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TRIBUTE

From the lofty peaks of the volcanoes to the north of Rwanda; to the 100,000 hills and valleys with their terraces, gardens, homes, and cattle; and to the beautiful lakes—I loved this country, but especially the people who lived in it. Yes, they captivated my heart. They were so warmhearted and kind. “Kanyarwanda,”* they would say to me as I passed by their homes, “ngwino tugufugurire” (Son of Rwanda, come; let’s give you a drink to refresh you). It was in those moments that I really got to know them and their language. It is now my privilege to share it with you.

In looking back, I must include a note of remembrance and appreciation for those who had a long-lasting influence on my learning Kinyarwanda, the subsequent publishing of Edition One in 1952, and now Edition Two.

Pastor Mariko Sembagare, from my earliest moments in Rwanda, became very much a part of my life and admiration. We spent many hours together trekking on foot among the lakes, jungles, and volcanoes of northern Rwanda, visiting churches and schools.

And then there was Pastor Eliazari Semutwa of Gitwe. A master of his language, he propelled me forward into a deep appreciation of “the King’s Kinyarwanda”—a language of precision and beauty.

When collaborating with a team of translators under the aegis of The British and Foreign Bible Society, Pastor Ezekieli Munyambuga, among others, helped us meet the challenges of translating from the far less precise languages of Hebrew and Greek.

Finally, I recognize the orator par excellence, Pastor Danieli Kagegera, who captured my imagination as to what is possible in this language.

To them, and the many others who unwittingly instructed and inspired me, I offer my gratitude. Times have changed, and they all have been laid to rest, but in this volume they still speak.

* An endearing term meaning, lit., “Little Munyarwanda.” 

xxv

I wish to recognize in a very special way the following individuals, without whose vision and encouragement this edition could not have come to pass:

Dr. David Grellmann Some three years ago an email from David started us down what was to be a very lengthy, rocky road of innumerable decisions concerning what was, at its outset, an uncertain project. Our discussion revolved around an aged, yellow-paged book which my wife (still my bride at the time) had typed for me some 58 years previously for the use of English-speaking missionaries in Rwanda who were wanting to learn Kinyarwanda. David wanted to resurrect it. Were it not for his foresight, optimism, encouragement, and unique support, his dream—and mine—could not have been fulfilled. Thank you, David!

Pastor Seraya Mbangukira Currently living in Rwanda, Seraya too had a dream—one that he shared with David, and which set in motion the process that has resulted in this book. When Seraya was a student of mine many years ago at the Seminaire Adventiste de Gitwe, little did we realize then that we would be working together to produce a work of this nature later in life. I have appreciated his encouragement. I also want to recognize him and linguist Jerome Ntirivamunda for ensuring the accuracy of all language forms. Thank you, Seraya and Jerome!

Deborah EverhartEditor at Andrews University Press in Michigan, Debi joined the project when the decision was made to produce a substantially revised and enlarged book, up-to-date in content and design, and professionally produced. She was drafted as editor, but her role quickly expanded to project coordinator and publishing consultant. Despite already having a full-time job and dealing with significant health challenges, she still managed to keep a very scattered project moving towards completion. In her very gentle way she insisted on perfection, and the credit for the quality of the final product goes in no small measure to her. Thank you, Debi!

Lubica MuellerMy hearty thanks go to Lubica for her valuable contribution to the content and format of this book. It was a pleasure to work closely with this professional typesetter. Amidst her other duties, she amazed me by her prompt and helpful replies to literally hundreds of emails. Thank you, Lubica!

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xxvi

Because Rwanda has long been part of francophone Africa, Kinyarwanda language books in English have been hard to come by. The original 1952 edition of this book was written to serve the needs of English-speaking missionaries and may have been the first work of its kind in English. The initial plan was to simply scan and reprint this classic volume in its original mimeographed and dated form. Then a decision was made to at least digitize the text and do some minor editing before going to press. But enthusiasm for the project grew, and eventually the author committed himself to a laborious complete revision of his original work. Though significantly expanded and enhanced, this new edition preserves much of the flavor of the first edition, including a smattering of language with a religious slant. The new eye-pleasing graphics with added color bring this book up to today’s standard for an attractive and quality text.

The credentials that the author Arthur Hands brings to this new volume are impressive. He learned to fluently speak the Kinyarwanda of the 1950s, and that knowledge adds a classic touch to this second edition. His years of teaching experience, including the teaching of Kinyarwanda grammar to Rwandan college students, developed the skills that are now evident throughout the book and in the many new exercises that make up a substantial part of this practical and student-oriented text. As part of the team that translated portions of the Bible into Kinyarwanda, Hands brings the thoroughness and perfectionism of the scholar and the linguist’s love of language to this standard-setting work.

