Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children with Autism

a. Lovaas Model (utilizing the UCLA curriculum)

b. Errorless Teaching (utilizing the ABLLS as curriculum)

The Discrete Trial(a three-term contingency) SD R SR (Discriminative Stimulus) (Response) (Reinforcing Stimulus)

(a four-term contingency)EO/SD R SR(Establishing Operation/Discriminative Stimulus) (Response) (Reinforcing Stimulus)

Definitions1. SD (Discriminative Stimulus): An environmental cue or instruction that signals that reinforcement is available for a target behavior.

2. R (Response) : The behavior the child exhibits immediately following the presentation of the SD.

3. SR (Reinforcing Stimulus) : The consequencefollowing the childs response that changes thelikelihood with which the behavior will reoccur.

Consecutive Trials Using the Three-Term ContingencySD R SR ITI

SD R SR ITI

SD R SR

- This sequence is adhered to most often at the early stages of teaching regardless of the model of treatment that is being utilized.

Definitions4. ITI (Inter-trial Interval) The time between the end of the consumption of the reinforcer or administration of the punisher (NO) and the presentation of the next SD.

When thinning the reinforcement schedule, the ITI is the time between the end of one response and the presentation of the next SD.

Depending on the model of treatment, the ITI will be from less than one second up to three seconds.

Consecutive Trials Using the Three-Term ContingencySD R ITI SD R ITI

SD R ITI SD R ITI

SD R ITI SD R ITI

SD R ITI SR

This sequence can be employed when thinning the reinforcement schedule or increasingthe pace of instruction regardless of the model of treatment. This sequence is alsoemployed when presenting SDs in a mixed and varied format or when stimuli arepresented in random rotation.

Definitions5. Mixing and Varying (errorless)/Random Rotation (Lovaas) : The random presentation of any mastered response from any program with any current target response from any program.

6. Program : A skill or concept that is being taught (e.g., Expressive Picture Labels or Pronouns or Prepositions are all programs).

7. Mastered Response : A response that was taught within a program.

8. Field: The top of the table where stimuli are placed.

Definitions9. Current Target : A response that is currently being taught within a program (e.g., cup, my shirt, on top)

10. Prompt : Assistance provided by the adult in order to increase the likelihood that the child will be successful at completing the response. The prompt should be delivered immediately following the SD. (e.g., SD(prompt) R SR)

11. Stimulus : An item or event in the environment that can be detected by the senses (pl. stimuli).

Definitions12. Discrimination Training: The procedure that teaches children to be able to distinguish one item (or other response) from another.

13. Extinction: The process in which behavior that has been previously reinforced is or longer reinforced, therefore the frequency of the behavior decreases.

When to use No1. In the UCLA model it is recommended that an informational No or extinction is employed when a child responds incorrectly.

2. Using two consecutive Nos prior to delivering a prompt should be primarily confined to points in the discrimination training procedure when the child will be offered opportunities to change and adapt his/her behavior in response to corrective feedback (i.e., the absence of reinforcement). In other words, we are saying to the child, try again.

When to use No3. During the teaching of new responses, the correct procedure to employ following an incorrect response (according to the UCLA model) is to employ the least intrusive prompt that will facilitate the response. The goal at the early stages of discrimination training is to introduce the item and make the child successful not to teach them to adapt to corrective feedback.

4. There is not a procedure called the no-no prompt in the UCLA model this evolved due to a somewhat altered understanding of the correct manner in which this kind of feedback would be employed.

Advantages of Using No as Corrective Feedback1. Teaches the child to adapt and change his or her behavior in response to the absence of reinforcement. In other words, it offers the child an opportunity to try something different.

2. The ability to adapt and change your behavior in response to the absence of reinforcement is a skill required in incidental learning situations (i.e., real life).

3. No is a naturally occurring consequence in every persons life.

Using No CorrectlyExample of Using No with the Current Target in Random RotationSD1-------correct---------reinforceSD2-------correct-------- reinforce SD1-------correct----------reinforce (switch positions)SD2--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions)SD3--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions)SD3--------correct----------reinforceSD1--------correct-----------reinforceSD2----incorrect------- NoSD2---------incorrect------------- NoSD2 (prompt)------correct------reinforce (switch position)SD2---------correct-------------reinforceSD3---------correct----------- reinforceSD2---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position)SD3---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position)SD2---------correct-------------reinforce

SD1: Touch toothbrushSD2: Touch shoeSD3: Touch cup

Advantages of Using No as Corrective Feedback4. Teaches children to avoid negative consequences.

5. Strong contrast between when response is incorrect vs. correct may make social praise more reinforcing.

6. May reduce dependency on prompts.

Disadvantages of Using No as Corrective Feedback1. Child may demonstrate problem behavior in response to its presentation.

2. Child may have a period of responding incorrectly on purpose in order to hear No. (NOTE: This same kind of behavior may be demonstrated by typically developing children when they do or say things incorrectly in order to get a reaction from their parent, teachers etc. so is it REALLY a disadvantage?)

