Ultrasonic Inspection 2

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calibrations are made are not important. Yet either or both of the parameters assumedfixed (materials velocity and temperature) can affect our test results. Variables affectingthe test results will be divided into 4 groups:

1. instrument performance

2. transducer performance3. material variations4. defect variations

Another factor relating to the results of an inspection is the Human Factor, this is awidely debated subject. The subject is not discussed in this chapter nor is the relatedsubject of Probability of Detection. For more information on POD please refer to earlier

publications on NDTnet

Instrument Performance

In Chapter 7, performance verification of instrumentation was discussed. Scope (display)and pulser/receiver variations can affect time, amplitude and frequency content ofultrasonic signals.

Scope - The primary variable in the scope is the linearity of the time base. Verificationmethods will usually require a tolerance in accuracy to a percentage of the total screenrange (typically +/- 2%). This ensures no distance measured will be in error by more than2%, e.g. for a 250mm range it may be possible to have an error of +/-5mm maximum insteel.

Pulser-Receiver - Amplitude uncertainties will result from variations in the linearity of

the vertical deflection of the scope or due to inaccuracies in the amplitude control. Scopevertical linearity ensures that the relationship between two signals of different amplitudesis maintained over the entire range of the screen height. This is done by comparing therelative height of two echoes at different screen heights. e.g. setting two echoes 6 dBapart starting with one at 80% FSH, the other at 40% FSH adjustments are made to firstincrease the 80% FSH signal to 90% and 100%. The lower signal should be 45% and50% respectively. Reducing the higher signal in 10% FSH increments, the lower shouldcontinue to be half its height. Tolerance for this parameter is +/-5% of the screen height.This ensures that the signal ratio of two different amplitudes truly indicates the size ordistance effects. This would be most important for DGS type comparisons.

The other aspect of vertical linearity variability is the amplitude gain control. This appliesto the calibrated gain control usually found in dB increments on a flaw detector. Since thedB is derived from (dB = 20 log A2/A1 changing the dB gain by a fixed amount shouldchange the ratio of the signals. This allows us to expect a signal at 50% FSH to increaseto 100% FSH when 6dB is added to the receiver gain. ASME code requires scanning of aweld to be done using 14dB over reference. This means a signal that was 20% of thereference amplitude at reference gain would then come up to the reference level denoted

by the DAC. If the receiver gain is not linear the smallest recordable indication may be

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greater or less than the intended level. This will be another source of incorrectly sizing adefect with respect to a reference.

The effect of bandpass filters on displayed signal amplitude has been discussed inChapter 6. The effect on amplitude is to reduce signal height if the centre frequency of

the received signal is beyond (greater or less than) the bandpass region of maximumresponse. This can be a factor when it is known that the reflected or re-transmitted signaloff a defect has a frequency spectrum determined by the characteristics of the defect (thisis the basis of acoustic spectrum analysis or frequency analysis).

Transducer Performance

As with the pulser/receiver, transducer performance is checked and monitored forchange. Codes and standards such as those discussed in Chapter 7 cover the details forverifying instrument, transducer and system performance. But in addition to ensuringthese aspects are within tolerances allowed initially, they must all be monitored on a

regular basis to ensure no significant changes occur.

BS 4331 Part 3*, recommends the following probe/system performance checks;

ITEM MONITORING FREQUENCY

probe index daily on rough surfaces, such as castings, twice daily

beam angle

beam skew(squint)

beam profilemonthly and when large changes in probe angle or index areobserved

dominantfrequency

monthly and whenever repairs have been made to either probe orinstrument and if one instrument is replaced with another

pulse length

dead zone

near field

signal-to-noise ratio

overallsystem gain daily and after repairs or replacement as above

resolving power

monthly and after repairs or replacement as above

* BS 4331 Part 3 will be replaced by EN 12668 -2, Non-destructive testing - Characterization andverification of ultrasonic examination equipment- Part 2: Probes.