For GEM Resources International, this text represents a pioneering foray into publishing. GEM is a donor-funded nonprofit organization dedicated to health and education projects in developing countries. With this project, GEM has matched an obvious need with a unique opportunity to make a difference. I wish to thank my colleagues at GEM, Glenn St. Clair, David Steen, and Martin Fishell, for their support of this venture.

Finally, an expression of gratitude to the author is necessary. He was drafted into this project in stages, not realizing what a huge task it would become—and at a time in his life when he should have been relaxing and resting on his laurels. I have known him since my childhood in Rwanda, and that friendship was undoubtedly key to securing his involvement in the preparation of this second edition. To him I say, Nuko, Kanyarwanda, wakoze neza!—Well done, Son of Rwanda!

David GrellmannGEM Resources International

PUBLISHER’S FOREWORD

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WAKWIGA ICYO UTAZI NDETSE N’ICYO UZI UWAMBAYE IKIREZI NTAMENYA UKO CYERA: Umuhanzi w’iki gitabo avuga ko mu ndimi azi nta rurimi runyomoye nk’ Ikinyarwanda. Ibihe biha ibindi, ibitabo byigisha Ikinyarwanda byinshi byanditswe n’abavuga Igifransa, bigisha na none abavuga Igifransa. Uwahanze iki gitabo mu 1952 yakigeneye abavuga Icyongereza ngo bamenye Ikinyarwanda. Ubu bwo kirigisha indimi zombi mu mwanya umwe. Nubwo uzi Ikinyarwanda ntuzabura kubona ibirenzeho no kwishimira gahunda y’ururimi rwacu mu buryo tutatekerezagamo.

MBESE URASHAKA KWIGA ICYONGEREZA? Umuhanzi w’iki gitabo yagiye akuzirikana nawe. Uzasangamo ibyigisho by’ingirakamaro byinshi bitazabura kukungura. Ahahera ibyigisho bimwe na bimwe, hari “Extra Vocabulary” na “Extra Sentences” bikugenewe, bisobanuwe mu Cyongereza. Byongeye kandi mu mugabane wa kane w’iki gitabo (Part Four) higanjemo amagambo y’uburyo butari bumwe agushoboza gukoresha ibyo wize. Niba urashaka kwiga Icyongereza iki gitabo ntikizabura kukubera inyunganizi rwose.

NAWE WAKWANDIKA: Wari uzi ko hari Abanyarwanda bigisha Icyongereza muri bene cyo? Icyo umwe yakoze n’ undi yagikora. Mu gihe tuvugurura iki gitabo, hari Abanyarwanda bataka ko bagiye kubura Igifransa. Sindumva abavuga ko bagiye kubura Ikinyarwanda nyacyo. Ndashima abayobozi bacyitayeho kitaraba nk’izindi ndimi zisa nk’izitagira bene zo. Hari abavuga ko n’ Igifransa kitari kizwi nkuko abagitaka bibwira. Iki gitabo kizakwereka urugero rwawe mu Kinyarwanda no mu Cyongereza. Ku bazi Icyongereza muzasanga ko Arthur L. Hands akizi bitari ukukivukiramo gusa, ahubwo yagishyizemo umwete.

Seraya MbangukiraUmwigishwa wa Arthur L. Hands

FOR OUR RWANDAN READERS

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THE LANGUAGEKinyarwanda is one of a very large family of African languages, variously estimated to be as many as 500 and spoken by as many as 200 million people. This language family stretches in a great arc across the crest of the Congo River—all the way from southern Cameroon in west Africa to southern Kenya on the east side of the continent. From this northern crescent, the people of this language migrated southward into southern Africa over an estimated 3,000 years, displacing the aboriginal San-Koi (the so-called Bushmen of The Gods Must Be Crazy fame) and driving them—along with the help of white settlers—into the arid, desert areas of southwest Africa. Currently, only approximately 30,000 San-Koi still exist in their original culture. The mass migration of this huge proto-language group represents arguably one of the most significant movements of people in human history. With the exception of the San-Koi, whose language is totally different, they dominate the land. The name given to their huge family of languages is Bantu, a name derived from the most common form of the word meaning people in these languages. These languages are tonal in nature with the inflection of the voice determining the meaning of words. Grammatically speaking, nouns belong to a number of classes, their prefixes dominating words associated with them. Verbs are modified by prefixes, infixes, and suffixes, and one verb may contain a whole sentence. Kinyarwanda is a noble representative of the Bantu languages, displaying for the most part a remarkable consistency and precision of expression. Welcome to a study of this interesting language!