3. Therapists may default to employing No too often which may result in problem behavior due to excessive failure.

Definitions14. Stimulus Control: Some specific behavior is more likely to occur in the presence of some specific SD. For example: Tell a child to touch the cup and then prompt him by pointing to the cup. The child then touches the cup. The SD that is most likely controlling the childs response is the instructors point and not the verbal instruction, touch the cup.

Definitions15. Transfer Trial: The first trial is prompted followed by a second unprompted trial. For example, if the child is told to touch the cup and then the instructor points to the cup, the childs response is under stimulus control of the instructors point. If immediately following the prompted trial the instructor tells the child to touch the cup and the child responds correctly the instructor has shifted stimulus control from the point to the verbal instruction.

Using Near-errorless Teaching Procedures INITIAL PRESENTATION OF STIMULUS Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY PROMPT)----------Correct Response -------------SR

TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (2 sec DELAY)---------------Correct Response---------SR

(~1-3 interceding trials consisting of mastered responses)

Stimulus 1 (2 sec DELAY)---------------Correct Response-------------SR

(Future Presentations of the stimulus will be presented with a 2 second delay)

These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop handout from March 2004.

Using Near-errorless Teaching ProceduresExample:Instructor says, Touch the shoe and then prompts the child to touch the shoe. Instructor switches the position of the item in the field and repeats, Touch the shoeThe child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor. The instructor says, Clap your hands (mastered response). As the child responds, the instructor switches the position of the item in the field. Child responds appropriately. The instructor says, What am I doing? as she knocks on the table (mastered response)The child responds, knockingThe instructor says, Do this. and touches her nose (mastered response)The child imitates the instructors action.The instructor says, Touch the shoe.The child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor.

Using Near-errorless Teaching Procedures: Correction Procedure Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY PROMPT)------------------Correct Response --------------- SR

TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (2 sec DELAY)------------Incorrect or NO Response

CORRECTION TRIAL Re-Present Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY)------------------Correct Response------------------SR

TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (2 sec DELAY) ---------------------Correct Response---------------------------SR

(If learner is incorrect again on the transfer trial, return to 0 second delay to achieve correct response and move on, BUT ASK YOURSELF, Why is the transfer not occurring?)

SEVERAL RESPONSES LATER Stimulus 1 (0 sec DELAY [Phoneme/Mimetic Prompt])-----Correct Response---------------SR TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (2 sec DELAY) -----------------Correct Response----------------------------SR

These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop handout from March 2004.

Advantages of Errorless Teaching1. Reduces learner errors through teaching methods that insure high levels of correct responding.

2. Using of transfer trials and intermixing of easy and difficult demands may have a positive effect on the childs motivation to continue responding and reduce the motivation to escape.

3. Fast paced instruction may have a positive effect on the childs motivation to continue responding and reduce the motivation to escape.

Disadvantages of Errorless Teaching1. If not employed correctly, child may become prompt dependent.

2. Does not offer the child an opportunity to respond to corrective feedback.

3. Typical learning environments do not offer fast paced instruction therefore programming for more natural learning contingencies is a necessity that may easily be overlooked.

Definitions16. Mastery Criteria: Criteria that is established to determine if a specific response or set of responses has been learned. Typically with Trial-by-Trial data mastery criteria may be set at 90-100% independent/correct responding across three consecutive sessions or teachers or days. When using Probe Data, a response or set of responses may have been learned by the child once he/she has scored three consecutive Ys.

17. Percent Correct Graph: This graph should be completed at the end of each session. Each instructor should calculate the percent of correct responding in each program and plot a point on the graph.

18. Cumulative Graph: The total number of responses mastered each week will be graphed at the end of each week. Each consecutive week the total acquired for the week is added to the previous weeks number. This kind of graph can be used if you are colleting probe data or trial by trial data. (For example, is week one a child may master 3 responses, therefore a point would be plotted on the graph at 3. During week two the child masters 5 more responses, the next point on the graph would therefore be 8.)

Discrimination Learning This procedure is used to teach the child to discriminate between the first two items within a program.

The procedure outlined is for programs involving the use of stimuli.

Slight modifications will need to be made for those programs not involving stimuli.

Discrimination Learning Step A: Choose Targets which are maximally discriminable in:

Physical appearance (e.g., a block and car).

Sound (e.g., cup vs. dinosaur).

Function (e.g., a ball and truck vs. a shoe and sock).

For targets that do not involve the use of stimuli different response topography (e.g., hands vs. feet).

Discrimination Learning Step B: Mass Trial Target Item #1

Repeatedly present target item #1 with prompts.

Gradually and systematically fade the prompts.

Place the item in different locations around the table between trials.

For programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a distracter object. The object should be neutral (i.e., holds little to no value to the child). For example, a block or napkin could be used; the label should be unknown to the child. Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials. Introduce between 1-3 distracters.