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The above monitoring items apply to contact testing probes. The wear experienced bymovement on metal surfaces tends to accelerate changes in performance. Some of thechanges introduced by wear can alter test results significantly. As an example, consider

beam angle change. If at the start of the day a nominal 60° probe was found to have anactual angle of 62°, an indication is found with a soundpath of 150mm in a 100mm thick

plate butt weld. A quick calculation made by the operator allows plotting to position thedefect 132.4 mm along the surface from the exit point and then 70.4 mm below the testsurface. After several hours of heavy scanning the operator has unwittingly worn the

probe down on the nose and the actual angle changes to 58° (both 62° and 58° are withinacceptable tolerances for a nominal 60° probe). When the same indication is investigatedagain the operator finds an indication in that same area but it does not seem to be thesame. The soundpath is only 133mm for the "new" indication. The operator, believing therefracted angle is 62° now plots a defect 62mm below the surface. This situation isillustrated in Figure 8-1.

Figure 8-1 Similar errors in lateral positional plotting

can result from skewing of the beam. When plotting an indication with an angle beam weassume the beam extends directly ahead in-line with the probe housing but wear on oneside or the other of the wedge will steer the

beam away from the centre-line. If we usethe previous example with the 62° probefinding an indication at 150mm soundpath,the plan view plot would indicate it to beabout 132mm directly in front of the probefrom the exit point. If a 5° skew existed that was not accounted for, the error in locatingthis indication would be about 11.5mm (see Figure 8-2).

Index point or beam exit point for an angle beam probe is easily established on the 11W block. This is used to establish the actual refracted angle so its accuracy within +/-1.5mmis essential. For longer soundpaths (>25mm the effect on positioning a flaw forward or

backward would not be too critical. e.g. If the flaw plotted in Figure 8-1 was 1mmforward or backward due to the exit point being off 1mm from its scribed position itwould have little bearing on the evaluation of the defect. If, however, the weld tested was

Figure 8-2



on a 6mm thick pipe with a TIG root the root width might be about 2mm. An error in exit point placement could plot the defect on the wrong side of the weld.

In the chart of items checked as per BS 4331, the first three items are unique to contact probes, but the remaining items could be considered by any transducer evaluation,

including immersion probes. Handling and aging can cause changes to the element's backing, degree of polarization, lensing material shape, lens material bond to the elementor degree of loading (for the thin gold face on PVDF elements). These changes result inchanges in both amplitude and frequency. The effect on performance is multi-stepped.

For example: if aging has resulted in a slight disbonding of the element from the highdensity backing of a standard ceramic element, its damping will be reduced. This willlead to an increased ringing. More ringing reduces resolution and increases the extent ofdead zone due to the rattle. Decreased damping due to the disbondment, however, allowsvibrations to be larger so sensitivity is increased. The reduction in backing load tends tochange the centre-frequency to a higher value but the increased sensitivity, afforded by

more and larger vibration displacements, reduces the bandwidth. The higher frequencyincreases the near zone as it is a function of wavelength. The angle of divergence is alsochanged (decreased ) as it too is a function of wavelength.

Operating probes in warm water (>50°C) or high radiation fields (several MegaRads) cancause blistering or disbonding of the epoxy material used for lensing. This could havesimilar effects to those noted for backing disbondment as well as distorting andredirecting the beam centre-line.

In addition to aging and environmental causes of alterations to the transducer performance, handling can also cause changes to occur. A sharp jolt from dropping a

probe may result in similar disbond problems. With the availability of different pulseshapes it may be possible to deteriorate polarization in an element. A negative going pulse voltage is normally applied to probes but polymer elements tend to perform betterwith a positive going pulse. Polymer probes will show no deterioration if pulsed withnegative going spikes but ceramic elements may experience depolarization over extended

periods of time. Depolarization will reduce sensitivity and the increased gain requiredwill manifest itself in a lower s/n ratio.

Sources of variation in transducer performance are many. Establishing a baseline withtolerances and then monitoring for changes in any of the parameters checked will help toensure reliability of test results.

