(UNISIM(BEHAS)-Introduction to Aerospace)EAS105 -Lab4

Mohd Ashraf Mohd Ismail

Laboratory Experiment 4

Name : Mohammed Ashraf Bin Mohammed Ismail

Student No: N0806406

Contact No: 98225529

Date Submitted:

Lab. : Effects of Pressurisation on Aircraft Fuselage

Course Instructor: Mr Roger Chua

Introduction to Aerospace Engineering Lab 4

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Table of Contents

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. 3

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 4

OBJECTIVES................................................................................................................ 5

EXPIREMENT PROCEDURE ..................................................................................... 6

EXPIREMENT RESULT.............................................................................................. 7

TEST 1................................................................................................................... 7

Horizontal Comparison.......................................................................................... 8

Vertical Comparison.............................................................................................. 9

Investigation and Analysis........................................................................................... 10

Discussion of Result .................................................................................................... 11

REFERENCE .............................................................................................................. 13

APPENDIX.................................................................................................................. 14

APPENDIX I ....................................................................................................... 14

APPENDIX II...................................................................................................... 16

APPENDIX III..................................................................................................... 17


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Abstract

In this experiment, our objective it to compare and investigate the effects of cabin

pressurization on a scaled down cabin fuselage and it’s windows using 3 different

types of aluminum. This experiment can be used to compare the stress and strain

effects. We will be using the 3 most commonly used aluminum which are 1) AL 7075

(2) AL 2024 (3) AL 5052.


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Introduction

“WE HUMANS NEED AIR TO LIVE, so we do best around sea level.

Airplanes are at their best up high, where the air is thin and smooth. And

therein lies the rub: We invented a machine that thrives where we don’t.”[1]

Today most commercial aircraft are cruising altitudes that can reach

upwards of 40,000 feet but unfortunately the human body can’t breath air at

such high altitude therefore the cabin is needed to be pressurized at a much

lower altitude

Effects of no cabin pressurization include hypoxia, altitude sickness

decompression sickness barotraumas, unconsciousness and even death in

prolonged situation.

A good analogy for explaining how cabin pressurization works is that is

compressed air is pumped into the cabin just like a balloon and maintaining a

specific pressure(around 8000 feet(1,572 pounds per square foot or 75

kilopascals)). Just like a balloon if there is not exit point while more air is being

pumped in, it will EXPLODE; therefore some air is exited at the outflow valve.

A more detailed explanation on how cabin pressurization is found at

(Appendix I)

The aircraft structure especially the skin is subject to constant expansion and

contraction force (Stress and Strain). It must also maintain the shape and not

collapse under metal fatigue.


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Objectives

From the different types of aluminum experiment we were able to :

1. Compare the Circumferential and Longitudinal Stress

a. Horizontal and Vertical (stress) with window

b. Horizontal and Vertical (stress) without window


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Experimental Procedure

Dimension of scaled down fuselage is 700mm outside diameter

Skin Thickness is 1mm throughout and 2mm at the back

3 different types of Aluminum used

• AL 2024

• AL 5052

• AL 7075

Procedure of the experiment:

1. Connect the inlet pressure hose to the air supply.

2. Make sure to close the outflow valve.

3. Click on the Zero button when graph and numeric reading start indicating

4. Take the initial 0 pressure reading

5. Increase the pressure by pumping 20 times at moderate speed.

6. Record and tabulate result

7. Repeat step 6 and 7 until all 12 reading are obtained.


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Experiment Result

Figure 1


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Horizontal Comparison


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Vertical Comparison


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Investigation And Analysis

1) Based on the result from the table analyze the data with Microsoft excel to determine:

a) The material that experience the least amount of strain

From the graph above it shows that material AL 2024 has the least amount of strain compared with the other material

b) The side of the cabin, which experiences less strain: The window or no window side?

The one without the window experience less strain because there is no shape / hole in which the material has more space to expand or contract.

2) Using the data obtained as well as graphs you have plotted, answer the following question?

a) Which material has the highest tensile strength? State which area of the aircraft it is ideal to be used on

Highest Tensile strength means is has the ability to ‘stretch the most’ without causing any permanent deformation. AL 7075 has the highest tensile strength and is mostly used on the main structure of the fuselage.

b) Explain the stresses different for each material?