Once the child is correctly responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy (with distracters), introduce target item #2.

Discrimination Learning Step C: Mass Trial Target Item #2

Repeatedly present target item #2 with prompts.

Gradually and systematically fade prompts.

Place the item in different locations around the table between trials.

For programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding to target item #2 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a distracter object. The object should be neutral (i.e., holds little to no value to the child). For example, a block or napkin could be used; the label should be unknown to the child. Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials. Introduce between 1-3 distracters.

Once the child is correctly responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy (with distracters), move to Step D.

Discrimination Learning Step D: Mass Trial item #2 in the presence of #1

Repeatedly present item #2 with item #1 also on the table.

Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials.

Continue to ask only for target item # 2. Once 80% or greater accuracy is achieved move to Step E.

Discrimination Learning Step E: Mass Trial item #1 in the presence of #2

Repeatedly present item #1 with item #2 also on the table.

Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials.

Continue to ask only for target item #1. Once 80% or greater accuracy is achieved move to Step F.

Discrimination Learning Step F: Block Trials (moving toward random rotation)

Begin with either target item #1 or target item #2 and present each in blocks of trials as outlined below.

Present a block of trials of target item #1 in the presence of target item #2 for approximately 6 trials (make sure at least the last 2 trials are independent correct responses before going to the next step).

Give the child a break (i.e., a short play break).

Present a block of trials of target item #2 in the presence of target item #1 for approximately 6 trials. Prompt the correct response on the switch trial (i.e., when switching from one target to the other).

Discrimination Learning Over time, as the child demonstrates consistency:

Decrease the number of trials per block.

Decrease the length of the break until you are conducting both blocks within the same sitting.

Fade the level of prompting on the switch trial.

Discrimination Learning Step G: Random Rotation

Randomly present the SD for target item #1 and target item #2 (i.e., free from pattern as if flipping a coin repeatedly).

Rotate the position of the items on the table between trials.

Both items are considered mastered once the child responds correctly to at least 80% of the trials in random rotation.

Expanded TrialsWhat is that?

Expanded Trials

Why, its the systematic increasing of the number of distracters between the presentations of the target response in order to increase the childs memory for the target responsesilly!

Expanded Trials This procedure is used to promote retention of information across time by systematically increasing the length of time across which the child must retain the information.

It is particularly helpful if a child is not able to move past block trials or has difficulty learning to discriminate between items.

This procedure may also be used if the child has difficulty retaining newly acquired items across sessions or days when placed in random rotation.

Expanded TrialsProgram: Receptive Instructions New Target: clap

Step 1: Present the target response. Prompt as needed so the child experiences immediate success.

Step 2: Fade prompts until the child is responding independently.

Step 3: Begin Expanded Trials.

Expanded TrialsHere is an abbreviated example of how expanded trials may look over several sittings:

Target item: Clap

Sitting 1 Sitting 2Sitting 3Clap Clap ClapWave Stomp Stand-upClap Knock KickJump Clap WaveClap Kick ClapKick Stand-up KnockClap Point PointJump ClapkickPointwaveClap Clap

Expanded Trials Guidelines

1. If the child responds incorrectly to one of the distracter responses, do not begin prompting this response. Instead, continue with the expansion of the target response. Review the incorrect response later during the session.

2. If the target response is incorrect at any point during expansion, return to the previous level of success (i.e., number of distracters where the child experienced success).

3. Work to extend the procedure across the day, working with time intervals rather than the number of interceding trials.

Collapsing TrialsQ: What is that?

A: A procedure that can be employed when a child is demonstrating consistent discrimination errors between two or more target responses.

Collapsing Trials1. Follows same rules as Expanded Trials regarding distracter trials.

2. Here is an abbreviated example of how Collapsing Trials may look over several sittings:

Discrimination Error in Receptive Object Labeling: fork vs. spoon

Sitting 1 Sitting 2 Sitting 3 Sitting 4touch Fork touch spoon give me the spoon find the forktouch car Stomp feet Stand-up do thiswhats your name? a dog is an .... touch head touch airplaneJump Clap a cup is for find the spoonClap Do this touch the fork. This is . give me the fork etc. Spoon 3. Continue reducing the number of distracter trials until the two targets are back to back.

4. When there are discrimination errors, it is highly recommended that you collect trial by trial data. 5. Have a separate section in the logbook for discrimination errors. Do not let discrimination errors hold up the rest of the program.

Generalization Stimulus Generalization

Definition: The extent to which a behavior taught in one situation is subsequently performed in another situation.

a. Across People - the childs ability to respond to people other than those involved in original teaching.

b. Across Environments - the childs ability to respond in different locations other than the table and chair (e.g., sitting on the couch, on the floor, at school etc).

c. Across SDs - the childs ability to respond to different SDs (e.g., sit here, sit down, have a seat).

d. Across Stimuli - the childs ability to respond to different examples of the stimulus used in teaching.

