Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration (focus on …ficci.in/spdocument/20606/Trends-Bahrain.pdf · 2015-07-13 · Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration For hundreds

Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration

(focus on Bahrain)


(focus on Bahrain)


(focus on Bahrain)

1Abstract: This paper examines the relationship that India shares with the Gulf Cooperation Council

(GCC) countries with a particular focus on India-Bahrain relations. Movement of labour is a critical

aspect of this relationship. The trends in the economy and nationalization of the workforce have

repercussions for future movements. However, this paper presents how this relationship vis-à-vis

labour movement can be enhanced. It also presents a plan for the way forward with employers'

perspectives and the direction that governments of both countries may take.


1 This paper is written for the IISS Bahrain India Forum to be held on 6th April, 2015 in New Delhi, India on the subject, "Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration" by Dr. A Didar Singh & Natasha Chhabra, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)

1Abstract: This paper examines the relationship that India shares with the Gulf Cooperation Council

(GCC) countries with a particular focus on India-Bahrain relations. Movement of labour is a critical

aspect of this relationship. The trends in the economy and nationalization of the workforce have

repercussions for future movements. However, this paper presents how this relationship vis-à-vis

labour movement can be enhanced. It also presents a plan for the way forward with employers'

perspectives and the direction that governments of both countries may take.


1 This paper is written for the IISS Bahrain India Forum to be held on 6th April, 2015 in New Delhi, India on the subject, "Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration" by Dr. A Didar Singh & Natasha Chhabra, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)



Contents

A. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

B. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

I. India- Gulf relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

II. India- Bahrain relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

C. Gulf Demographics (focus on Bahrain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

I. Population composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

II. Population Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

III. Fertility Rates and the Demographic Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

D. Labour Migration to Bahrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

E. Arab Spring, unemployment and nationalization of workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

F. Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

I. Common challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

II. for Employers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

G. Way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

I. Employers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

II. What can the Government of Bahrain do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

III. What can the Government of India do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

IV. What can be done collectively? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

H. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19



Contents

A. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

B. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

I. India- Gulf relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

II. India- Bahrain relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

C. Gulf Demographics (focus on Bahrain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

I. Population composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

II. Population Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

III. Fertility Rates and the Demographic Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

D. Labour Migration to Bahrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

E. Arab Spring, unemployment and nationalization of workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

F. Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

I. Common challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

II. for Employers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

G. Way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

I. Employers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

II. What can the Government of Bahrain do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

III. What can the Government of India do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

IV. What can be done collectively? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

H. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19


For hundreds of years and especially from the middle ages onwards, it were the 'Global-

Tailwinds' that carried goods, persons and ideas across the seven seas. It were these sea-

winds that resulted in organised and sustained international trade and its corollary -

migration. Migration has always been the other side of the coin of globalisation. In previous

eras, population movements have taken place side by side with the development of

contacts and flows between different societies and cultures. In particular, large human

migrations played a fundamental role during the first phase of economic globalization,

which took place between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In this respect,

the present situation is paradoxical, because in a world which is more interconnected than

ever, in which financial and trade flows have been liberalized, the mobility of persons runs

up against severe barriers which restrict it. (The only exception is probably the Gulf.)

The movements of Indian migration can be broadly classified into three phases: ancient,

colonial and modern. During the ancient period, migration was mainly intended to promote

trade, conquer, and spread the teachings of Buddha. In that period, traders from India

crossed the seas to the Persian Gulf region and the east coast of Africa and over land to

Central and West Asia and South East Asia in search of fame and fortune (Jayaram, 2004). R.

K. Jain has distinguishes between two main phases of Indian migration (Jain, 1993):

vOverseas emigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century (colonial

period).

vLate twentieth century migration to industrially developed countries (post-colonial

period).

A new and significant phase of migration began after India became independent in 1947.

Broadly, two patterns of emigration can be identified in the post-independence emigration:

vThe emigration of professionals to the industrially advanced countries like the

United States of America, England and Canada, and

vThe emigration of skilled and unskilled labourers to West Asia.