Material Variations

When considering the variables of the test material that affect test results we can groupthem into three areas of concern:

1. entry surface2. part size and geometry



3. internal structure.

Entry surface variables include:

4. surface roughness

5. surface coatings6. couplant condition.

Surface Roughness

Surface roughness will have several possible effects on the inspection of a test piece. Incontact testing roughness on a gross scale results from: weld spatter, plate scale, dirt(sand) and rough cast surfaces from sand casting. These irregularities will cause some

points of contact to push away the couplant and force it into the lower areas around the probe. If the couplant is not sufficiently viscous it will drain away quickly and fail tocouple the probe to the test piece. See Figure 8-3.

Figure 8-3

In addition to reduced coupling, which will reduce signal amplitudes, the rough surfaceincreases the rate of wear on the probe. On an otherwise smooth surface isolated

protrusions such as weld spatter can hinder or stop probe motion or in the case ofmechanized systems there may be sufficient force to move the probe past the obstruction

but this could result in damaging the probe by either tearing it from its mounting orseverely scoring the plastic wedge. When the dirt on the test piece is very fine (similar toa flour texture) coupling can be prevented due to surface tension preventing the liquidcouplant penetrating to the metal. Unless a transfer value has been established betweentest piece and calibration piece, this could go undetected.

In addition to affecting coupling, surface roughness tends to reduce signal amplitude byscattering and focusing the beam. This applies to both contact and immersion testing.

Whether uniform or irregular, a rough surface has the potential to present a scatteringeffect at an interface where a beam impinges. The degree of scattering is based on theratio of roughness to wavelength. When roughness is less than about 1/10 a wavelength,scatter will be negligible. To reduce signal losses due to scattering an operator can selecta lower frequency probe. With a wavelength of 0.37mm in water for a 4MHz probe,signal loss due to scatter can occur for irregularities as small as about 0.04mm. In



addition to signal reduction another effect of surface irregularities is to redirect and modeconvert some energy which when returned to the probe can be the source of spurioussignals. In contact testing false indications from standing waves resulting from scatter onrough surfaces will normally have short soundpaths. They can be eliminated as true flaws

by failing to locate any trace of indication from the full skip or from the opposite side.

Unless done properly, removal of surface roughness by mechanical means can result infurther scattering problems. Small curved gouges left by a grinding wheel used to removespatter or machining grooves can form small lenses. The affect of grinding can beunpredictable. Some of the lensing may concentrate the beam thereby increasing signalamplitude, or, the lens effect may be a de-focusing of the beam, again resulting in lowerthan expected signal amplitudes. Uniform surface preparation by sand or shot blastingusually provides a good surface for ultrasonic testing. Removal of excess metal by a handheld grinding wheel is commonly used on weld caps and roots. When a pipe weld has hadits root ground flush and inspection can only be performed from the outside diameter,quality of grinding can result in unnecessary repair calls if grinding has been along the

weld axis. The small grooves made by the grinding wheel run parallel to the root edgeand are easily confused with lack of fusion, missed edge or undercut defects.

Surface Coatings

Surface coatings are added to protect a surface from corrosion or to enhance itsappearance. Thin films, such as oxide layers, anodizing layers or electroplated finishes,and the slightly thicker coatings of paint or lacquer are usually well bonded to thesurface. Quality of bond may be compared to the uncoated reference block by a simpletransfer value. Even a slight loss due to the coating may be preferable to removing thecoating and trying to inspect on the rough surface it hides.

When thickness testing is done on a painted surface the paint thickness can add error tothe reading. For example:

A nominal 25mm steel plate has a cellulose paint coating of 0.5mm. V steel =5980m/s, V paint = 2600m/s. If a digital thickness meter is calibrated on a 25mmthick piece of the steel plate without the paint coating and then placed on the

painted surface an error will occur. The coating is sufficiently thin that itsinterface with the metal will occur in the dead zone but the duration of time spentin the paint is added to the travel time to the opposite wall of the plate. If the true

plate thickness at the point of measurement is 25.16mm and the paint coating is0.5mm thick, the time in the paint is 0.5 ( 2.6 x 10 6 = 0.19µs. 0.19 microseconds isequivalent to 1.15mm in steel. The reading on the digital meter would combinethe two thickness as though all travel was in steel. This results in 25.16 + 1.15 =26.31mm as the indicated thickness. This problem can be overcome by using anA-scan display and measuring the interval between the first and second echoinstead of the main bang and first echo. This is shown in Figure 8-4.



