Underutilization of Women Workers · UNDERUTILIZATION OF WOMEN WORKERS WOMEN'S BUREAU ... 1968 media earningn os f comparabl employey womed wern …

UNDERUTILIZATION

OF

WOMEN WORKERS

WOMEN'S BUREAU

WORKPLACE STANDARDS ADMINISTRATION

U.S. D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R

1971 (revised) Digitized for FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

"Tlie fact remains that we cannot reconcile some con-temporary remarkable inequalities affecting women with our stated national principle of equality for all citizens."

J.D. Hodgson Secretary of Labor

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UNDERUTILIZATION

OF

WOMEN WORKERS

WOMEN'S BUREAU

Elizabeth Duncan Koontz, Director

WORKPUCE STANDARDS ADMINISTRATION Robert D. Moran, Administrator

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR J.D. Hodgson, Secretary


NOTE

Data for minority races represent a l l

races other than white. Negroes con-

st i tute about 92 percent of a l l persons

other than white i n the United States.

For saJe by the Sapertntendent of Documents, XJ.8. Govenmient Printing Office Washington, D.C. 2CK02 - Price 36 cents


FOREWORD

Recognizing that the 30 m i l l i on women workers today "are not aux i l i a ry workers but an in tegra l part of the work force, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur A. Fletcher recently remarked, the Women's Bureau believes that an examination of the u t i l i z a t i o n of th i s substantial port ion of the human resources of our Nation i s urgently needed^

F i f t y years ago, when the Women's Bureau was founded, our primary concern was the explo i tat ion of women workers. No longer i s th i s true. No longer do we need to place primary emphasis on the establishment of safety standards 6T the el imination of long working hours and appal l-ing working conditions•

But there are s t i l l serious inequal i t ies i n the labor market which resul t i n the underut i l i zat ion of women workers. There are s t i l l barr iers which deny women the freedom to prepare fo r and enter employ-ment suited to the i r ind iv idua l interests and ab i l i t i e s , and to advance and achieve recognit ion (monetary or otherwise) to the f u l l extent of which they are capable.

Leg is lat ion to assure wcmen equal i ty of pay and nondiscrimination i n employment has been passed at the Federal and State leve ls . The Federal Equal Pay Act of 1963^ which was an amendment to the Fa i r Labor Standards Act, assures women equal pay fo r equal work. However, since many employees are not covered under the Federal ac t , 36 States have enacted equal pay laws, and f i ve others and the D i s t r i c t of Columbia have f a i r employment pract ices laws proh ib i t ing discr imination i n pay based on sex. T i t l e VII of the Federal C i v i l Rights Act of 196^ prohib i ts discr iminat ion i n employment on the basis of sex. Twenty-three States and the D i s t r i c t of Columbia have a s imi lar prohib i-t i on .

Implementation of the two Federal statutes has been e f fec t i ve . Investigations under the equal pay provisions had disclosed, by the end of Ap r i l 1970, underpayments of more than $17 m i l l i o n to more than 50,000 employees during the neaxly 5 years of enforcement. Of a l l com-p la in ts received i n f i s c a l year I969 by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission under t i t l e VII of the C i v i l R i ^ t s Act, almost 2,700, or about one-f i f th, were concerned with discr iminat ion on the basis of sex.

Considerable progress has also been made i n providing equal opportunities f o r women employed d i rec t l y by the Federal Government or by Federal contractors. As ear ly as 1923 the C i v i l Service Class-i f i c a t i o n Act provided that Federal employees receive equal pay f o r equal work. Discrimination on the basis of sex (as we l l as race, color, re l ig ion, or nat ional or ig in) i n a l l aspects of Federal employment i s now prohibited under Executive Order I I U 7 8 , administered by the C i v i l Service Commission.

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DiBcrimination by Federal contractor and subcontractors i s prohibited under Executive Order 112U6, as amended by Executive Order 11375, administered by the Off ice of Federal Contract Ccmpllance (OFCC) of the Department of Labor. Sex discrimination guidelines, sett ing out i n de ta i l the regulations governing the lnqplementation of th i s Executive older, vere issued by the OFCC i n June 1970.

Despite these steps forward, there i s a great deal more to be acccmplished. The need to improve voaaen's re lat ive pos i t ion i n the economy i s s t i l l uigent. Fa i lure to grant wcmen and g i r l s equal opportunities i n teims of Job tra in ing, educational programs, occupa-t i ona l entrance, advancement, and pay creates severe economic hardship, even poverty, fo r many women and fo r many fami l ies dependent In whole or i n part on a woman's earnings.