The emigration of skilled and unskilled labourers to West Asia is entirely different in its

economic and social implication from the 19th and early 20th century emigration. The

process of migration to West Asia has been voluntary and temporary in its nature (Pant,

1998). In the wake of the oil price boom in the 1970s in the Gulf region, the demand for

labourers grew stupendously. The fixed temporary contacts attracted labourers from the

South Asian countries to work in the oil producing countries of the Middle Eastern region.

Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration 01

Background


For hundreds of years and especially from the middle ages onwards, it were the 'Global-

Tailwinds' that carried goods, persons and ideas across the seven seas. It were these sea-

winds that resulted in organised and sustained international trade and its corollary -

migration. Migration has always been the other side of the coin of globalisation. In previous

eras, population movements have taken place side by side with the development of

contacts and flows between different societies and cultures. In particular, large human

migrations played a fundamental role during the first phase of economic globalization,

which took place between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In this respect,

the present situation is paradoxical, because in a world which is more interconnected than

ever, in which financial and trade flows have been liberalized, the mobility of persons runs

up against severe barriers which restrict it. (The only exception is probably the Gulf.)

The movements of Indian migration can be broadly classified into three phases: ancient,

colonial and modern. During the ancient period, migration was mainly intended to promote

trade, conquer, and spread the teachings of Buddha. In that period, traders from India

crossed the seas to the Persian Gulf region and the east coast of Africa and over land to

Central and West Asia and South East Asia in search of fame and fortune (Jayaram, 2004). R.

K. Jain has distinguishes between two main phases of Indian migration (Jain, 1993):

vOverseas emigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century (colonial

period).

vLate twentieth century migration to industrially developed countries (post-colonial

period).

A new and significant phase of migration began after India became independent in 1947.

Broadly, two patterns of emigration can be identified in the post-independence emigration:

vThe emigration of professionals to the industrially advanced countries like the

United States of America, England and Canada, and

vThe emigration of skilled and unskilled labourers to West Asia.

The emigration of skilled and unskilled labourers to West Asia is entirely different in its

economic and social implication from the 19th and early 20th century emigration. The

process of migration to West Asia has been voluntary and temporary in its nature (Pant,

1998). In the wake of the oil price boom in the 1970s in the Gulf region, the demand for

labourers grew stupendously. The fixed temporary contacts attracted labourers from the

South Asian countries to work in the oil producing countries of the Middle Eastern region.


Background

By the year 1975, the labour supplies from Arab countries seemed to have been depleted

(Knerr, 1990). This created an increasing demand for expatriate labour in these oil exporting

countries of the Gulf region such as Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman,

Bahrain, Qatar and Kuwait. This demand could not be satisfied locally because of small

domestic populations (Weiner, 1982). Most of the emigrants here were semi-skilled and

skilled workers (as construction workers, housemaids, cooks and drivers) recruited by

agents operating in major cities of India.

As of now, it is estimated that the Gulf region accounts for 6 million or 50 per cent of the

Indian emigrants. Migration to the Gulf began in 1970s and gained momentum over the

years. Indians in the Gulf constitute nearly 6 million with a majority of them in UAE, Saudi

Arabia and Kuwait; working in the construction, oil and natural gas, trading and financial

sectors. Although a clear majority are low and semi-skilled labourers, the presence of

professional emigrants cannot be ignored. The Indian expatriate population in West Asia

increased from 0.2 million in 1975 to 3.3 million in 2001 and is estimated at around 5

million in 2010 (Irudya Rajan and Narayana 2010) and 6 million in 2013. Moreover, the

opportunities for skilled workers are poised to increase further as recruitment becomes

open for nearly 300,000 jobs, with new refineries and power plants being set up in Saudi

Arabia and Abu Dhabi in the course of the next five years. The boom in the investment

sector and the associated migration of skilled workers refute the former notion that Indian

emigration to the West Asia comprises exclusively of unskilled and semi-skilled labour

(Khadria, 2009). Having considered the historical and contemporary proclivity of Indian

migrants towards the Gulf region, the importance of the India-GCC corridor cannot be

overemphasized.

Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration02

I. India- Gulf relations

The relationship between the countries of the GCC and India is one that has evolved

gradually over the years. Experts, academics and researchers have reiterated the reasons

for the importance of this relationship. The general consensus rests with the importance of

the trade links (West Asia is the largest trade bloc partner of India); geopolitical importance

of this relationship; long term energy security for India (India imports almost 70 per cent of

its energy needs from the Gulf countries); labour migration to the Gulf (6 million Indians in

the Gulf) and remittances to India (more than 25 billion USD in 2014); security concerns

(maritime security, security in the region); capital flows (important for India's growth);

education; and tourism (Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 2012; Baru,2014;

Pradhan, 2014)

Energy hungry India's oil import from the GCC countries: 2006-07 and 2012-13

(All figures in US $ Millions)


Introduction

Country Year 2006-07 2012-13

Bahrain 56.33

Kuwait 4,965.82 14,450.94

Oman 344.54

Qatar 633.37 6,617.54

Saudi Arabia 10,901.90 28,986.67

UAE 3,456.73 12,545.30

GCC Total 19,957 63, 001.32

(Department of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India cited

in Pradhan, 2014)

India's largest trading partner bloc is West Asia. It has vast potential as India's investment

partner in the near future (Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 2014)

By the year 1975, the labour supplies from Arab countries seemed to have been depleted

(Knerr, 1990). This created an increasing demand for expatriate labour in these oil exporting

countries of the Gulf region such as Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman,

Bahrain, Qatar and Kuwait. This demand could not be satisfied locally because of small

domestic populations (Weiner, 1982). Most of the emigrants here were semi-skilled and

skilled workers (as construction workers, housemaids, cooks and drivers) recruited by

agents operating in major cities of India.

As of now, it is estimated that the Gulf region accounts for 6 million or 50 per cent of the

Indian emigrants. Migration to the Gulf began in 1970s and gained momentum over the

years. Indians in the Gulf constitute nearly 6 million with a majority of them in UAE, Saudi

Arabia and Kuwait; working in the construction, oil and natural gas, trading and financial

sectors. Although a clear majority are low and semi-skilled labourers, the presence of

professional emigrants cannot be ignored. The Indian expatriate population in West Asia

increased from 0.2 million in 1975 to 3.3 million in 2001 and is estimated at around 5

million in 2010 (Irudya Rajan and Narayana 2010) and 6 million in 2013. Moreover, the

opportunities for skilled workers are poised to increase further as recruitment becomes

open for nearly 300,000 jobs, with new refineries and power plants being set up in Saudi

Arabia and Abu Dhabi in the course of the next five years. The boom in the investment

sector and the associated migration of skilled workers refute the former notion that Indian

emigration to the West Asia comprises exclusively of unskilled and semi-skilled labour

(Khadria, 2009). Having considered the historical and contemporary proclivity of Indian

migrants towards the Gulf region, the importance of the India-GCC corridor cannot be

overemphasized.


I. India- Gulf relations

The relationship between the countries of the GCC and India is one that has evolved

gradually over the years. Experts, academics and researchers have reiterated the reasons

for the importance of this relationship. The general consensus rests with the importance of

the trade links (West Asia is the largest trade bloc partner of India); geopolitical importance

of this relationship; long term energy security for India (India imports almost 70 per cent of

its energy needs from the Gulf countries); labour migration to the Gulf (6 million Indians in

the Gulf) and remittances to India (more than 25 billion USD in 2014); security concerns

(maritime security, security in the region); capital flows (important for India's growth);

education; and tourism (Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 2012; Baru,2014;

Pradhan, 2014)

Energy hungry India's oil import from the GCC countries: 2006-07 and 2012-13

(All figures in US $ Millions)


Introduction

Country Year 2006-07 2012-13

Bahrain 56.33

Kuwait 4,965.82 14,450.94

Oman 344.54

Qatar 633.37 6,617.54

Saudi Arabia 10,901.90 28,986.67

UAE 3,456.73 12,545.30

GCC Total 19,957 63, 001.32

(Department of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India cited

in Pradhan, 2014)

India's largest trading partner bloc is West Asia. It has vast potential as India's investment

partner in the near future (Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 2014)