Generalization Response Generalization

Definition: The extent to which, by teaching one behavior, you see changes in other behaviors although these other behaviors were not explicitly taught (e.g., you teach a child to put away toys to the SD clean up and the child also begins to throw away garbage and put books away on the shelf).

Generalization Maintenance

Definition: The extent to which behaviors are maintained across time (e.g., a behavior is taught at time 1, and the child maintains the behavior at times 2, 3, and 4).

R R R R I-----------------I--------I--------------------I T1 T2 T3 T4

Generalization General Techniques for Promoting Generalization

Vary stimulus conditions over time.

a. Have multiple teachers and styles.b. Vary the stimuli. c. Vary the wording of instructions and questions. d. Vary the teaching environment.

Generalization General Techniques for Promoting Generalization

e. Make antecedents (SDs) natural. f. Making reinforcers natural.g. Make trials less discrete and more similar to typical interactions.Do "incidental" teaching. Build retention of information into your teaching procedures.

Data CollectionTrial-by-Trial1. This form of data collection requires every single response to be scored while the child and instructor are working. Data collection would occur during the inter-trial interval.

2. May provide the information needed to determine if a child is demonstrating consistent discrimination errors between two or more items. Most efficient way to determine if discrimination errors are being remediated.

3. Data calculated as a percent correct at the end of every session and then graphed. 4. May be more sensitive to more subtle increases or decreases in correct responding, incorrect responding and non-responding.

Data CollectionTrial-by-Trial

5. Trial-by-trial data can be employed as an excellent training tool for new instructors; these data would allow the new instructor as well as their supervisor to review the instructors teaching procedures.

6. Can be compared to video tapes of a childs therapy session for measure of reliability.

7. Can accurately track the rate of acquisition from day to day.

Data CollectionTrial-by-Trial

8. Supervisors know exactly how many trials per response or program are practiced over time.

9. May be time consuming if instructor is not fluent at collecting these data and therefore may interfere with the pace of instruction.

Data CollectionProbe Data 1. Data collected one time per day. Typically at the beginning of the first session of the day prior to teaching.

2. When collecting probe data allow three seconds for vocal responses and longer for complex motor or scanning responses.

3. If the response is correct (i.e., occurs within the allotted time) score a Y for yes.

4. If the response does not occur within the allotted time or the response is incorrect employ the correction procedure and score the response with an N for No.

5. Graph the total acquired at the end of each week on a cumulative graph.

6. Does not provide information regarding specific discrimination errors that may occur.

7. Is not sensitive to subtle changes in the childs responding.

Definitions19. Graph: Visual tool used to display data.

20. Line Graph: Most commonly used when displaying data from a program.

21. X-axis: The line on the bottom of the graph (i.e., horizontal axis).

Definitions22. Y- axis: The line on the side of the graph (i.e., vertical axis).

23. Phase/Condition Change Lines: Vertical lines are noted when there are changes in program, target, baseline, intervention etc.

24. Phase/Condition Labels: Written along the top of the graph, these note the current phase.

Benefits of Graphing Data1. All of the data from one program or from one intervention are all in one place and easily accessible.

2. This allows the team to determine if a response has been mastered without having to look through weeks of raw data (i.e., data sheets).

3. In the case of behavior reduction procedures, it allows the team to know if the intervention is working.

4. Displaying the data allows all team members to have a better understanding of how the child is progressing within each program, this may prove to motivate the team to generate new and fresh ideas when the child is not progressing quickly. If the child is progressing rapidly, the display of such progress can prove to be reinforcing to the childs team.

Benefits of Graphing Data

5. Allows measurement of rate of progress across programs which in turn provides the answers to such questions as How many more days should we be on this target prior to dropping it?

6. You can show the different dimensions of behavior including, frequency, intensity, duration and latency.

7. Overall, lets everyone know if the child is making any progress as a result of the intervention.

8. The childs progress performance and achievement may be higher when graphs are used to interpret progress.

9. Maximizes instructional effectiveness if the graphs are frequently monitored.

Definitions25. Accuracy: Typically measured by the percent correct. These data let the team know that the child can perform a task.

26. Fluency: How rapidly a child can perform a task.

27. Rate: How rapidly a child can perform a task within a given period of time.

Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data1. Make No Change.The child is progressing well and as expected, there is no need to change. Be sure to continue to frequently monitor the graphs even if the child is doing well.

2. Change the goal. - The child is not progressing as expected and it is apparent that the current target or program is not appropriate. Discontinue the program and reintroduce at a later date once prerequisites have been met or discontinue the current target and select a new target.

Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data3. Slice Back. - This means that the team should teach an easier version of the same skill prior to reintroducing the current version. For example, if the current target is imitation of two step actions and the child is not progressing well, it may prove beneficial for the team to have the child practice two step actions on objects. The object may make the task more salient for the child and the current skill of imitating two step actions is still being targeted.