Figure 8-4

Couplant Condition

Both contact and immersion methods utilize intervening media to transfer sound from the probe into the test piece and back to the receiver. With immersion methods it isaccomplished by a single fluid medium. In contact testing there are nearly always at leasttwo intervening media; the delayline or protective face and the thin film of coupling fluid

or grease. Attenuation and acoustic velocity are the two main properties that dictate the performance of a couplant. Attenuation affects amplitude of the signal and velocity willdetermine both transit time and refracted angles.

But attenuation and velocity of couplants are not independent properties. Each is afunction of other parameters. Unless these parameters are controlled or in some waycompensated for, gross variations from the reference value or calibration conditions canresult.

Attenuation of couplants varies with material composition as would be expected.Published attenuation values are available for many materials as indicated in the table

below. Attenuation coefficients are often quoted in nepers which allow for frequencydependence. 1 Np = 8.686 x f 2 = dB/cm. Table 8-1 indicates attenuation of some commonliquids.

Table 8-1

Material Attenuation (Np x 10-15)



water 25.3

silicon oil 6200

castor oil 10100

mercury 5.8

ethylene glycol 128methanol 30.2

In more practical terms, for water, this would mean an attenuation of about 5 dB permetre. Since such long water path lengths are not normally used the 0.005 dB/mmattenuation is considered negligible. But for the heavier oils attenuations 200 to 500 timesgreater can have significant effects on signal amplitude and frequency content. For thefixed delaylines or wedge materials used in contact testing attenuation variations can befar more pronounced and variation between manufacturers can cause considerableresponse differences. For example the plastics listed in table 8-2 are typical wedge

materials selected by manufacturers and based on velocity for refraction purposes, butattenuation differences would result in noticeable amplitude response variation andfrequency content of transmitted waveforms. Since the operator rarely knows what wedgematerial a manufacturer has used, little can be done to correct for potential variations in

periodic inspections where results of tests taken with one or more years separation arecompared.

Table 8-2

Material Attenuation dB/cm@ 5 MHz

AcousticVelocity

Plexiglas(acrylic) 6.4 to 12.4 2.75 to 2.61

lexan (polycarbonate) 32.2 2.30

polystyrene 1.8 to 3.6 2.32 to 2.48

nylon 2.8 to 16 2.6 to 2.77

Attenuation is not a material constant. Under changes in conditions it can change. Forexample attenuation in water is inversely proportional to both temperature and pressure.

At standard pressure and temperature (1 atmosphere and 20°C) attenuation in water is25.3 x 10 -15 Np. When temperature is 0°C and water still liquid attenuation is 56.9 x 10 -15

Np and at 40° it is 14.6 x 10 -15 Np. At 1000 atmospheres attenuation drops to 12.7 x 10 -15 Np and increases to 18.5 x 10 -15 Np in a vacuum (zero atmospheres) when thetemperature is held at 30°C.



Attenuation of couplants need rarely be considered when calibration and test conditionsare the same couplant material, temperature and pressure. However, mechanical actionscan add to variations in attenuation under some conditions e.g. liquid soap is often usedin contact testing. Under static conditions it provides reasonable coupling, ease of probemovement and clean hands. When a part is inspected with more rapid probe motion than

may be used for static calibration it is possible to lather the soap. As bubble density builds in the couplant attenuation will increase.

Far more pronounced on test results are the affects of velocity changes. As withattenuation of couplants, velocity is normally considered fixed for a given material.Providing all parameters affecting velocity are controlled the assumption is valid butsubtle changes in parameters can have significant results.