In addition, f a i l u re to u t i l i z e f u l l y the talents and a b i l i t i e s of wanen diminishes our total productive e f fo r t , deprives the economy of woikers needed fo r v i t a l domestic programs, and has a depressing e f fec t on the ^ o l e Job structure.

Occupationally wcmen are more disadvantaged, compared with men, than they were 30 years ago. In 19^ they held 45 percent of a l l professional and technical pos i t ions. In 1969 they held only 37 percent of such Jobs. This deter iorat ion i n the i r ro le i n career f i e l d s re lat ive to men has occurred despite the increase i n women's share of t o ta l employment over the same period. On the other hand, the propor-t ion of women among a l l service workers (except private household) has increased since I9I1O—rising from 1*0 to 59 percent.

The barr iers are s t i l l h i ^ against enqploying women i n professions other than those t rad i t i ona l l y associated with wcmen, and many of the myths regarding women's a b i l i t y to hold administrative and managerial posit ions s t i l l p reva i l . I l l u s t ra t i ve of the inequa l i t ies wcmen face i n entering professional careers i n business and industry are the differences i n scOarles offered to women and men. Wcmen graduating from college i n 1970 i n s i x f i e l d s of interest were being offered start ing salar ies from 3 to 10 percent lower than those offered to men i n the same f i e l d s .

Many women hold Jobs f a r from commensurate with the i r a b i l i t l eB and educational achievement. For example, i n March I 969 , I9 percent of the woridLng wcmen who had completed k years of college were employed i n nonprofessional Jobs as c l e r i c a l , sales, or service workers or as operatives, mainly i n factor ies .

The growing share of jobs held by women i n the lower paying occupations In recent years i s ref lected i n the gap between the median (half above, ha l f below) earnings of women and men. In 1957 the median wage or i a l a i y income of wcmen who worked 35 hours or more a week fo r 50 to 52 weeks was 6k percent of that received by men. In 1968 median earnings of comparably employed women were only 58 percent of those received by men.

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Moreover, more wanen than men experience periods of unemployment during the year. Unemployment rates of women have heen consistently h i ^ e r than those of men during the las t decade and vere and 2.8 percent, respectively, i n 1969* Therefore, i t i s not su ipr is ing that poverty i s more severe among fami l ies headed by women than liy men workers. An alarming percent of the famil ies headed by women workers of minority races l i ved i n poverty i n I968, as compared with 16 percent of those headed by male workers of minority races.

The fol lowing b r i e f summary statements and charts document aspects of the underut i l i zat ion of women workers. I t i s our hope that these h i ^ l i ^ t s on the economic pos i t ion of wcmen workers may prove he lp fu l i n e f for ts to assure more e f fect ive use of our national resource of womanpower.

El izabeth Duncan Koontz Director, Waaen's Bureau


CHART A.-IVIOST WOMEN WORK BECAUSE OF ECONOMIC NEED

Women With Work Experience in 1968

SINGLE

WIDOWED, DIVORCED,

OR SEPARATED

8%

Under $3,000

MARRIED (husband present)

9%

$3,0Q0-4,999

13%

J \ f $5,000-6,999

HUSBAND'S INCOME

I J V

30%

$7,000 and over

J

Source: See page 25


Most Wcmen WoA Because of Econocilc Need (Chart A)

Most women voik to support themselves or others* Of the 37

m i l l i o n women woriced at sane time i n 1968^ 17 percent were widowed,

divorced^ or separated fron the i r husbands; many of these women were

ra i s ing chi ldren i n a fatherless hone. Another 23 percent of women

workers were s ingle. In addit ion, married women whose husbands' incomes

are inadequate or barely adequate to support the i r fami l ies often are

compelled to seek ga in fu l employment. E i ^ t percent of a l l wonen who

worked i n I968 had husbands with annual incomes below $3,000. An

addi t iona l 22 percent had husbands whose incomes were between $3^000

and $7,000 at a time when the annual income necessaiy even f o r a low

standard of l i v i n g f o r an laban family of four was estimated at $6 ,567.