Rarely is anything being made with pure aluminum. Alloy is often being used and the composition of other element such as copper, zinc, titanium might vary. Different composition of other elements can affect, the tolerance of stress. Heat treatment of the aluminum can affect the microstructure and atomic bonding which will also affect the different stress tolerance.

c) What is the relation between the pressure applied and stress experience?

The more the pressure applied the more the material will expand and

increase the stress applied on the material.


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Discussion of Result

1) Name the 3 Primary types of fuselage design structure and briefly describe

them?

Truss - The truss is a simple skeletal structure. Truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected at joints. Mostly used in building construction ( and also bridges. They can carry both tension and compression loading

Monocoque Design - Is a construction technique that supports structural load using an object's external skin. They are lightweight but not structurally strong

Semi – Monocoque design – Simple analogy is just like our torso area where our organs are protected by our rib cages. Instead of ribcages, there are longerons, bulkheads frames, stringers and other structural members. The aircraft skin are attached to these structure where they add strength and rigidity. Used in most modern aircraft.

2) What is the primary load carrying structure and what material is it usually made up of? Wings are the primary load carrying structure and is usually made AL7075 because they are constantly under compressive or expansive stress due to pressurization of cabin.

3) How are the aircraft loads transferred to the skin?

Frames- They provide fuselage the cross sectional shape and withstand bending so the skin does not collapse under the differential pressure

Bulkheads- Reinforce heavy frames by beams and attached to by webs. Positioned to where most stress is expected.

Stringers-Stringers often are not attached to anything but the skin. They prevent the skin deforming under compression or torsion load

Longerons- Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads to internal structure which include the frames and bulkheads


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4) Name 2 reasons why Perspex is used for aircraft window instead of glass?

Withstand expansion and contraction better than glass. It is also much stronger and can withstand impact better than glass. It is also lighter in density compared to glass.(See appendix II)

5) State the 2 principal normal stress developed in the fuselage skin and briefly describe each of them?

Fatigue Metal Stress where the skin is always under constant expansion and torsion due to pressurization of cabin. Which include the circumferential stress and longitudinal stress.


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Reference

1. http://www.airspacemag.com/flight-today/cit-larson.html

2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabin_pressurization

3. http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/index.html

4. www.b737.org.uk/pressurisation.htm (picture of outflow valve)

5. www.aerospaceweb.org/question/atmosphere/q0206a.shtml

6. http://www.allplastics.com.au/03/files/products/perspex/Perspexforgla

zingPXTD236.pdf


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Appendix I http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/index.html

Cabin Air Systems The cabin air system in today's jetliners is designed to provide a safe, comfortable cabin environment at cruising altitudes that can reach upwards of 40,000 feet. At those altitudes, the cabin must be pressurized to enable passengers and crew to breathe normally. By government regulation, the cabin pressure cannot be less than the equivalent of outside air pressure at 8,000 feet. Here's briefly how the system works:

Cabin Air System Operation Pressurized air for the cabin comes from the compressor stages in the aircraft's jet engines. Moving through the compressor, the outside air gets very hot as it becomes pressurized. The portion drawn off for the passenger cabin is first cooled by heat exchangers in the engine struts and then, after flowing through ducting in the wing, is further cooled by the main air conditioning units. The cooled air then flows to a chamber where it is mixed with an approximately equal amount of highly filtered air from the passenger cabin. The combined outside and filtered air is ducted to the cabin and distributed through overhead outlets. Inside the cabin, the air flows in a circular pattern and exits through floor grilles on either side of the cabin or, on some airplanes, through overhead intakes. The exiting air goes below the cabin floor into the lower lobe of the fuselage. The airflow is continuous and is used for maintaining a comfortable cabin temperature. About half of the air exiting the cabin is exhausted from the airplane through an outflow valve in the lower lobe, which also controls the cabin pressure. The other half is drawn by fans through special filters under the cabin floor, and then is mixed with the outside air coming in from the engine compressors. These high efficiency filters have similar performance to those filters used to keep the air clean in hospitals. Such filters are very effective at trapping microscopic particles such as bacteria and viruses.

Key Characteristics and Overall Effectiveness There are several characteristics of the cabin air system that deserve special emphasis:

Air circulation is continuous. Air is always flowing into and out of the cabin.