Just as plastic compositions change in velocity so too does water. Pure water at 20°C and1 atmosphere pressure has a velocity of 1480m/s. But water is not normally pure. Assalinity increases as in sea water, acoustic velocity increases. At 20°C in sea water with a

3% salinity the acoustic velocity increases to about 1515m/s. For work done on off-shorestructures, where immersion work would occur using the surrounding sea water, anycalibrations done on-board ship must use water of the same salinity as will occur at thedepth of test or probe placement and refracted angle will be mis-calculated. As well,acoustic velocity increases with pressure in water so with increasing water depth velocityalso rises. This is relatively insignificant but may be corrected for by the equation.

Vd = V o + (d x 0.018)where V d = acoustic velocity at depth dd = depth in metersVo = acoustic velocity at the surface.

For our example of a 3% salinity the correction for work at 50m would be 1515 + (50 x0.018) or 1515.9 m/s.

Temperature is undoubtedly the most significant parameter affecting acoustic velocity.As such, its control or knowledge of its change is essential to ensure inspection accuracy.Change in acoustic velocity with change in material temperature is termed acoustictemperature dependence. Strangely, temperature dependence is not always the same sign,i.e. increasing material temperature will increase acoustic velocity in some materials anddecrease it in others.

Table 8-3 illustrates some of the variations in temperature dependence ( V/ t) for somematerials.

Table 8-3

Material Acoustic Velocity @25°C (V / t (m/s °C)

caster oil 1470 -3.6

ethylene glycol 1658 -2.1



kerosene 1324 -3.6

methanol 1103 -3.2

water (pure) 1498 +2.4

water (sea) 1531 +2.4

polystyrene 2400 -4.4

polymethyl methacrylate 2690 -2.0

polyvinyl chloride (hard) 2380 -8.0

By comparison most metals have a temperature dependence of between -0.5 to -5.0m/s/°C depending on mode and axis of

propagation.

When dimension verification isaccomplished by determining travel time ina coupling liquid, as in Figure 5-20,variation in temperature could easily affectaccuracy. Even more challenging iscorrecting for change over a period of time.e.g. temperature at the start of the test is20°C, but over a half hour period itincreased to 35°C. For water this increasesthe acoustic velocity to 1520 m/s, it does notchange linearly with temperature (see Table8 - 3a).When applied to angle beam testing the

problems become more obvious. Snell's Law allows us to predict refracted angles in amaterial based on knowing the acoustic velocities involved and the incident angle. Theratio of the velocities determines the degree of refraction. When a standard contact testingwedge is purchased it is marked with the nominal refracted angle it will produce in a steelwith shear velocity assumed to be 3250 m/s. A plastic wedge having an acoustic velocityof 2600 m/s is machined at 43.9° to produce a nominal 70° refracted beam in steel. Thisassumes 20°C operating temperature. If a test piece is inspected that is warm to the touch(~40°C) the velocity of both steel and plastic will be less than assumed. If the plasticchanges by -4.0 m/s /°C, and steel by about -2 m/s °C the velocities to use would be 2312for the plastic and 3210 for the steel. The actual refracted angle would be closer to 74°.

Figure 8-5 illustrates the effect of temperature on refracted angles in steel for threecommon fixed wedge angles.

Table 8 - 3a:Velocity change with Temperature

Temperature°C Velocitym/s Deltam/s°C5 1440 3,1415 472 2,6525 1498 2,1535 1520 1,6745 1536 1,1855 1548 0,6865 1555 0,2075 1557



Figure 8-5

Incident angles indicated in the legend in Figure 8-5 are those to produce nominal 45°,60° and 70° refracted angles under standard conditions. The plastic calculated for is UVAII with an acoustic velocity of 2760 m/s. The affect on angulated longitudinal waves iseven more pronounced, this due to the greater ratio difference in velocities between the

plastic and steel in compressional mode.