4. Step Back: - Be sure prerequisites are met. For example, if the child has been practicing two step actions in an imitation program and is not progressing, it may prove beneficial to discontinue the two step actions and be sure that the child has mastered and generalized the ability to imitate any single action.

Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data5. Try a Different Instructional Procedure- The team may be confident that a current skill or target is appropriate and yet there is not progress. The team should then work on finding an effective prompting procedure or different stimuli or teaching procedure or they may need to develop a prompt hierarchy for the team to follow.

- Prior to making these kinds of adjustments the first thing to check is if the current procedure is being implemented correctly and consistently across instructors.

Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data6. Move on to a New Phase of Learning- If the child has achieved mastery criteria for a current target is it time to move on to a new target? generalization phase? a fluency phase?

- For example, if a child can identify a number of objects by touching them when the name of the object is presented, can he/she perform the same skill quickly and fluently and for longer periods of time.

Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data7. Move on to a New SkillIf the data show that a skill can be demonstrated fluently, accurately and under a variety of conditions it may be time to move on to a new program. Be sure to continue to monitor previously acquired responses once new skills or concepts have been introduced.

Types of Decisions to Make When Interpreting Data8. Begin Compliance Training- In some cases the data reflect a high rate of non-response. If the team agrees that the current target and teaching procedures are appropriate and the child should be able to perform the task, there may be a need for a program to be implemented that involves the child complying with the instructors directives.

Principles of Reinforcement Primary vs. Secondary 1. Primary (Unconditioned) = things which are naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, drink). 2. Secondary (Conditioned) = things which acquire reinforcing properties with learning (e.g., toys, games, praise, grades, privileges etc.).

Principles of Reinforcement

Contingent vs. Non-contingent

1. Contingent = Delivered after child has responded to specific instruction (e.g., responding to an SD) 2. Non-contingent = Delivered in the absence of a specific demand (e.g., Child is sitting quietly on a couch watching television, an adult approaches and hands the child an m&m.)

Principles of Reinforcement Varied vs. Differential 1. Varied = Offering the child a variety of reinforcers across a number of trials (e.g., hugs, toys, food etc. NOT monotonously saying Good Job! over and over and over and over) 2. Differential = Most powerful reinforcers are delivered for the best responses.

Principles of Reinforcement Positive vs. Negative

1. Positive = ADDING something to the situation. 2. Negative= REMOVING something from the situation.

Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement: Increases behavior

Punishment: Decreases Behavior

Definitions28. Positive Reinforcement Adding something to Increase behavior29. Negative Reinforcement- Remove something to Increase behavior30. Positive Punishment Add something to Decrease behavior31. Negative Punishment- Remove something to Decrease behavior

What influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? Immediacy Reinforcement must be delivered immediately following the target behavior (i.e., response). Contingency A relationship between a response and a consequence in which the consequence is presented if and only if the response occurs. Miltenberger (pg. 559, 2004)

What influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? Deprivation Lack of access to a reinforcing item increases the value of that item as a reinforcer.

Satiation Constant access to a reinforcing item decreases the value of that item as a reinforcer. Once the item has lost its value, it is no longer a reinforcer.

What influences the effectiveness of reinforcement ? Individual Differences What may be a reinforcer for one child may not be a reinforcer for another child. Magnitude The amount of a reinforcer that is available may make that reinforcer stronger, thereby strengthening the behavior that preceded it faster than less reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Definition: Specifies which responses will be followed by delivery of the reinforcer. - Miltenberger (pg.565, 2004)

Extinction (EXT) Intermittent (INT) Continuous (CRF) Three Main Schedules

Schedules of ReinforcementExtinction (EXT) Intermittent (INT) Continuous (CRF) 1. Extinction (EXT): None of the target behaviors are followed by reinforcement. 2. Continuous (CRF): All of the target behaviors are followed by reinforcement. 3. Intermittent (INT): Some occurrences of the target behavior are followed by reinforcement.

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio Schedules

Ratio schedules require that a certain number of responses be emitted before one response is reinforced. - Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987,pg. 278) Interval Schedules

Interval schedules require that a given interval of time elapses before a response can be reinforced. - Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987,pg. 278)

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio and Interval schedules can be applied in a FIXEDor VARIABLE manner. Fixed Ratio (FR): The ratio remains constant.

Example: FR3 = after every third correct response the child receives a reinforcer.

Variable Ratio (VR): The number of correct responses prior to reinforcement varies.

Example: VR3 = On average, after every third correct response the child receives a reinforcer.

Intermittent Schedules of ReinforcementFixed Interval (FI): In a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement, the first correct or desired response after a designated and constant amount of time produces the reinforcer. - Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987 pg, 284)

Example: FI 6 = After six minutes, the first correct or desired response the child receives a reinforcer.