Outside-air mixing replenishes the cabin air constantly. The outside-air content keeps carbon dioxide and other contaminants well


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within standard limits and replaces oxygen far faster than the rate at which it is consumed.

There are multiple factors associated with the aircraft cabin environment that can influence comfort. Symptoms occasionally reported by passengers and crew, including headache and fatigue, can be caused by complex interactions of factors including the individual's health, jet lag, medications, alcohol consumption and motion sickness in combination with factors such as cabin altitude effects and low humidity. Boeing supports industry efforts to develop a better understanding of how these factors interact

Differences Between Older and Newer Cabin Air Systems Engines that produced all or most of their thrust directly from the engine core powered early-generation jetliners. Air extracted from the compressor in these older aircraft provided the cabin with 100 percent outside air with only a modest impact on fuel economy. But by today's standards, the engines themselves were very noisy, emitted much higher levels of pollutants into the atmosphere and were much less fuel-efficient. By contrast, most newer jetliners are powered by high-bypass-ratio fan engines which are much quieter, much cleaner burning, more powerful and much more efficient. At the front end of this engine type is a large-diameter fan, which is powered by the core. The fan moves a large volume of air past the core rather than through it, and actually generates most of the thrust. Every unit of pressurized air extracted from the engine core has the effect of reducing fan thrust by an even greater amount, and that degrades fuel efficiency more severely on this type of engine than on the older type. By providing the cabin with a mixture of about 50 percent outside air taken from the compressor and 50 percent recirculated air, a balance has been achieved that maintains a high level of cabin air quality, good fuel efficiency and less impact to our environment.

However, that's only part of the rationale for the current design of cabin air systems. Cabin air is typically quite dry at cruise altitudes. With 50 percent recirculation, the cabin is provided with at least a modest level of humidity in newer jetliners compared to the very low levels in earlier models.


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Appendix II http://www.allplastics.com.au/03/files/products/perspex/PerspexforglazingPXTD236.pdf

INTRODUCTION For many years PERSPEX™acrylic sheet has been used as a glazing material, firstly for aircraft canopies and then for a wide variety of architectural and industrial applications which take advantage of its outstanding properties: Exceptional light transmission with no inherent edge colour. Clear PERSPEX™transmits 92% of all visible light. No other product offers better light transmission – not even glass! Excellent resistance to outdoor weathering. We offer a ten year weathering guarantee on the outdoor performance of standard PERSPEX™sheet. No significant change in visual appearance nor physical performance will take place during ten years outdoors. High gloss, hard surface. PERSPEX™is one of the hardest thermoplastics and remains aesthetically attractive for much longer than many other plastic sheet products. Good thermoformability. PERSPEX™is easy to thermoform with low cost tooling leading to cost effective production. Easy to clean. The high gloss surface of PERSPEX™makesit easy to clean, keeping maintenance costs to a minimum. High service temperature. PERSPEX™has a maximum service temperature of 80-85°C minimising the risks of thermal distortion in service. Safety. Standard PERSPEX™is 5 times stronger than float glass and the PERSPEX™Impact Modified grades many times better again. It is internationally recognised as a safety glazing material meeting the requirements of ANSI Z.97 and BS 6262. Standard 3 mm PERSPEX™is rated Class C to BS 6206 impact test and Class A for 8 mm and above thicknesses. Low density. PERSPEX™is half the weight of an equivalent glass panel and is more easily transported, installed and supported. Clear, tints and opal colours. PERSPEX™is available in a wide range of transparent tints and opal colours giving maximum design freedom. Cold Bending. PERSPEX™can be readilycold bent to allow the installation of continuous rooflighting. Aminimum cold bend radius of 200 times the thickness is possible with cast sheet and 300 times for the extruded grades.

1. Recyclability. PERSPEX™is fully recyclable. For further information please refer to the PERSPEX™guarantee available from your local PERSPEX™Sales office.


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Appendix III

Aluminium alloys used in aircraft

construction. Boeing Aircraft Co. (n.d.).Seattle


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Main Outflow Valve

Controlled by the pressurisation system. Regulates the cabin pressure by adjusting the outflow of cabin air.

Early outflow valves (shown here) opened into the fuselage.

Later outflow valves opened out from the fuselage.


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From Dec 2003 onwards, the main outflow valve was given teeth to reduce aerodynamic noise. Its frightening appearance should also help to deter people from putting their hands in the opening.