Part Size and Geometry

Test results may vary if the test piece differs from the calibration or reference piece. Inthis way both shape and size will contribute to potential variation in test results.Particular interest in this variable exists for contact testing on curved surfaces. When aflat probe is used on a convex curved surface only a portion of the probe makes contact.This will reduce the amount of sound that can be transferred to and from the test piece.As a result sensitivity compared to coupling to a flat piece is reduced. The proportion ofsound reduction compared to a flat piece is a function of the curvature of the part, thecrystal diameter and the coupling ability of the couplant via its viscosity.

Some sources also consider the relative hardness of the probe face with a greater couplingor contouring available from softer material such as plastics and virtually no contouringavailable.

To avoid machining calibration blocks for every possible radius and surface conditioncompensation is made by adding gain to the receiver. The amount of compensating gaincan be determined by a simple transfer value or it can be calculated using formulae and



charts. Examples of the charts used for convex curvature compensation are found inFigures 8-6 and 8-7. These are from Australian Standard 2207 - Methods For TheUltrasonic Testing of Fusion Welded Joints in Steel. Two conditions are considered. Inthe first figure a nomogram is used to correct for losses when the probe contact is madeon the curved surface. The test part radius is located on the left-hand scale and a line

made through the appropriate probes diameter on the middle scale. The point on theright-hand scale this line intersects is the amount of gain to add as a correction factor.

In the second figure the probe makes contact on a flat surface but the beam reflects off aconvex curve thereby redirecting portions of the beam away and reducing the maximum

possible reflected energy. The graph used does not consider probe diameter, instead, ratioof surface curvature to metal path thickness is used. moving vertically up from the ratioaxis (horizontal axis) at the appropriate ratio for your work piece, the point on the verticalaxis where the curve is intersected gives the necessary correction factor.

Figure 8-6

Figure 8-7

Other codes and specifications may use different equations or graphs but the intent is thesame.

Attempts to compensate by simply adding gain may not be adequate. Improvement is had by contouring the plastic wedge to the test piece. However, since the probe can no longer be calibrated on a flat reference piece this makes machining of a reference piece of theexact same geometry a necessity. For very small parts even this may prove unsatisfactorydue to the production of surface waves and other spurious signals associated with largetime differences of the beam in the wedge or delayline. If contouring probes proves toonoisy then immersion methods or even another NDT method may have to be considered.

Geometry is not only a consideration as a potential source of signal variation but also offeasibility. Consideration must be given to beam shape when interaction with a boundaryoccurs. Formation of unwanted surface waves and mode converted waves will result due



to finite extents of a beam. The single ray drawn from the probe exit point at the refractedangle is merely a convenient presentation of the principle of the test. In reality portions ofthe beam will impinge at greater and lesser angles due to divergence or side lobes (in thenear zone).

A beam impinging on a curved surfaceintended to generate a high refractedangle in the test piece is most prone tosurface wave generation. See Figure 8-8.

This occurs more often for curvedsurfaces than for flat surfaces because not only does the beam divergence increase theincident angle but the point of incidence on a curved surface is always receding so furtherincrease in incident angle results.

Curved surfaces make plotting more difficult than the simple trigonometry for flatsurfaces. Compare similar conditions for a 45° beam in flat and curved plate. Using athickness of 20mm the signal obtained at 35mm for an inspection of a 100mm radius pipeoccurs 19.2 mm from the OD test surface and 31.7mm along the test surface from the exit

point to the point over the indication. On a flat piece this would indicate an indication15.2mm down and 24.8mm from the exit point. See Figure 8-9.

Figure 8-9

Geometry can also limit inspections. Again, concentric geometries are a common problem in this regard. A critical ID/OD ratio exists that will not allow an angle beam

from the OD to intersect with the ID. This is shown in Figure 8-10.

Figure 8-8





Figure 8-11

Although the equations and graph indicate that high angles of refraction may be used toensure both ID and OD are seen, the actual size of the pipe will limit the practicalmaximum angle due to beam width and the resultant surface waves that occur. Fortubular products where wall thickness approaches the wavelength the wall is flooded withsound and plate waves discussed in Chapter 5 result.

