TSL 3113Action Research 1

- Methodology

TOPIC 1:An Introduction to Research Methods

in Education

Content:

Educational Research

Characteristics of Action Research

Approaches of Research

Ethics in Research

Educational Research

Educational Research

Educational research has been designed to investigate practices

in order to fundamentally improve the way we learn, know and

describe our world.

The overall aim of educational research is to provide teachers,

clinicians, managers and learners with systematically obtained

information that helps to improve the quality of the learning

process.

Educational Research

The difference between doing educational research and other

healthcare research is that often the immediate effects of the

intervention are seen and assessed on the educators or their

students, rather than on the processes and outcomes of patients.

Therefore, wherever possible, we should think about how to

measure the effects of an education intervention on the students.

Action Research

Action research is a form of investigation designed for use by

teachers to attempt to solve problems and improve professional

practices in their own classrooms. It involves systematic

observations and data collection which can be then used by the

practitioner-researcher in reflection, decision-making and the

development of more effective classroom strategies.

- Parsons and Brown (2002)

Action Research

Action research is a natural part of teaching. Teachers are

continually observing students, collecting data and changing

practices to improve student learning and the classroom and

school environment. Action research provides a framework that

guides the energies of teachers toward a better understanding of

why, when, and how students become better learners.

- Christine Miller (2007)

Action Research

Action Research is a fancy way of saying let's study what's

happening at our school and decide how to make it a better

place.

- Emily Calhoun (1994)

Action Research

Action research is the term which describes the integration of

action (implementing a plan) with research (developing an

understanding of the effectiveness of this implementation).

The original concept is sometimes attributed to Kurt Lewin

(1890–1947).

Action Research

Action (change) + Research (investigation)

Action (change) + Research (investigation)

When something goes wrong with your lessons, what do you do? If you think about what you are doing and make a change, you are doing Action

Research!!!

When something goes wrong with your lessons, what do you do? If you think about what you are doing and make a change, you are doing Action

Research!!!

Aims & purposes

1. To contribute towards whole school improvement: to encourage and assist teachers

to conduct action research as a means of effecting positive social and educational

change in their immediate environments and spheres of influence.

2. To effect improvement in the personal/ professional practice of teachers: the

process of conducting action research has been shown to have positive consequences

for the professional and personal development of the participants, as they learn to

become more proactive and take responsibility for effecting change.

3. To provide opportunities for Faculty to become involved in research projects: the

expertise of various staff members can be solicited for specific projects identified by

teachers.

Characteristics

of

Action Research

Characteristics of AR:1. Action researchers take action.

2. AR always involves two goals.

3. AR is interactive.

4. AR aims at developing holistic understanding.

5. AR is fundamentally about change.

6. AR requires an understanding of the ethical framework.

7. AR can include all types of data gathering.

8. AR requires a breadth of pre-understanding.

9. AR should be conducted in real time.

10.The AR paradigm requires its own quality criteria.

(Gummesson, 2000: 16)

1. Action researchers take action.1. Action researchers take action.

Action researchers are not merely observing something

happening; they are actively working at making it happen.

2. AR always involves two goals.2. AR always involves two goals.

Goals: Solve the problem and contribute to science.

The action researchers engage in both making the action

happen and stand back from the action and reflect on it as it

happens in order to contribute theory to the body of knowledge.

3. AR is interactive.3. AR is interactive.

It requires cooperation between the researchers and the client

personnel, and continuous adjustment to new information and

new event.

As it is a series of unfolding and unpredictable events, the

actors need to work together and be able to adapt to the

contingencies of the unfolding story.

4. AR aims at developing holistic understanding.4. AR aims at developing holistic understanding.

Action researchers need to have a broad view of how the

system works and be able to move between formal structural

and technical and informal people subsystems.

It requires an ability to work with dynamic complexity, which

describes how a system is complex because of multiple causes

and effects.

5. AR is fundamentally about change.5. AR is fundamentally about change.

AR is applicable to the understanding, planning and

implementation of change in groups, organizations and

communities.