CHART B.-WOMEN ARE 3 TIMES AS LIKELY AS MEN TO EARN LESS

THAN $5,000 FOR YEAR - ROUND FULL-TIME^ WORK

Year-Round Full-Time Workers, by Total Money Earnings and Sex, 1968)

Under $3,000 $3,000 - $4,999 $5,000 - $6,999 $7,000 - $9,999 J / 50 to 52 weeks a year, 35 hours or more a week.

Source: See page 25

$10,000 and over


Women Are 3 Tljnes as L ike ly as Men To Earn Less Than $5^000 f o r

Year^Round Full-^Tlme Woik (Chart B)

About 3 out of 5 woaen but only 1 out of 5 i en who vorked year

round f u l l time i n I968 had earnings of less than $5,000. Moreover,

20 percent of the wcoien but only 8 percent of men earned less than

$3>000. At the upper end of the earnings scale, only 3 pereent of

the vcmen but 28 percent of the men who woiked year round f u l l time

had earnings of $10,000 or more.


CHART C.-THE EARNINGS GAP BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN REMAINS WIDE

(Median Wage or Salary Income of Year-Round Full-Time-^ Workers, by Sex, 1957-68 MEDIAN EARNINGS

$8,000

$6,000

$4,000

$2,000

0

Men

. Uf n m o n . If U l l l c l l

1964 1966 1957 1958 1960 1962 -1/ 50 to 52 weeks a year, 35 hours or more a week. 2 J Data for 1967 and 1968 are not strictly comparable with prior years since they include earnings of

self-employed persons. Source: See page 25

1968


The Earnings Gap Between Women and Men Itemalns Wide (Chart C)

In 1957 the median earnings of year-round fu l l - t ime vomen

workers were 6k percent of those of men. By I966 the proportion

had dropped to 58 percent, where i t remained I n 1967 and 1968*

The earnings gap amounted to more than $3^000 i n I968, when the

median earnings of year-round fu l l - t ime women and men woxkers

were and respectively.


CHART D.-MILLIONS OF WOMEN ARE iN LOW - PAID OCCUPATIONS

(Year-Round Full-Tlme-^ Women Workers, by Selected Occupations and Median Wage or Salary Income, 1968

MILLIONS

6

435,000

Private Household Workers

1,924,000

723,000

2,449,000 ws a

5,943,000

ii.t^ v" JL

Xlvt i jUl^

^ J J ^^

Service. Workers (except private

household]

Sales Workers

Operatives Clerical Workers

i / 5 0 to 52 weeks sl year, 35 hours or more a week.

Source: See page 25

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M i l l i o n s o f Women Are In Lay*Pald Occiqpatlons (Chart P)

About 3*1 m i l l i o n vomen vho worked year 3X)und roll time i n

1968 were sales workers^ service workers (except pr ivate household),

and pr ivate household workers. The i r median wage or sa lary inccoies

were $3,1*61, $3,332,€md $1,523, respect ive ly. Another 2.U m i l l i o n

yea3>round f u l l - t ime wcmen woikers were operatives—mainly factory

woikers—with a median wage or sa l a i y incone of $3,991*


00

CHART E-WOMEN'S SHARE IN PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL WORK HAS DECLINED

(Women as Percent of Total Employed, All Occupations and Professional and Technical Occupations, 1940-69;

PERCENT 60

50

40

30

20

to

0

^ ^ ^ f Professional and Ti echnical Occupatio ns

^ ^ All Occi jpations

1940 1945 Source: See page 25

1950 1955 1960 1965 1969


Women's Share In Professional and Technical Work Has Declined (Chart E)

A l thou^ the number of wcmen employed i n professional and

technica l occupations has eJiaost t r i p l ed since vanen are a

smaller proportion of a l l professional and technical workers today

than they vere before World War I I . Women represented 3T percent

of a l l professional and technica l workers i n I969 as caapared with

percent i n In contrast, the proportion of wcmen among

a l l workers increased from 26 to 37 percent over the same period.


CHART F.-WOMEN ARE INADEQUATELY REPRESENTED IN LEADING PROFESSIONS

(Women as Percent of Total Employed, Selected Professions)

Faculty in Institutions of Higher Educat ion^

Scientists

Physicians

Lawyers

Engineers

Federal Judges

f;

i^ l r t& r i y i i

Includes other professional staff.