Some authors have indicated that contact pipe inspection in the circumferential directioncan be accomplished by simply moving the probe over the pipe surface by a distanceequal to one full skip. The principle involved is shown in Figure 8-12.

Figure 8-12

This draws well for the centre of beam ray but when applied to real conditions this cansupply little more than a go/no-go inspection. Beam spread, mode conversions andattenuation will not permit accurate locating of any defects occurring several skips away.



In fact attenuation will probably limit detectability of defects by this method to pipesunder 10-20cm diameter. Such a technique may be useful when access is limited to onlyhalf of the circumference. The presence (but not necessarily the location) of a flaw may

be detected by first scanning in one direction to the obstruction then the other, as inFigure 8-13.

Figure 8-13

Internal Structure

The final aspect of material variations affecting test results is the structure of materialunder test. Material parameters are a function of makeup and environmental conditions.Makeup is determined by design and processing. Whether the material under test is steel,aluminium or fibre-composite, variations can occur by design. Proportion of resin to fibrewill vary in composites and metals may have many alloying variations. In addition, metal

grain structure can be varied by alloy, heat treatment and working. All these factors will provide differences in the results of ultrasonic tests manifested as variations in velocity orattenuation. Also, just as temperature and pressures were noted to change velocity andattenuation in couplants so too will the material under test be similarly affected by theseexternally controlled conditions.

In cooling molten metals, solidification begins at many sites throughout the melt. At eachsite the growth pattern is determined by the surrounding liquid material and thesurrounding temperature gradients. Crystals form as growth progresses. Eventually thecrystals' growth is halted when another crystal is encountered and all the liquid has beenconsumed. Although we generally consider the metal to be homogeneous, on a

microscopic scale the boundaries formed by the edges of the grains make it in-homogenous. For an ultrasonic wave each crystal presents a different acoustic impedancedepending on orientation and degree of inter grain bonding. As well, there may be pores,gaps and non-metallic inclusions. All these factors will cause scattering.

Just as with surface roughness, scatter will be a function of wavelength. Krautkramer points out that for grain sizes up to about 1/100th of a wavelength scatter can beconsidered negligible. However, as grain size increases beyond that, it can become a



significant factor adding to decreasing signal amplitudes. As grain sizes increase togreater than 1/10th the wavelength, inspection may not be possible by ultrasonics.Austenitic stainless steels are typical of metals with large grain structures. In the

production of austenitic steels manufacturers often attempt to control or limit grain size.This is done by :

a) introducing small amounts of grain refining elements b) limiting the temperature the steel is heated toc) by hot working the steel to break up the austenite grains.

In spite of these effects the stainless steel product is not always consistent in its grainstructure. When testing stainless steel forgings, it is possible to have areas of higherattenuation than others. In cases such as this it will require observant operators torecognize the increase in grass level.Velocity changes with material and condition as well. Contact angle wedges are normallymade for steel so the refracted angle indicated on the wedge assumes it will be used on a

steel with a longitudinal velocity of about 5900m/s and a shear wave velocity of about3250m/s. When the same wedge is used on aluminium plate with longitudinal velocity6320 m/s and shear at 3100 m/s the 'nominal' refracted angle indicated will not indicatethe true angle.

But one need not move to a completely different metal to illustrate velocity changes.Rolled plate for pipeline construction shows variations of 8-10% in shear wave velocities.This is attributed to rolling and heat treat differences and the resulting differences in grainelongation and orientation. Even alloys of steel show marked variation in acousticvelocity; 4340 steel has a shear velocity of 3240 m/s while in 4150 steel it is 2770 m/s, adifference of nearly 17%.

These variations point out the importance of material specific calibration pieces.

Finally, as with couplants, acoustic velocity of a test material varies with temperature.Most published values will indicate velocities determined at 20°C. For work at muchhigher or lower temperatures corrections will need to be made. This will require thetemperature dependence for the material to be established and this will have to be inaddition to similar corrections made for couplant changes.