Imports from GCC Countries

The new Government's 'Link West Policy' acknowledges the importance of continuing a

strategic partnership with this region. This idea has also been mooted in the past but

despite the right intentions, it didn't go very far. However, former Diplomats,

Commentators, researchers, and academics have called with renewed energy for prioritizing

a multi-dimensional relationship with the region. India must proactively engage to promote

an institutional engagement with the region (Krishnamurthy, 2014; Siddiqui, 2014; Raja

Mohan, 2014)

The Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, Government of India has signed Agreements with

all the GCC countries in the realm of labour migration:

1. Labour Co-operation for Domestic Service Workers with the KSA

2. MoU with Bahrain

3. MoU with Oman

4. MoU with the UAE

5. MoU with Kuwait

6. Agreement between India and Govt. of Qatar on Manpower

7. Additional protocol Agreement between India and Qatar

The rest of the paper focuses on India's relationship with Bahrain.

II. India- Bahrain relations

1. Trade Relations with Bahrain (Values in US $ Millions)


S.No. Year 2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014

1. EXPORT 250.21 651.83 439.99 603.47 639.36

2. %Growth 160.51 -32.50 37.16 5.95

3. India's Total 178,751.43 249,815.55 305,963.92 300,400.58 314,405.30

Export

4. %Growth 39.76 22.48 -1.82 4.66

5. %Share 0.14 0.26 0.14 0.20 0.20

6. IMPORT 502.86 641.25 905.98 664.66 563.24

7. %Growth 27.52 41.28 -26.64 -15.26

8. India's Total 288,372.88 369,769.13 489,319.49 490,736.65 450,199.79

Import

9. %Growth 28.23 32.33 0.29 -8.26

10. %Share 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.14 0.13

11. TOTAL 753.07 1,293.08 1,345.97 1,268.13 1,202.60

TRADE

12. %Growth 71.71 4.09 -5.78 -5.17

13. India's Total 467,124.31 619,584.68 795,283.41 791,137.23 764,605.09

Trade

14. %Growth 32.64 28.36 -0.52 -3.35

15. %Share 0.16 0.21 0.17 0.16 0.16

16. TRADE 10.58 76.13

BALANCE

17. India's Trade -109,621.45 -119,953.58 -183,355.57 -190,336.07 -135,794.49

Balance

Note: The country's total imports (S.No.6) since 2000-2001 does not include import of Petroleum Products (27100093) and Crude Oil (27090000)

3(Ministry of Commerce, Government of India)

S.No. Country 2013-2014 2014-2015 (Apr-Dec)

1. BAHRAIN 563.24 360.13

2. KUWAIT 17,153.55 11,418.05

3. OMAN 2,951.18 1,475.57

4. QATAR 15,707.99 12,004.89

5. SAUDI ARABIA 36,403.65 23,180.42

6. U ARAB EMTS 29,019.82 21,078.08

Total 101,799.42 69,517.13

2(Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, 2015)

2 http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/irgncnt.asp (Accessed on 30th March, 2015) 3 http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/iecnt.asp (Accessed 30th March, 2015)

India and Bahrain have enjoyed cordial political, economic and cultural relations for a long

period of time. In fact, their relations can be traced back around 5000 years ago. Of course,

more recently, the oil boom of 1970s resulted in a fresh impetus in trade relations between

the two countries. The oil boom also resulted in a migration boom.As can be seen in the


Imports from GCC Countries

The new Government's 'Link West Policy' acknowledges the importance of continuing a

strategic partnership with this region. This idea has also been mooted in the past but

despite the right intentions, it didn't go very far. However, former Diplomats,

Commentators, researchers, and academics have called with renewed energy for prioritizing

a multi-dimensional relationship with the region. India must proactively engage to promote

an institutional engagement with the region (Krishnamurthy, 2014; Siddiqui, 2014; Raja

Mohan, 2014)

The Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, Government of India has signed Agreements with

all the GCC countries in the realm of labour migration:

1. Labour Co-operation for Domestic Service Workers with the KSA

2. MoU with Bahrain

3. MoU with Oman

4. MoU with the UAE

5. MoU with Kuwait

6. Agreement between India and Govt. of Qatar on Manpower

7. Additional protocol Agreement between India and Qatar

The rest of the paper focuses on India's relationship with Bahrain.