Source: See page 25


Wcanen Are Inadequately Bepresented In Leading ProfesBlons (Chart F)

Women hold a disproportionately small share of posit ions i n

leading professions despite the i r 37 percent share of a l l professional

and technical occupations i n 1969* Althougji vomen t rad i t i ona l l y have

made up a large part of the teacher coips, i n recent years only 22

percent of the facu l ty and other professional s ta f f i n ins t i tu t ions

of h i ^ e r education vere vomen. This i s a considerably smaller

proportion than they vere i n 19kO (28 percent), 1930 (27 percent), or

1920 (26 percent) and only s l i ^ t l y ahove the SO percent they vere

i n 1910•

Wcmen are heavi ly represented i n the health f i e l d s , but i n 1968

only 7 percent of a l l physicians were women. Simi lar ly, women had

only a token representation among sc ient i s ts (9 percent), lawyers

(3 percent), and engineers ( l percent).


CHART G.-STARTING SALARIES OF COLLEGE GRADUATES ARE LOWER FOR WOMEN THAN FOR MEN

(Average Monthly Starting Salaries of Women and Men With Bachelor's Degrees, 1970) $500 $600 $700 $800 $900

T

Engineering

Accounting

S Chemistry

Mathematics -Stat ist ics

FT

fiiilfniiiiiiifiinfiiiBiMiiitmwiii 3 $844 $872

$773

Economics -Finance 1

Liberal Arts

I W •• • . • . • J . ^ ^ ' - Lr- r . t. ^ - i , 1

$688 Men

~ Women

Source: See page 25


s ta r t ing Salaries of College Graduates Are Lower f o r Women Than

f o r Men (Chart G)

Average monthly start ing salar ies being offered to 1970 women

col lege graduates i n s i x f i e l d s of Interest by 110 business and

i ndus t r i a l f i ims ranged from $l8 to $86 less than the salar ies being

offered to men college graduates i n the same f i e l d s . Monthly

s tar t ing sa lar ies f o r wcmen were h i ^ e s t and were not f a r below

those of men i n engineering, with monthly saleud.es of f o r women

and $872 f o r men. In accounting, however, where salar ies being

offered to men were almost as h i ^ as i n engineering, the gap between

the sa lar ies of vcmen and men was the largest (women, J men, $832),

Salary d i f f e ren t i a l s between men and wcmen were lowest i n the f i e l d s

of economics and finance (wcmen, $700; men, $718) and mathematics

and s t a t i s t i c s (wcmen, $7^; aen, $773)*


PERCENT 60

CHART H.-WOMEN ARE INCREASING AMONG WORKERS

IN LESS SKILLED JOBS Women as Percent of Total Employed, All Occupations

and Service Occupations,^ 1940-69)

50

40

30

20

10

^ ^ ^ Servi ce Occupations J/

All Occupc itions

0

1940 1945 Except private household.

Source: See page 25

1950 1955 1960 1965 1969


Wcmen Are Increasing Among Workers i n Less Sk i l l ed Jobs (Chart H)

In contrast to the decl in ing proportion of vomen among

professional and technical woikers, the proportion of women In the

less s k i l l e d and lower paid service occupations Is Increasing« Women

were 59 percent of a l l service workers (except private household)

i n 1969 as compared with kO percent i n 19^*


CHART l.-MANY WOMEN WORKERS ARE UNDERUTILIZED IN RELATION TO THEIR EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMEN"

PERCENT 80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Women With 1 or More Years of College Employed in the Less Skilled Occupations, 1969

69%

48%

COLLEGE

Source: See page 25

Clerical Workers

• Sales Workers

Operatives

Service Workers (including private

household]

Sales Workers, Operatives,

and Service Workers


Many Women Woifeers Are Underuti l ized i n Relation to Their Educational

Achievement (Chart l )

The educational backgrounds of a great many women are not "being

f u l l y u t i l i z e d i n the i r johs. A s tar t l ing 7 percent of employed

vcmen who had ccmpleted 5 or more years of college were woifcLng as

service workers ( including private household), operatives, sales

workeM, or c l e r i c a l workers i n March 1969* Nearly one- f i f th of

employed women with k years of col lege were woiklng i n these

occupations, as were some two-thirds of those who had completed 1 to

3 years of col lege.


CHART J.-ALMOST 3 OUT OF 10 TEENAGE GIRLS OF MINORITY

RACES ARE UNEMPLOYED

(Unemployment Rates of Girls and Boys 16 to 19 Years of Age, by Race, 1954-69

PERCENT

35

30

25

20

15

10

0

A / f

/ l i l i • f

1 \

\

/ / /

f A ^ / \

Gir lS"M nority Race'

/ / /

#

If

)oys--Minori A

y Races

^ ^ / — T !