Pressure (Safety) Relief Valves

These two valves, located above and below the main outflow valve, protect the aircraft structure against overpressure if the pressurisation control system fails. they are set at Originals 8.5psi, Classics: 8.65psi , NG's: 8.95psi.

Negative Pressure Relief Valve

Prevents vacuum damage to aircraft during a rapid descent. It is a spring loaded flapper valve that opens inwards at -1.0psid. You can check this on a walkaround by pressing it in like a letterbox.


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Flow Control Valve (Classic) / Overboard Exhaust Valve(NG)

Open on the ground (check this on a walkaround) to provide E&E bay cooling and also in-flight at less than 2psi differential pressure. You can often hear this valve opening on descent when the differential pressure passes 2psi. The OEV also opens when the recirculation fan (R recirc fan on the 8/900) is switched off to assist in smoke clearance.

Strictly speaking, this is an exhaust port. The actual Flow Control Valve / Overboard Exhaust Valve is located further upstream.

Forward Outflow Valve - Classics only

This is is a vent for the E & E bay air after it has been circulated around the forward cargo compartment when in-flight (The E & E bay air is exhausted from the flow control valve when in the ground). The valve opens when the recirculation fan (R recirc fan on the 400) is off (smoke clearance mode) or


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when the main outflow valve is not completely closed (ie low diff pressure). It is located just below and aft of the fwd passenger door.

Note the NG's do not have a FOV. In-flight, equipment air is circulated around the forward cargo compartment and discharged from the main outflow valve

Regulations specify that the air pressure in the cabin of a commercial airliner must not be lower than that found at an altitude of 8,000 ft (2,438 m). The pressure at this altitude is 1,572 pounds per square foot or 75 kilopascals. This pressure is only about 75% that found at sea level, which is 2,116 psf (101 kPa).

Changes in atmospheric properties with altitude

This pressure was chosen for two reasons. First, the skin of the aircraft is designed to maintain its shape given the difference in pressure internal and external to the cabin. Aircraft manufacturers want to keep that difference as small as possible because it reduces the amount of structure needed to maintain the integrity of the aircraft's shape. The less structure required, the lighter and less expensive the plane will be.

Ideally, the internal and external pressures would always be equal to minimize the structural weight. However, the pressure cannot be too low or passengers could suffer from altitude sickness or pass out from oxygen deprivation. Most cases of altitude sickness occur at altitudes greater than 10,000 ft (3,050 m) and oxygen deprivation is typically not a concern below 14,000 ft (4,265 m).

The altitude of 8,000 ft was chosen as a tradeoff to satisfy these

two requirements. The pressure at this altitude is low enough

that it significantly reduces the amount of structure needed to


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maintain the plane's shape yet high enough that it prevents

altitude sickness among the passengers. The pressure on a

specific aircraft may vary as different manufacturers offer

different environmental systems aboard their planes. In general,

most airlines maintain an internal pressure comparable to that

found at 6,000 to 8,000 ft (1,830 to 2,440 m). The pressure will

obviously increase at lower altitudes to equalize with the

external pressure encountered at takeoff and landing.

Aluminum Alloy 5052

Available

Shapes

Typical

Chemistry

Characteristcs

Typical

Applications

Mechanical

Properties

Fabrication Guide

Available Shapes

5052 is available in Coil, Plate and Sheet.

- Top -

Typical Chemistry (% Maximum unless shown as a range)

Cu Si + Fe Mn Mg Zn Cr Al

0.10 0.45 0.10 2.2 / 2.8 0.10 0.15 / 0.35 Balance

- Top -


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Characteristics

5052 is one of the higher strength non-heat-treatable alloys. It has a high fatigue strength and is a good choice for structures subjected to excessive vibration. The alloy has excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in marine atmospheres. The formability of the grade is excellent and in the annealed condition it offers higher strengths than 1100 or 3003 grades.

- Top -

Typical Applications

5052 is often used in high strength sheet metal work, marine components, appliances, fuel and oil tubing.

- Top -

Mechanical Properties

Tensile Strength Yield Strength

Elongation

Brinell Hardness

ksi MPa ksi MPa % in 2" (50mm)

5052-0 28.0 196 13.0 91 25 47

5052-H32 33.0 231 28.0 196 12 60

5052-H34 38.0 266 31.0 217 10 68


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- Top -

Fabrication Guide

Weldability

Corrosion

Resistance

Formability

Machinability Mpa TIG Resist.