Hence, knowledge and skills in the dynamics of organizational

change are necessary.

6. AR requires an understanding of the ethical framework.

6. AR requires an understanding of the ethical framework.

In AR, ethics involves authentic relationships between the

action researcher and the members of the client system as to how

they understand the process and take significant actions.

7. AR can include all types of data gathering methods.7. AR can include all types of data gathering methods.

AR does not preclude the use of data gathering methods from

traditional research. Qualitative and quantitative tools, such as

interviews and surveys are commonly used.

What is important in AR is that the planning and use of these

tools be well thought out with the members of the organization

and clearly integrated into the AR process.

8. AR requires a breadth of pre-understanding.8. AR requires a breadth of pre-understanding.

It refers to the knowledge the action researcher brings to the

research project.

9. AR should be conducted in real time.9. AR should be conducted in real time.

While AR is alive case study being written as it unfolds, it can

also take the form of a traditional case study written in retrospect,

when the written case is used as an intervention into the

organization in the present.

In such a situation the case performs the function of a

‘learning history’ and is used as a intervention to promote

reflection and learning in the organization.

10. The AR paradigm requires its own quality criteria.10. The AR paradigm requires its own quality criteria.

AR should not be judged by the criteria of positive science,

but rather within the criteria of its own terms.

Approaches

in

Research

Qualitative approach:

• The approach usually associated with the social constructivist

paradigm which emphasises the socially constructed nature of

reality.

• It is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the

deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and

experience, including contradictory beliefs,

behaviours and emotions.

Qualitative approach:

• It can describe events, persons and so forth scientifically

without the use of numerical data.

• It is harder, more stressful and more time-consuming than

other types.

Qualitative approach:

• Concerned with collecting and analysing information in as

many forms.

• Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are

not in the form of numbers. (Punch, 1998: 4)

Qualitative approach:

• Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is `lived' or `felt' or `undergone' ...

• Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding experience as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it.

Ely et al (Sherman and Webb ,1988)

• Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is `lived' or `felt' or `undergone' ...

• Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding experience as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it.

Ely et al (Sherman and Webb ,1988)

Quantitative approach:

• Involves collecting and converting data into numerical form

so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions

drawn.

• Quantitative approaches have been seen as more scientific and

`objective'.

Quantitative approach:

• Quantitative research consists of those studies in which the data

concerned can be analysed in terms of numbers. 

• Quantitative research is based more directly on its original plans

and its results are more readily analysed and interpreted.

Quantitative approach:

• Concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric

form. It tends to emphasize relatively large-scale and representative

sets of data, and is often, falsely in our view, presented or perceived

as being about the gathering of `facts'.

• Quantitative research is empirical research where

the data are in the form of numbers.

Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach

Scientific method

-Inductive or “bottom up”

-Generate new hypotheses and theory

from data collected.

-Deductive or “top down”

-Test hypothesis and theory with data.

Most common

research objectives

-Description

-Exploration

-Discovery

-Description

-Explanation

-Prediction

Focus

-Wide and deep angle lenses

-Examine the breath and depth of

phenomenon to learn more about

them.

-Narrow-angle lens

-Testing specific hypotheses

Nature of study

- Study behaviour in its natural

environment or context.

- Study behaviour under artificial, controlled

conditions.

Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach

Form of data

collected

-Collect narrative data using semi or

unstructured instruments (open-

ended surveys, interviews,

observation, focus groups,

documents)

-Collect numeric data using structured and

validated instruments (close-ended survey

items, rating scales, measurable behaviours)

Nature of data-Words, images, themes, and

categories

-Numeric variables

Data analysis-Holistically identify patterns,

categories and themes

-Identify statistical relationships

Results

- Particularistic findings.

-In-depth understanding of

respondent’s viewpoint.

-Respondent framed results

-Generalizable findings.

-General understanding of respondent’s

viewpoint.

-Researcher framed results

Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach

Form of final report

-Narrative report including contextual

description, categories, themes, and

supporting respondent quotes.