II. India- Bahrain relations

1. Trade Relations with Bahrain (Values in US $ Millions)


S.No. Year 2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014

1. EXPORT 250.21 651.83 439.99 603.47 639.36

2. %Growth 160.51 -32.50 37.16 5.95

3. India's Total 178,751.43 249,815.55 305,963.92 300,400.58 314,405.30

Export

4. %Growth 39.76 22.48 -1.82 4.66

5. %Share 0.14 0.26 0.14 0.20 0.20

6. IMPORT 502.86 641.25 905.98 664.66 563.24

7. %Growth 27.52 41.28 -26.64 -15.26

8. India's Total 288,372.88 369,769.13 489,319.49 490,736.65 450,199.79

Import

9. %Growth 28.23 32.33 0.29 -8.26

10. %Share 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.14 0.13

11. TOTAL 753.07 1,293.08 1,345.97 1,268.13 1,202.60

TRADE

12. %Growth 71.71 4.09 -5.78 -5.17

13. India's Total 467,124.31 619,584.68 795,283.41 791,137.23 764,605.09

Trade

14. %Growth 32.64 28.36 -0.52 -3.35

15. %Share 0.16 0.21 0.17 0.16 0.16

16. TRADE 10.58 76.13

BALANCE

17. India's Trade -109,621.45 -119,953.58 -183,355.57 -190,336.07 -135,794.49

Balance

Note: The country's total imports (S.No.6) since 2000-2001 does not include import of Petroleum Products (27100093) and Crude Oil (27090000)

3(Ministry of Commerce, Government of India)

S.No. Country 2013-2014 2014-2015 (Apr-Dec)

1. BAHRAIN 563.24 360.13

2. KUWAIT 17,153.55 11,418.05

3. OMAN 2,951.18 1,475.57

4. QATAR 15,707.99 12,004.89

5. SAUDI ARABIA 36,403.65 23,180.42

6. U ARAB EMTS 29,019.82 21,078.08

Total 101,799.42 69,517.13

2(Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, 2015)

2 http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/irgncnt.asp (Accessed on 30th March, 2015) 3 http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/iecnt.asp (Accessed 30th March, 2015)

India and Bahrain have enjoyed cordial political, economic and cultural relations for a long

period of time. In fact, their relations can be traced back around 5000 years ago. Of course,

more recently, the oil boom of 1970s resulted in a fresh impetus in trade relations between

the two countries. The oil boom also resulted in a migration boom.As can be seen in the


I. Population composition of Bahrain


Gulf Demographics (focus on Bahrain)

Citizens

Expatriate Population

Citizen and Expatriate Population

Composition of Bahraini Population

Citizens Indian Labour Other Foreign guest workers

700000

600000

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

0

4 Total population of Bahrain- 1.33 million (2014 projections by the World Bank) Expatriate Population- 666,172 (Bahrain Census, 2010) Citizen Population- 663828 Indian Expatriate Population- 350,000 (Estimates by the Indian Embassy in the Kingdom of Bahrain, 2015)

(Based on data from the World Bank, 2015 and data from the Indian Embassy in the 4

Kingdom of Bahrain, 2015)

table above, the total exports to Bahrain in the year 2013-14 were US $ 639.36 million

whereas the imports were US $ 563.24 million resulting in a total trade of US $ 1,202.60

Million. However, one of the most important export, as it were, to the Kingdom of Bahrain

remains the large number of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workforce from India.

Bilateral Agreements and MoUs signed between Bahrain and India:

a) Air Service Agreement (April 2000)

b) MOU on Cooperation between Ministries of Foreign Affairs (January 2004)

c) Agreement on Juridical and judicial Co-operation in Civil and Commercial Matters

(January 2004)

d) Extradition Treaty (January 2004)

e) Agreement on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters (January 2004)

f) Agreement on the Promotion and Protection of Bilateral Investment (January 2004)

g) Agreement for Media Co-operation between Prasar Bharati and Bahrain Radio & TV

Corporation (March 2007)

h) MOU on Labour and Manpower Development (June 2009)

i) Agreement regarding exchange of information with respect to Taxes (May 2012)

j) MOU on Cooperation in the field of Information and Communication Technology (May

2012)

k) MOU on the establishment of a Joint High Commission (February 2014)

l) MOU on cooperation between the Foreign Service Institute, Ministry of External

Affairs, India and the Diplomatic Institute (February 2014)

m) MOU for cooperation in the field of youth and sports (February 2014)

As can be seen from the range of agreements signed between the two countries, the

relationship has certainly diversified and has been steadily moving on from remaining a

typical buyer-seller relationship to partners in progress. The Minister of External Affairs, Ms.