5052-0 A A D A A B

5052-H14

A B C A A A 5052-H18

A B C A A A

Aluminum 2024-O

Subcategory: 2000 Series Aluminum Alloy; Aluminum Alloy; Metal; Nonferrous

Metal

Close Analogs:

Composition Notes:

A Zr + Ti limit of 0.20 percent maximum may be used with this alloy designation for

extruded and forged products only, but only when the supplier or producer and the

purchaser have mutually so agreed. Agreement may be indicated, for example, by

reference to a standard, by letter, by order note, or other means which allow the Zr +


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Ti limit.

Aluminum content reported is calculated as remainder.

Composition information provided by the Aluminum Association and is not for

design.

Key Words: Aluminium 2024-O; UNS A92024; ISO AlCu4Mg1; NF A-U4G1

(France); DIN AlCuMg2; AA2024-O, ASME SB211; CSA CG42 (Canada)

Component Wt. %

Al 90.7 - 94.7

Cr Max 0.1

Cu 3.8 - 4.9

Fe Max 0.5

Component Wt. %

Mg 1.2 - 1.8

Mn 0.3 - 0.9

Other, each Max 0.05

Other, total Max 0.15

Component Wt. %

Si Max 0.5

Ti Max 0.15

Zn Max 0.25

Material Notes:

General 2024 characteristics and uses (from Alcoa): Good machinability and surface

finish capabilities. A high strength material of adequate workability. Has largely

superceded 2017 for structural applications. Use of 2024-O not recommended unless

subsequently heat treated.

Uses: Aircraft fittings, gears and shafts, bolts, clock parts, computer parts, couplings,

fuse parts, hydraulic valve bodies, missile parts, munitions, nuts, pistons, rectifier


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parts, worm gears, fastening devices, veterinary and orthopedic equipment, structures.

Data points with the AA note have been provided by the Aluminum Association, Inc.

and are NOT FOR DESIGN.

Physical Properties Metric English Comments

Density 2.78 g/cc 0.1 lb/in³ AA; Typical


Hardness, Brinell 47 47 AA; Typical; 500 g load; 10 mm ball

Ultimate Tensile Strength 186 MPa 27000 psi AA; Typical

Tensile Yield Strength 75.8 MPa 11000 psi AA; Typical

Elongation at Break 20 % 20 % AA; Typical; 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) Thickness

Elongation at Break 22 % 22 % AA; Typical; 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) Diameter

Modulus of Elasticity 73.1 GPa 10600 ksi AA; Typical; Average of tension

and compression. Compression modulus is about 2% greater than tensile modulus.

Ultimate Bearing Strength 345 MPa 50000 psi Edge distance/pin

diameter = 2.0

Bearing Yield Strength 131 MPa 19000 psi Edge distance/pin

diameter = 2.0

Poisson's Ratio 0.33 0.33

Fatigue Strength 89.6 MPa 13000 psi AA; 500,000,000 cycles

completely reversed stress; RR Moore machine/specimen

Machinability 30 % 30 % 0-100 Scale of Aluminum Alloys

Shear Modulus 28 GPa 4060 ksi

Shear Strength 124 MPa 18000 psi AA; Typical

Electrical Properties

Electrical Resistivity 3.49e-006 ohm-cm 3.49e-006 ohm-cm AA; Typical at

68°F


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Thermal Properties

CTE, linear 68°F 23.2 µm/m-°C 12.9 µin/in-°F AA; Typical; Average over 68-

212°F range.

CTE, linear 250°C 24.7 µm/m-°C 13.7 µin/in-°F Average over the range 20-

300ºC

Specific Heat Capacity 0.875 J/g-°C 0.209 BTU/lb-°F

Thermal Conductivity 193 W/m-K 1340 BTU-in/hr-ft²-°F AA; Typical at

77°F

Melting Point 502 - 638 °C 935 - 1180 °F AA; Typical range based on typical

composition for wrought products 1/4 inch thickness or greater. Eutectic melting is

not eliminated by homogenization.

Solidus 502 °C 935 °F AA; Typical

Liquidus 638 °C 1180 °F AA; Typical

Processing Properties

Annealing Temperature 413 °C 775 °F

Solution Temperature 256 °C 493 °F

Aluminum 5052-O


Metal

Close Analogs:

Composition Notes:



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design.