Defect Variation

The fourth major factor affecting test results is the defect or reflecting surface of interest.In evaluating a signal an operator will use three items; soundpath, probe position andamplitude. The change in relationship of these three aspects is called "echo dynamics".Therefore, investigating the echo dynamics of a flaw allows the operator to build up animage (mental in manual scanning and possibly visual if automated) of the shape of theflaw. Four factors are significant in the response obtained from a defect;



1. size and geometry 2. location with respect to adjacent surfaces 3. orientation of themajor axis 4. type of discontinuity and conditions of reflection.

Defect Size and Geometry

Both defect size and defect shape have a significant affect on signal amplitude. Principlesof the AVG system showed how signal amplitude is a function of the ratio of reflectorarea to element area. Generally small defects provide smaller amplitude signals thanlarger flaws. However, an irregular flaw shape may mean not all of the flaw reflects thesound back to the receiver. Irregular facets of a crack or close proximity of pores inclusters of porosity can result in sufficient losses due to scatter that very small signals arereceived in spite of the fact that a large volume of metal is missing; i.e. signal amplitudeis no guarantee of defect size. Defect sizing using the AVG method can result in errors of3:1 to 6:1. With the SAFT method sizing accuracy can be almost 100% (published byIZFP).

Location with Respect to Adjacent Surfaces

Defect position with respect to adjacent surfaces presents several causes of variableresults. Simple attenuation accounts for reduced signal amplitude by increasing thesoundpath (in the far zone) to the flaw. If the flaw is close to another reflecting surfaceconfusing signals may result or signals may be lost. Figure 8-14 shows how a modeconverted signal may arise due to a reflection off a planar flaw near a flat surface.

Mode converted wave off defect at 65° strikes radius providinglarge amplitude signal that when plotted gives a virtual location ofa defect different from its actual position

Figure 8-14

If the adjacent surface in 8-14 had been flat the reflected shear and mode convertedsignals would both have been undetected. Such signals produced by mode conversion can

be differentiated from flaws by using a couplant wetted finger to rub the test surface. Thecompressional mode is noticeably damped.



Mode converted longitudinal and re-directed shear waves can be seen when drawingdistance amplitude correction curves on some calibration blocks. The typical ASMEcalibration block uses a side drilled hole at quarter thickness (1/4t). The convex radius ofthe hole allows both situations to occur (see Figure 8-15).

Figure 8-15

Orientation of Major Axis

When the major axis of a defect is not exactly perpendicular to the beam reflection causesthe returned signal to be directed away from the simple return path back to thetransmitter. For small angles this will not cause a total loss of signal as beam dimensionsare sufficient that the off-centre portions can still be detected by the probe. Even smallangles off normal(e.g. +/-5°) can result in significant signal reductions. When expected

flaws are planar and no convenient pulse-echo angle can be arranged to ensure the beamwill strike the flaw at right-angles tandem probe arrangements are preferred.

Type of Discontinuity and Conditions of Reflection

To some extent this has been addressed by the other aspects. Defect size and geometry isusually determined by its type; e.g. porosity is usually small and spherical, slag isirregular in shape and size, and non-fusion is usually planar. However, reflectivity ofdefects is not a simple matter of incident angle. For very fine porosity there may be nonoticeable back reflected signal but the scatter such a dispersive defect would causewould reduce the transmitted energy.

Maximum reflection occurs off a free boundary. This is effectively the situation for non-fusion and cracks where the void is air. However, when a dissimilar material fills thevoid, as would be the case in a slag inclusion or tungsten inclusions in a TIG weld orcarbide inclusions in castings or forgings, part of the sound incident on the boundary istransmitted. This will reduce the reflected signal. Added to the loss due to transmissioninto the next medium is the associated losses due to the reflection at any angle other than



0°. Reflection and transmission coefficients discussed earlier show how quicklyamplitudes can change due to boundary material differences and incident angles.

Finally, ambient conditions of pressure can have profound effects on a signal amplitude.Studies have shown a signal from a surface breaking crack to be reduced by 20dB when

the cracked sample was placed in compression. This effectively "closed the gap".|Top |

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Ultrasonic Inspection 2