White Bo \ \

ys

V J, /

A White Gi

1

1954 1956

Source: See page 25

1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1969


Almost 3 Out of 10 Teenage G i r l s of Minority Races Are Unemployed (Chart j )

Unemployment among teenagers ( l6 to 19 years of age) i s most severe

among g i r l s of minority races, vhose unemployment rate of 27-7 percent i n

1969 was considerably higher than i t had been i n 1955 (19-2 percent). Next

most disadvantaged are boys of minority races, whose unemployment rate was

21#3 percent i n 1969. In contrast, the unemployment rates for white g i r l s

and white boys i n I 969 were 11.5 and 10#1 percent, respectively.


CHART K.-UNEI\/!PLOYMENT AMONG ADULTS IS MOST SEVERE

FOR WOMEN OF MINORITY RACES

;Unemployment Rates of Women and Men 20 Years of Age and Over, by Race,

1954-69) PERCENT

15

1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1969

Source: See page 25


Unemployment Among Adults Is Most Severe for Women of Minority Races

(Chart K)

Among adults 20 years of age and over, unemployment i e most severe

fo r women of minority races—5 .8 percent i n 1969* The comparable

rates for men of minority races, white women, and white men were

and 1.9 percent, respectively^ H i s to r i ca l l y , unemployment among

adults has been highest fo r men of minority races, but since 1963 i t has

been most severe for women of minority races.


CHART L-INCIDENCE OF POVERTY IS HIGH IN FAMILIES HEADED BY A WOMAN WORKER

(Percent of Families Living in Poverty in 1968 Whose Head Worked During Year, by Sex and Race)

FAMILIES HEADED BY A WOMAN WORKER

White Families 12,386,000]

Famil ies-Minority Races (850,000)

FAMILIES HEADED BY A MAN WORKER

White Families (36,322,000)

Famil ies-Minority Races (3,245,000)

Source: See page 25


Incidence of Poverty^ Is High In Families Headed by a Woman Worker

(Chart L)

Many fami l ies headed by a woman are poor even though the woman

works. Among fami l ies headed by a woman who worked i n I968,

percent of those of minority races and 16 percent of the white l i ved

i n poverty. In contrast, among fami l ies headed by a man who worked

i n 1968, only I6 percent of those of minority races and k percent of

the white were poor#

*The poverty l e ve l i s based on the Bureau of the Census def in i-t i on of poverty, adjusted annually i n accordance with changes i n the Department of Labor's Consmer Pr ice Index. Currently c l ass i f i ed as poor are those nonfarm households where t o t a l money income i s less than $1,7^ for an unrelated ind iv idual , $2,262 for a couple, and $3^553 for a family of four .



CHART SOURCES

Chart A. U.S. Departanent of Labor, Bureau of Labor Stat i s t i cs: "Marital and Family Characterist ics of Workers, March 1969." Special Labor Force Report No. 120.

Chart B. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P - 6 0 , No. 66 .

Chart C. U.S. Department of Ccmmerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P - 6 0 , Nos. 30, 33, 35, 37, 39,

51, 53, 60, and 66 .

Chart D. U.S. Depaiianent of Labor, Bureau of Labor Sta t i s t i cs : Special Labor Force Report No. 120; U.S. Department of Ccamaerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P - 6 0 , No. 66.

Chart E. U.S. Department of Labor, Mai^ower Administration: "Manpower Report of the President and a Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, U t i l i z a t i on , and Training." Ap r i l 1967 and March 197O; Bureau of Labor S ta t i s t i c s : Monthly Labor Review, August 19'«-7-

Chart F. National Education Association; U.S. Depaartment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Of f i ce of Education; National Science Foundation; and U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor S ta t i s t i c s : "Occupational Outlook Handbook."

Chart G. Endicott, Frank S. "Trends i n Employment of College and Univers i ty Graduates i n Business and Indust iy." Northwestern Univers i ty. 1970 •

Chart Same as chart E.

Chart U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor S ta t i s t i c s : Ui:5)ub-l i shed data.

Chart J . U.S. Departanent of Labor, Manpower Administration: "Manpower Report of the President: A Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, U t i l i z a t i on , and Train ing." March 1970•

Chart K. Same as chart J .

Chart L . U.S. Department of Conmierce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P - 6 0 , Nos. 66 and 68 .

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