Key Words: UNS A95052; ISO AlMg2.5; Aluminium 5052-O; AA5052-O

Component Wt. %

Al 95.7 - 97.7

Cr 0.15 - 0.35

Cu Max 0.1

Fe Max 0.4

Component Wt. %

Mg 2.2 - 2.8

Mn Max 0.1


Component Wt. %


Si Max 0.25

Zn Max 0.1

Material Notes:









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Tensile Yield Strength 89.6 MPa 13000 psi AA; Typical





Ultimate Bearing Strength 345 MPa 50000 psi Edge distance/pin

diameter = 2.0

Bearing Yield Strength 131 MPa 19000 psi Edge distance/pin

diameter = 2.0


Fatigue Strength 110 MPa 16000 psi AA; 500,000,000 cycles

completely reversed stress; RR Moore machine/specimen

Machinability 30 % 30 % 0-100 Scale of Aluminum Alloys

Shear Modulus 25.9 GPa 3760 ksi



Electrical Resistivity 4.99e-006 ohm-cm 4.99e-006 ohm-cm AA; Typical at

68°F

Thermal Properties


212°F range.

CTE, linear 250°C 25.7 µm/m-°C 14.3 µin/in-°F Average over the range 20-

300ºC

Specific Heat Capacity 0.88 J/g-°C 0.21 BTU/lb-°F Estimated from

trends in similar Al alloys.

Thermal Conductivity 138 W/m-K 960 BTU-in/hr-ft²-°F AA; Typical at 77°F

Melting Point 607 - 649 °C 1125 - 1200 °F AA; Typical range based on

typical composition for wrought products 1/4 inch thickness or greater



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Annealing Temperature 343 °C 650 °F holding at temperature not required

Hot-Working Temperature 260 - 510 °C 500 - 950 °F


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Aluminum 7075-O


Metal

Close Analogs:

Composition Notes:

A Zr + Ti limit of 0.25 percent maximum may be used with this alloy designation for

extruded and forged products only, but only when the supplier or producer and the

purchaser have mutually so agreed. Agreement may be indicated, for example, by

reference to a standard, by letter, by order note, or other means which allow the Zr +

Ti limit.



design.

Key Words: UNS A97075; ISO AlZn5.5MgCu(A); Aluminium 7075-O; AA7075-O

Component Wt. %

Al 87.1 - 91.4

Cr 0.18 - 0.28

Cu 1.2 - 2

Fe Max 0.5

Component Wt. %

Mg 2.1 - 2.9

Mn Max 0.3




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Component Wt. %

Si Max 0.4

Ti Max 0.2

Zn 5.1 - 6.1

Material Notes:

General 7075 characteristics and uses (from Alcoa): Very high strength material used

for highly stressed structural parts. The T7351 temper offers improved stress-

corrosion cracking resistance.

Uses: Aircraft fittings, gears and shafts, fuse parts, meter shafts and gears, missile

parts, regulating valve parts, worm gears, keys, aircraft, aerospace and defense

applications.







Hardness, Knoop 80 80 Converted from Brinell Hardness Value

Hardness, Vickers 68 68 Converted from Brinell Hardness Value


Tensile Yield Strength 103 MPa 15000 psi AA; Typical







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Shear Modulus 26.9 GPa 3900 ksi



Electrical Resistivity 3.8e-006 ohm-cm 3.8e-006 ohm-cm

Thermal Properties


212°F range.

CTE, linear 250°C 25.2 µm/m-°C 14 µin/in-°F Average over the range 20-

300ºC

Specific Heat Capacity 0.96 J/g-°C 0.229 BTU/lb-°F

Thermal Conductivity 173 W/m-K 1200 BTU-in/hr-ft²-°F

Melting Point 477 - 635 °C 890 - 1175 °F AA; Typical range based on typical

composition for wrought products 1/4 inch thickness or greater. Homogenization may

raise eutectic melting temperature 20-40°F but usually does not eliminate eutectic

melting.




Annealing Temperature 413 °C 775 °F

Solution Temperature 466 - 482 °C 870 - 900 °F

Documents

(UNISIM(BEHAS)-Introduction to Aerospace)EAS105 -Lab4