THIS BOOKOver 60 years have passed since the first edition of this book was published. Much has transpired in the world since then. Much has changed everywhere. But for Rwanda, one thing has remained as an important link with the past—its superb language. The scientific intricacy, precision, and orderly organization that are the hallmark of Kinyarwanda belie an extraordinary people from whom this language was derived. They and their bequest to us do not deserve to totally fade into oblivion. Despite the pull of our modern “global village” toward fluency in English, to lose Kinyarwanda

INTRODUCTION

xxix

would be sad indeed, for a people’s unique language is the shrine of their soul. Moreover, Kinyarwanda is a language to be proud of. It is therefore a privilege to have been requested to produce a newer edition of this book. The author has not attempted to introduce the many innovations and coinages that are currently being used. In fact, the emphasis of this book is on grammar at the expense of vocabulary, for words are more easily picked up than grammar is learned. For the benefit of those Rwandans in the diaspora abroad who wish to use this volume to learn English—believe or not!—special accommodation has been made for them, as will be noted below. Finally, changing times bring changing language. Such English expressions as It is I or it is she are seldom heard nowadays. In keeping with this fact, many English sentences and phrases in this work may not be “grammatically” correct, but they are current.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOKPart 1 consists of a progression of 82 lessons that, when completed, should provide the student with a very good understanding of Kinyarwanda. Many of the lessons are admittedly sterile and seemingly unimaginative, the vocabulary restricted, and sentences for translation childish. In fact, this entire book will sacrifice variety of expression in the interest of grammar. This lack is intentional because Kinyarwanda is a very complicated language with a linguistic system totally alien to the English-speaking mind. To master Part One alone represents a major accomplishment. On its cover, many years ago, a well-known magazine listed Kinyarwanda along with Chinese as being among the ten most difficult languages in the world. So, brace yourself, dear reader; be patient with yourself and this grammar. As you progress, the journey will be slow and tedious at first, but eventually it will become rewarding albeit still challenging. Kinyarwanda never ceases to be so!

Part 2 includes a short vocabulary—by no means a dictionary, but a way of stepping beyond the bounds of the vocabulary introduced in Part 1—plus some helpful phrases.

Part 3 is a key to the exercises presented in Part 1.

Part 4 is more technical, for that is definitely possible! Developed without being restricted to the vocabulary, grammar, or progression of Part 1, it presents some language forms that were not presented more fully in Part 1 and will add to the student’s growing esteem for the remarkably scientific structure and symmetry that make Kinyarwanda a delicate and extremely exact language—one that far outstrips any European language when it comes to grammatical precision in many respects.

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Part 5 contains four sections:

A—Tables of grammatical formsB—A glossary of terms used in this bookC—A bibliographyD—An index

THREE IMPORTANT NOTICESNote 1 The way Kinyarwanda is currently written is not the way it is spoken. It is the view of the author that this is most unfortunate for one who is learning the language. We will, therefore, indicate the way certain words are spoken when clarification is necessary by enclosing such words in brackets [with this style of type]� For example, “his kingdom” is currently ubwami bwe. We indicate the way it is spoken thus: [ubgami bge]�

The orthography (the way the language is written) in this grammar does not include some of the latest spelling iterations. As a matter of fact, there is currently much Rwandan literature which is almost identical to this orthography—and much which flies according to the various writers’ whims! Although there may be some differences in the way Kinyarwanda is written, the spoken language remains essentially the same, and any Rwandan reader would have no difficulty at all understanding this book. For the student wanting to learn Kinyarwanda, the grammatical principles and the spoken word remain the same.

There is one other matter which the author wishes could be changed: the use of a double “m” to distinguish between, e.g., Muhe ibintu bye (Give him his things) and Mmuhe ibintu bye (Let me give him his things).

Note 2 Because various grammatical functions are so interdependent in Kinyarwanda, it is difficult—especially in the early stages of our course—to form interesting sentences. Unfortunately, this will result in pallid expressions in our lessons. To break the monotony, some lessons will conclude with an extra vocabulary and/or sentences that are not necessarily based on the grammar learned. In this way, the student will be able to use helpful everyday phrases and expressions based on mere rote memorization of them. Also, these “extras” will be useful to Rwandan and Burundian students who are striving to master English.