-Statistical report including correlations,

comparisons of means, and statistically

significant findings.

Adapted from:

Johnson & Christensen. (2004). Educational Research: Quantitative,

qualitative and mixes approaches, 2nd ed. Boston: Ally: Bacon.

Research

Ethics

Definition of research ethics:

Research ethics provide guidelines for

the responsible conducts in research. In

addition, research ethics educates and

monitor the researchers conducting

research to ensure high ethical standards.

RESEARCH ETHICS ISSUES

RESEARCH ETHICS ISSUES

Authorship Peer reviewPlagiarism

Research with animals Data managementResearch misconduct

Research with human subjects Conflicts of interest

Authorship

Authorship is the process of deciding whose names belong

on a research paper.

In many cases, research evolves from collaboration and

assistance between experts and colleagues. Some of this

assistance will require acknowledgement and some will

require joint authorship.

Each person listed as an author on an article should have

significantly contributed to both the research and writing.

1

Authorship

“Can I be a co-author?”

“Sure! But only if you…

1. Contributed substantially to the research, AND…

2. Wrote or revised all or parts of the manuscript,

AND…

3. Approved the final version of the entire article.”

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of passing off somebody else’s ideas,

thoughts, pictures, theories, words or stories as your own.

If a researcher plagiarizes the work of others, they are

bringing into question the integrity, ethics and

trustworthiness of the sum total of his or her research.

2

Plagiarism

Types of plagiarism:

i. Intentionally take a passage word-for-word, put it in their own

work, and do not properly credit the original author.

ii. Unintentionally paraphrased and fragmented texts the author

has pieced together from several works without properly citing

the original sources.

Plagiarism

The Indiana University provides the following advice to avoid plagiarism. A researcher

preparing a written manuscript should cite the original source if he or she:

i. Quotes another person’s actual words, either oral or written.

ii. Paraphrases another person’s words, either oral or written.

iii. Uses another person’s idea, opinion or theory.

iv. Borrows facts, statistics, or other illustrative material, unless the information is

common knowledge.

Plagiarism

To avoid unintentional or accidental plagiarizing of another person’s work,

use the following tips from the Northwestern University website:

i. Cite all ideas and information that is not your own and/ or is not common

knowledge.

ii. Always use quotation marks if you are using someone else’s words.

iii. At the beginning of a paraphrased section, show that what comes next is someone

else’s original idea (example: these bullet points start out by saying the information

originated with Northwestern University).

iv. At the end of the paraphrased section, place the proper citation.

Peer review

Peer review is the process in which the author submits a written

manuscript or article to a journal for publication and the journal

editors distributes the article to experts working in the same, or

similar, scientific discipline.

The process involves the following:

1. Reviewers and editors read and evaluate the article.

2. Reviewers submit their reviews back to the journal editor.

3. The journal editor takes all comments, including their own, and communicates

this feedback to the original author.

3

Peer review

The peer review process seldom proceeds in a straight line.

The entire process may involve several rounds of

communication between the editor, the reviewers, and the

original author before an article is fully ready for publication.

Conflicts of interest

Conflict of interest arise when a person’s (or an organization’s)

obligations to a particular research project conflict with their

personal interests or obligations.

A researcher should attempt to identify potential conflicts in

order to confront those issues before they have a chance to do

harm or damage. If exist, then the objectivity of the researcher

and the integrity of the research results can be questioned by

any person throughout the research review process.

4

Data management

Data management references three issues:

i. The ethical and truthful collection of reliable data.

ii. The ownership and responsibility of collected data.

iii. Retaining data and sharing access to collected data with colleagues and

the public.

A clear, responsible, ethical sound, and carefully outlined for

data management is required at the beginning of the research to

prevent all manners of conflicts and inappropriate research

methods.

5

Research misconduct Research misconduct is the process of identifying and reporting

unethical or unsound research.

Its components are as follow:

Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.

Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment or process, or

changing or omitting data or results.

Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person’s idea, processes,

results, or words without giving appropriate credit.

