTROLS :Government can check inflationary rise in prices by various price controls like fixing the fair prices for raw material industrial and agricultural products.

c) WAGE POLICY: During the periods of inflation, wages increase which may push up the costs as well as

prices.

Hence, wage freeze is suggested as an effective method of controlling inflation.

D) CHECK ON BLACK MONEY:If government can effectively check the black money through effective enforcement of tax policies, inflation can be controlled.

STAGFLATION

It is a situation where the condition of inflation exists with unemployment .This is a stage where the disequilibrium with the price level combination with the unemployment problem will have a recession period in the economy.

DEFLATION

It is a condition where the money value of a countries currency increases with the decline in the prices. Here the economy will get the benefit of increased money value of products sold at nominal prices.

MONEY

It is the instrument or medium of exchange of goods and services. It has some value that can be widely accepted in payments of business obligations.

Kinds of Money

There are two kind of money can be used by the public


Common money: coins and currency notes

Bank money: cheques, drafts, traveler’s cheques and credit cards

Functions of money

There are three major functions performed by money

Primary function: it is the basic function of money.

As a medium of exchange As a measure of value

Secondary function: it is derived from the primary function

Standard of deferred payments (payment to be made at future date) Store of value

Contingent function: it is not really functioning of money but they may be regarded as certain incidental uses of money.

Distribution of national income Basis of credit Equalization of marginal utility Imparts liquidity and uniformity of wealth

Documents

Unit-1 EEM