Variable Interval (VI): In a variable interval schedulereinforcement is contingent upon the passage of time. - Cooper, Heron, Heward (1987 pg, 284)

Example: VI 6 = On average, the child will receive reinforcement after six minutes have elapsed.

Advantages of the Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement

1.The child cannot anticipate when the reinforcer will be delivered thereby creating consistency of responding.

2. Increased rates of responding. 3. Resistance to Extinction

On page 564 in Miltenberger, Resistance to Extinction is defined asthe tendency for a person to continue to respond after extinction is in effect for the behavior.

PunishmentThe most common misconception about punishment by persons not in the field of behavior analysis is the misinterpretation that PUNISHMENT is something that is meted out to a person who has committed a crime or other inappropriate behavior. In this context, punishment involves not only the hope that the behavior will cease, but also elements of retribution or retaliation; part of the intent is to hurt the person that has committed the crime. Authority figures such as governments, police, churches, or parents impose punishment to inhibit inappropriate behavior-that is, to keep people from breaking laws or rules. Punishment may involve prison time, the electric chair, fines, the threat of going to hell, spanking or scolding. However the every day meaning of punishment is very different from the technical definition of punishment used in behavior modification.

Miltenberger (pg. 114, 2004)

PunishmentIn Behavior Modification the term punishment only refers to a consequence that makes a particular behavior less likely to occur in the future. - Miltenberger (pg. 112, 2004)

Punishment Positive Punishment1. The occurrence of a behavior2. is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future. Example 1: While driving in traffic, you look down to find the cell phone that is ringingYou are not aware that the car in front of you has stopped, you hit the car fast enough to deploy the airbag which hits you full force causing lacerations and contusions. The next time you are driving in traffic you have a hands free unit in order to avoid having to look down to answer the phone.

PunishmentPositive Punishment1. The occurrence of a behavior2. is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future. Example 2: A child is near a hot stoveThe child touches the hot stove and gets a mild burn on his handThe child is less likely to touch the hot stove in the future.

PunishmentNegative Punishment1. The occurrence of a behavior2. is followed by the removal of a reinforcing stimulus3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.

Example 1: A child who is earning tokens contingent on responding to the teacher in a specialized classroom is staring at the lights in the class and does not respond when the teacher tells him to take out a pencilThe childs aide removes one of the tokensThe child stops looking at the lights

PunishmentNegative Punishment1. The occurrence of a behavior2. is followed by the removal of a reinforcing stimulus3. and, as a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.

Example 2: A little girl who attended a preschool hit the other children if they tried to play with her toysThe teacher put her in time-outand, as a result the little girl no longer hits the other children.

Problems with Punishment1. Punishment may produce aggression or other emotional side effects.

2. The use of punishment may result in escape or avoidance behaviors by the person whose behavior is being punished.

3. The use of punishment may be negatively reinforcing for the person using punishment and thus may result in the misuse or the overuse of punishment.

Problems with Punishment4. When punishment is used, its use is modeled and observers or people whose behavior is punished may be more likely to use punishment themselves in the future.

5. Punishment is associated with a number of ethical issues and issues of acceptability.

All that reinforcement and punishment stuff is interesting but how do I motivate the kids I work with?

How do we Motivate? Establishing Operation (EO)Any change in the environment which alters the effectiveness of some object or event as reinforcement and simultaneously alters the momentary frequency of the behavior that has been followed by that reinforcement. Michael (1982)

Examples of EOs1. Technical: Food deprivation makes food a more effective form of reinforcement and increases the current frequency of all behavior that has been reinforced with food. Michael (2000)

2. Real Life: Child has not eaten for a few hours, smells pizza and says, I want pizza. Why? What do you do next?

Examples of EOs3. Real Life: A child is called to the work table. The child complies (but is not happy about it) sits in the chair fidgeting and not offering eye contact. The instructor delivers social praise for leaving a preferred activity to return to the work area. The instructor then presents the child with a small box that contains a number of the childs highly preferred items and before the instructor can say anything the child eagerly says, Chip...chip.I want chip and offers eye contact and stops fidgeting.

Why? What do you think caused the change in the childs motivation?

How?Capture opportunities to build on language when the child speaks first. Dont just have a preconceived notion of what should happen next during the therapy session.

Contrive opportunities for the child to speak first by making changes to the environment that will stimulate the child to speak first; thereby allowing the instructors to offer reinforcement and to expand on the language that is being used.

Blah, blah, extinction, blah blah, reinforce, blah, blah, blah, EO, blah, blah, blah, blah, I supposed to be programming this kid. What behavioral curricula are available to me?

Curricula1. UCLA (Lovaas) Curriculum: Not readily available to the public. A Work in Progress is available which was written two consultants who trained at the UCLA Clinic. Early learning programs are outlined in both of Dr. Lovaas books.

2. The ABLLS: The Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills. Sundberg and Partington. Readily available to the public.