Note 3 For anyone using this book to teach Kinyarwanda, we need to address an intentional anomaly which is found in the early lessons. Verbs in Kinyarwanda are either active or stative—a phenomenon not found in English. For the sake of the student, we will not make this distinction at first. For example, the verb in He is seated is not an active verb, but one describing a state. In our early lessons, such stative verbs (which take a present-past tense form) will remain in the present or active tense, in this case Aricara (He is sitting). The correct, stative form would be Aricaye. Anyone using this book to teach Kinyarwanda should be aware of this intentional anomaly. See Lessons 37 and 71, and the Glossary under Stative. Finally, please make your students aware of the useful paradigms in Appendix A.

PART 1Lessons 1–82

The Noun

LESSON

In Kinyarwanda the noun is boss. It dictates the structure of all other words in a sentence that are governed by it. Although this lesson is mainly for reference, it will be helpful to have a good understanding of the basic underpinnings of Kinyarwanda—a language that is totally foreign to English. In this chapter, we will focus on five key principles that will help give some clarity to our study of this language.

PRINCIPLE 1All nouns are made up of two parts: PREFIX + ROOT. The root is the main part of the word. However, unless it has a noun prefix attached to it, it has no meaning. The prefix determines how the root is to be understood.

• To illustrate, take the English word vapor. Let it represent the root. Add to it such affixes as e-, -ate, -ous, and its meaning is modified: e-vapor-ate, vapor-ous, vapor-ize, and vapor-ization.

• Now, notice the similarity in Kinyarwanda: Let the root be -ntu. Incapable of analysis, this root in itself conveys absolutely no meaning. Add a prefix, and it becomes a word: umu-ntu (a person). A change of prefix modifies, or completely changes, the meaning of the noun:

aba-ntu (people) aha-ntu (a place)iki-ntu (a thing) ibi-ntu (things)aka-ntu (a little thing) utu-ntu (little things)uku-ntu (a method, a way) ubu-ntu (generosity)

Mainly for reference,

this lesson presents

the basic structure

of the language.

1

THE NOUN | 3

PRINCIPLE 2In the grammatical system, the noun dominates the sentence. Its prefix (or some inflection of it) will govern every other word in simple sentences such as these:

This principle of agreeing concordial prefixes alerts you not only to memorize the meaning of a noun, but also to recognize its prefix.

PRINCIPLE 3In European languages, we classify nouns into masculine, feminine, and neuter (e.g., governor, governance, government; host, hostess). In Kinyarwanda, nouns are classified roughly into natural groups and are not based on gender distinction at all:

1. Human beings, marked by the prefixes umu- and aba-:

umuntu (a person) abantu (people) umugome (a rebel) abagome (rebels)

2. Trees and shrubs, marked by the prefixes umu- and imi-:

umunyinya (acacia tree) iminyinya (acacia trees) umugano (bamboo) imigano (plural form of bamboo)

3. Things that spread or extend, marked by the prefixes umu- and imi-:

umugozi (string) imigozi (strings) umukandara (belt) imikandara (belts) umugezi (stream) imigezi (streams) umuriro (fire) umukororombya (rainbow)

4. Living things other than humans or plants, marked by the prefixes in-, im-, or i-: Nouns in this class have no distinct plural form, which is indicated by the context:

intare (lion/s) imbwa (dog/s) intozi (red ant/s) ihene (goat/s) inzoka (snake/s)

NOUN SENTENCE

iki-ntu (thing) Iki kintu kibi kiraboze. (This bad thing is rotten.)ibi-ntu (things) Ibi bintu bibi biraboze. (These bad things are rotten.)aka-ntu (little thing) Aka kantu kabi karashaje. (This bad little thing is worn out.)utu-ntu (little things) Utu tuntu tubi turashaje. (These bad little things are worn out.)