6

Research misconduct

Any person who knows that research is being conducted

unethically should raise his or her concerns to the

appropriate authorities, whether that person is involved in

that research or not.

Research with human subject

The issues concerning research with human subjects involves

topics ranging from voluntary participation in research to

fair selection and justice.

This variety makes the topics surrounding research ethics with

human subjects a challenging but important charge.

Respect for persons – Informed consent

Respect for persons – Privacy and confidentiality

7

Respect for persons – Informed Consent

Exist to ensure that all research involving human subjects

allows for voluntary participation by subjects who understand

what participation entails.

Informed consent means that people approached and asked to

participate in a research study must:

i. Know what they are getting involved with before they commit.

ii. Not be coerced or manipulated in any way to participate.

iii. Must consent to participate in the project as a subject.

Respect for persons – Informed Consent

The Belmont Report of 1979 outlines the three requirements

for informed consent:

1. The information disclosed to research participants must include, “research procedure,

their purposes, risks and anticipated benefits, alternative procedures, and a statement

offering the opportunity to ask questions and to withdraw at any time from the research.”

2. Comprehension – researcher must adapt information to be understandable to every

participants.

3. Voluntariness – inform consent can be neither coerced nor improperly pressured from

any participant.

Informed consent mechanism

Dear Participant (parent, principal, guardian),

We are undertaking an action research project to study my own practice as a lecturer(s) in

the TESL degree course at IPGKBL Kuching Sarawak Malaysia 2012. This ethics

statement is to assure you that we will observe good ethical practice throughout the

research.

This means that:

Written ethical permission will be secured before the research commences;

Confidentiality will be observed at all times, and no names or identifying personal features

will be revealed during the study;

Participants will be kept informed at all times and will have access to the research report

before it is published;

We will report only that which is in the public domain and in accord with Malaysian Law;

All participants have the right to withdraw from the research at anytime and all data

relating to them will be destroyed.

Your signature_________________

Contact information:

IPGKBL Campus Kuching

English Department, Jabatan Bahasa

Dr. Jeff Hawkins: Jeffhawk776@gmail.com

Respect for persons – Privacy and Confidentiality

People have a right to protect themselves, and information

gathered during research participation could harm a person by

violating their right to keep information about themselves

private.

Research with animals

Animals play a significant role in research. (esp. in medical

and pharmaceutical research)

To ensure that research with animals is conducted ethically

and responsibly, the government has created regulations

involving the use and care of animals involved in teaching,

testing and research.

8

Research with animals

In order to prevent the mistreatment of animals, The Animal

Welfare Act exists in order:

“(1) To ensure that animals intended for use in research facilities or for

exhibition purposes or for use as pets are provided human care and

treatment; (2) to assure the human treatment of animals during

transportation in commerce; and (3) to protect the owners of

animals from the theft of their animals by preventing the sale or

use of animals which have been stolen.”

QUESTION

AND ANSWER

SESSION

Questions:1. Why is it important for teachers to do

educational research?2. What must we do to avoid plagiarism in

writing a research article?3. What is research ethics and why is it

important?4. What are the importance of informed

consent?5. Why action research is regarded as an

interactive process?

references

David Coghlan & Teresa Brannick. (2005: 11-13). Doing Action Research InYour Own Words. London: SAGE Publications.

Glenda Nugent, et al. (2012: 4). A Practical Guide to Action Research forLiteracy Educators. Washington: Global Operations Unit.

University of Minnesota. (2003: 8-35). A Guide to Research Ethics.University of Minnesota: Center for Bioethics.

Alzheimer Europe. (n.d). The Four Main Approaches. Assessed on 2013, 23rd December, at http://www.alzheimer

europe.org/Research/Understanding-dementia-research/Types-ofresearch/The-four-main-approaches

Christina Hughes. (n.d). Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Social Research. Assessed on 2013, 23rd December, at http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/academicstaff/chughes/hughesc_index/teachingresearchprocess/quantitativequalitative/quantitativequalitative/

THANK YOU…