3. The IGS (Individual Goal Selection) Curriculum. Romanczyk, Lockshin and Matey. Readily available to the public.

Programming Using the UCLA or IGS CurriculumReceptive Programs: Programs that require a child to respond non-verbally. Expressive Programs: Programs that require the child to respond vocally. Imitation Programs: Programs that require the child to imitate the actions of others. Conversation Programs: Teach children to engage in contrived conversational exchanges that may lead to more natural conversation skills.

Teaching primarily involves discrete trial teaching utilizing the three term contingency (SD----R----SR) and incidental teaching away from the teaching table.

Note: There are other domains within these curricula, but they are not the focus of discussion.

Programming Using Skinners Analysis of Verbal Behavior as Outlined in the Sundberg and Partington Manuals1. Mand: A request that occurs under the control of the control of the childs motivation (i.e., EO/MO). 2. Tact : Programs that require the child to verbally label items, pictures etc. 3. Receptive: Programs that require the child to identify items non-verbally. 4. Intraverbal: Programming that requires the child to answer questions or fill-in the blank. 5. Motor Imitation: Programs that require the child to imitate the actions of another person. 6. Echoic: Imitating the vocalizations of another person.

Programming Using Skinners Analysis of Verbal Behavior as Outlined in the Sundberg and Partington ManualsTeaching primarily focuses on the four term contingency (EO/SD-----R----SR) and NET (natural environment teaching) as the focus of teaching the mand.

FUNCTIONS OF BEHAVIOR What is a function of behavior?

Generally speaking, the variable maintaining a given behavior (e.g., what might be reinforcing the behavior?).- Newman, Reeve, Reeve, and Ryan (2003 pg.51)

Four Classes of Reinforcing Consequences According to the Functional Analysis Model

Social Positive Reinforcement When a positively reinforcing consequence is delivered by another person after the target behavior -Miltenberger (2004 pg.261)

Social Negative ReinforcementWhen another person terminates an aversive interaction, task, or activity after the occurrence of a target behavior -Miltenberger (2004 pg.261)

Automatic Positive Reinforcementthe reinforcing consequence of a target behavior is not mediated by another person but occurs as an automatic consequence of the behavior itself. -Miltenberger (2004 pg.262)

Automatic Negative Reinforcementwhen the target behavior automatically reduces or eliminates an aversive stimulus as a consequence of the behavior. -Miltenberger (2004 pg.262)

Four General Classes of Controlling Variablesaccording to the Communication ModelAttentionEscape or AvoidanceAccess to Materials or ActivitiesSensory or Perceptual Consequences

Behavior Reduction Descriptive Analysis

Operationally define the behavior.- Include a brief description of how the staff have been addressing the behavior. - Conduct Baseline measure to determine frequency, duration etc. - Collect A-B-C (antecedent-behavior-consequence) data. - Identify the maintaining reinforcer (i.e., function).- Identify potential replacement behaviors. - Implement the behavior plan with a timeline for reassessment. - Graph the data. - If the behavior plan has had little or no effect REASSESS!

Behavior ReductionTwo main reasons why behavior plans fail:

INCONSISTENCY!

WRONG PLAN!

Behavior ReductionSome reasons why behavior plans succeed:

Maintaining contingency has been properly identified.

Opportunity for the child to engage in appropriate replacement behavior is frequently contrived (i.e., proactive) thereby allowing team to deliver high rates of reinforcement for the replacement behavior.

The team has CONSISTENTLY followed through on all components of intervention.

Intervention consists of proactive as well as reactive strategies.

Behavior ReductionGeneral Rule: Use the least intrusive and most natural technique that is effective.

Remember: If mom and dad cannot follow through with the intervention, choose another intervention!

Behavior Reduction Basic Techniques for Reducing BehaviorsExtinctionDefinition: Removal of all reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior.

- Often used with aggression, attention-seeking behaviors, tantrums, and verbal protest.

- Attention is not paid to the behavior nor are demands reduced as a result of the behavior. Do not say no in response to the behavior. Continue with the presentation of instructions without changing inflection in your voice. Prompt the child, if necessary, to respond to your instruction and provide a consequence to the response or lack thereof to your SD. Avoid obvious changes in body language (e.g., facial expressions); children are often able to pick up even the smallest of cues.

- In order to remain consistent, it is necessary to avoid inadvertently attempting to either comfort or quiet the child when they are crying, which is a natural response to that behavior.

- Extinction is not effective for intrinsically reinforcing behavior such as self-stimulatory behavior.

Behavior Reduction Basic Techniques for Reducing BehaviorsDRO: Differential Reinforcement of Other BehaviorDefinition: Any appropriate behavior other than the behavior selected for reduction will be reinforced. In other words, catch the child engaging in appropriate behavior and deliver reinforcement. DRI/DRA: a. Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior b. Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior Definitions: a. A behavior that is incompatible with the behavior selected for reduction is followed by reinforcement. b. A behavior that has been selected to replace the behavior selected for reduction is followed by reinforcement.