4 | LESSON 1

5. Exceptional beings, marked by the prefixes in- or im-:

intore (a chosen one, chosen ones) imana (god, gods)

6. Names of enormous or abnormal things, marked by the prefixes iki- and ibi-:

ikivura (a deluge) ibisozi (a mountain range) ikigabo (a despicable hulk of a man)

7. Things that occur in quantities, but singly as well, marked by the prefixes i- and ama-:

ibuye (stone) amabuye (stones) ijambo (word) amagambo (words)

8. Parts of the body that go in pairs or sets, marked by the prefixes i- and ama-/am-:

ivi (knee) amavi (knees)izuru (nostril) amazuru (nostrils)iryinyo (tooth) amenyo (teeth)

9. Names of certain liquids, marked by the prefix ama-:

amazi (water) amata (milk)amavuta (oil) amacandwe (saliva)amaraso (blood) amarira (tears)

10. Beings, animate or inanimate, which, according to rule, should have been placed in some other class, are sometimes relegated to this class. Its prefixes are uru- and in-/im-:

uruhinja (infant) impinja (infants), (see No. 1 above)uruzi (river) inzuzi (rivers), (see No. 3 above) urukwavu (rabbit) inkwavu (rabbits), (see No. 4 above)

11. Names of diminutive things, marked by the prefixes aka- and utu-:

akagozi (small string, thread) utugozi (little threads)akantu (a little thing) utuntu (little things)

12. Names of qualities, states, or conditions, marked by the prefix ubu-:

ubute (lassitude, laziness) ububasha (authority)ubuntu (generosity)*

* This is where the open-source, free-for-all Linux operating system, Ubuntu, got its name.

THE NOUN | 5

13. Names of actions or of being, marked by the prefixes ku- and uku-:

ukubaho (life, existence) kuririmba (singing; this is a verbal noun, i.e., a gerund)

14. Designations of distance, position, or place, marked by the prefix aha-:

ahantu (a place) ahakure (a distant place)ahabi (a bad place)

The grouping of nouns, if it ever was perfect, no longer exists. Now there are only 10 classes, but they exhibit underlying concepts similar to those above. We will explore them soon.

PRINCIPLE 4Kinyarwanda is an agglutinative language. This means that many ideas may be “glued together” into a single word, whereas in the isolating languages (such as English) each word stands for a single idea.

Notice how, by the addition of affixes to a single verb radical, a whole sentence is formed. (The radical is that part of a verb that is by itself meaningless and unchangeable.)

For our illustration, the verb we will use is kora (work). Its radical is -ko- which has no meaning. Add to it the prefix, nda-, and the suffix, -ra, (nda-ko-ra) and it now means I am working. Change the prefix and suffix and the meaning changes:

Taking yet another step, we can form a whole sentence in one word:

Broken up, the word-sentence appears this way:

Radical -ko- (no meaning)Verb ko-ra workPrefix and Suffix nda-ko-ra I am workingChange of Prefix and Suffix na-ko-ze I worked

Ntibakinkorera. They do not work for me any longer.

Nti-ba-ki-n-ko-rera. Not-they-still-me-work-for.

6 | LESSON 1

PRINCIPLE 5This agglutinative tendency comes into play even when one word follows another. When two vowels come together at the beginning or end of two words in juxtaposition, one vowel is dropped off or modified when spoken. For instance:

This process is called elision.

This process is called elision and assimilation.

In a Nutshell, This Is What We Have Learned:

• All nouns in Kinyarwanda fall into classes. Each class is distinguished by its set of prefixes.

• The prefix of a noun determines the prefixes of all other words that are dependent upon it in a sentence. This is termed concordial agreement.

• Almost all Kinyarwanda words are made up of two fundamental formatives called roots/radicals and affixes. Affixes may be prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. The root or radical is the unchangeable, meaningless portion of a noun or verb, respectively. It is given meaning by any affixes that may be attached to it.

• No two vowels at word beginnings or endings may occur in juxtaposition without one of them being either elided or assimilated when spoken.

• Kinyarwanda is an agglutinative language, in which a whole sentence may be contained in a single word.

I do not know where you are. written: Sinzi aho uri. spoken: Sinz’ ah’ uri.

I do not know where he is. written: Sinzi aho ari. spoken: Sinz’ ahw ari.

Spelling and Pronunciation

LESSON

VOWELSKinyarwanda, as a whole, gives European Continental values to vowels.

• A is pronounced as the u in but, never as a in fat, fate, or father:

amababa (wings) amasaka (sorghum)

• E is pronounced as the e in get, never as in been or as the a in hay (beware of this!):

yegereje (he drew near)NOT [yay-gay-ray-jay]

• I is pronounced as the i in machine, never as in pit or file:

ibiti (trees) kwikiriza (to affirm)

• O is pronounced as the o in store, never as in pot or poem:

kwonona (to spoil) ororo! (ouch!)

• U is pronounced as the u in rule, never as in use or utter:

umudugudu (city) urupfu (death)

Kinyarwanda, as a

whole, gives vowel

letters European

Continental values

and consonant

letters English

values. The native

spoken language

does not employ the

sounds of l and x.

2