Behavior Reduction Basic Techniques for Reducing Behaviors

Time-Out From Positive Reinforcement Definition: Removal of all reinforcing stimuli for a period of time contingent upon the behavior. Note that this differs from extinction in that during extinction, only reinforcement for the target behavior is withheld.

Typically carried out in a specific location, such as a Time Out chair, in an uninteresting environment.

In order for Time-Out to be effective, the child needs to find the removal from people or the environment undesirable.

As a general rule, the duration of the time-out should be approximately 1 minute per year of the childs age.

Behavior ReductionAll Time-Outs should be conducted in a well-lit, open, and supervised area.

If the child is crying or protesting, he should not be excused from Time Out until a specified period (e.g., 30 seconds) of appropriate behavior has elapsed. Do not excuse the child the moment he stops crying or protesting.

Do not reward the child when he leaves the time-out situation. The child should be excused in a matter-of-fact manner.

Limitations:1. Not effective if it allows the child to leave the situation he/she was trying to avoid.2. Not effective if the child can engage in self-stimulatory behavior while in time-out. 3. Not effective unless the child has a good repertoire of alternative behaviors for which he/she will miss out on being reinforced.

Common Treatment Mistakes Made with Early Learners1. Not making learning reinforcing in general.

2. Overusing the child's name, which may result in the child tuning out their name.

3. Not requiring eye contact when it is appropriate.

4. Forgetting to reward the child for frequently occurring behaviors such as sitting well or coming over to the teaching table.

5. Not following a prompted trial with an unprompted trial.

6. Not providing a prompt after two incorrect trials, thus allowing repeated failures.

7. Not prompting frequently enough for newly introduced responses.

8. Providing a primary reinforcer for a prompted trial (i.e., not using differential reinforcement).

9. Not ensuring all trials are discrete

Common Treatment Mistakes Made with Early Learners10. Not being creative with the delivery of reinforcement.

11. Not programming for generalization.

12. Not actively gaining the childs attention through redirection and effective reinforcement techniques. Or spending too much time at the beginning of a sitting gaining the childs attention, making the child reliant upon this.

13. Waiting passively for the child to attend prior to presenting an SD.

14. Relying on an attentional cue (e.g., ready pal) before presenting an SD. 15. Allowing the child to self-correct or engage in multiple responses.

16. Waiting longer than 3-5 seconds following a non-response to provide a consequence.

17. The number of failures is disproportionate to the number of successes.

18. Allowing the child to respond with a winstay : loseshift pattern.

Common Treatment Mistakes Made with Early Learners19. Not having clear response criteria.

20. Prompting inadvertently.

21. Not introducing new items or formats when the child has mastered all current items or formats.

22. Having too many items or programs on acquisition at one time.

23. Not structuring the childs free play time.

24. Continuing a sitting too long and losing the childs attention or reducing motivation for quick accurate responding.

25. Having children 3 years old and younger at a table and chair for most of their therapy time.

26. Using ONLY discrete trials to teach new skills and concepts.

27. Focusing on data collection and not the child.

28. Blaming the childs disability for slow or no acquisition instead of reviewing the programming, behavioral interventions, reinforcers, instructor consistency and teaching environments.

29. Having unclear roles and responsibilities of staff; no chain of command.

30. Not involving the parents in ALL aspects of THEIR childs program.

Parents1. The childs parents are the most important part of the team! They are the ones that are home after all of the therapists leave. If they dont know how to follow through, the child will not get maximum benefit from their therapies.

2. Work with parents to teach them how to work with their child. This should empower them whereas not teaching them the proper instructional and behavior management methods will make them feel helpless.

3. Be patient! Some parents do not just jump right in and start doing therapy from day one. Encourage them, ask them what they are comfortable learning how to do. If they refuse, do not write them off, continue to provide guidance and answer any and all questions in a professional manner.

Parents4. Many parents feel overwhelmed, so do not look or act disappointed when they do not make materials or if they do not offer refreshments at team meetings. Divide the responsibilities for making materials amongst the individual team members. If refreshments are an issue, eat before the team meeting and grab a bottle of water.

5. If your responsibility is as parent trainer then TRAIN. Arrive at your clients home with an agenda and then teach the parents in a hands on manner, dont just talk.

6. You dont have to be friends with a parent in order to be a good therapist for their child.

Parents7. Always respect the parents wishes. You are a guest in their home. If they request something you disagree with, honor the request in the moment and then bring it up with your supervisor. Do not argue with or confront parents.

8. Dont bring your private problems to your clients home. Take a deep breath before you go into their home and teach their child.

9. Many parents are very friendly and can be engaging, do not take advantage of this. Remember, that is their childs therapy session. Keep the chit-chat to a minimum.

10. Above all else, never criticize the parents, their home or their child! We are here to help them. Always offer support and encouragement and be sure to reinforce parents when they are following through.

ANY ?

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