Sushma Swaraj, visited Manama in 2014 to strengthen this relationship further and show

India's commitment to the relationship. Key areas for cooperation so far include

agriculture, infrastructure, healthcare, medical tourism, real estate and pharmaceuticals.

Also, Bahrain being a member of the GCC; and a party to several Free Trade Agreements

with European nations as well as the NAFTA can provide access to Indian goods for other

destinations as well. Recently, Governments of Bahrain and India have partnered to

"undertake sustained effort" to boost joint ventures and initiatives in ICT including

measures on e-commerce, e-government and information security (FICCI Arab Division,

2015).


I. Population composition of Bahrain


Gulf Demographics (focus on Bahrain)

Citizens

Expatriate Population

Citizen and Expatriate Population

Composition of Bahraini Population

Citizens Indian Labour Other Foreign guest workers

700000

600000

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

0

4 Total population of Bahrain- 1.33 million (2014 projections by the World Bank) Expatriate Population- 666,172 (Bahrain Census, 2010) Citizen Population- 663828 Indian Expatriate Population- 350,000 (Estimates by the Indian Embassy in the Kingdom of Bahrain, 2015)

(Based on data from the World Bank, 2015 and data from the Indian Embassy in the 4

Kingdom of Bahrain, 2015)

table above, the total exports to Bahrain in the year 2013-14 were US $ 639.36 million

whereas the imports were US $ 563.24 million resulting in a total trade of US $ 1,202.60

Million. However, one of the most important export, as it were, to the Kingdom of Bahrain

remains the large number of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workforce from India.

Bilateral Agreements and MoUs signed between Bahrain and India:

a) Air Service Agreement (April 2000)

b) MOU on Cooperation between Ministries of Foreign Affairs (January 2004)

c) Agreement on Juridical and judicial Co-operation in Civil and Commercial Matters

(January 2004)

d) Extradition Treaty (January 2004)

e) Agreement on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters (January 2004)

f) Agreement on the Promotion and Protection of Bilateral Investment (January 2004)

g) Agreement for Media Co-operation between Prasar Bharati and Bahrain Radio & TV

Corporation (March 2007)

h) MOU on Labour and Manpower Development (June 2009)

i) Agreement regarding exchange of information with respect to Taxes (May 2012)

j) MOU on Cooperation in the field of Information and Communication Technology (May

2012)

k) MOU on the establishment of a Joint High Commission (February 2014)

l) MOU on cooperation between the Foreign Service Institute, Ministry of External

Affairs, India and the Diplomatic Institute (February 2014)

m) MOU for cooperation in the field of youth and sports (February 2014)

As can be seen from the range of agreements signed between the two countries, the

relationship has certainly diversified and has been steadily moving on from remaining a

typical buyer-seller relationship to partners in progress. The Minister of External Affairs, Ms.

Sushma Swaraj, visited Manama in 2014 to strengthen this relationship further and show

India's commitment to the relationship. Key areas for cooperation so far include

agriculture, infrastructure, healthcare, medical tourism, real estate and pharmaceuticals.

Also, Bahrain being a member of the GCC; and a party to several Free Trade Agreements

with European nations as well as the NAFTA can provide access to Indian goods for other

destinations as well. Recently, Governments of Bahrain and India have partnered to

"undertake sustained effort" to boost joint ventures and initiatives in ICT including

measures on e-commerce, e-government and information security (FICCI Arab Division,

2015).

II. Population pyramid of Bahrain


Percentages

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

Age

gro

up

sA

ge g

rou

ps

Population pyramid, Bahrain, 2010

Males

Females

12 8 4 0 4 8 12

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

Age

gro

up

sA

ge g

rou

ps


Percentages

Males

Females

12 8 4 0 4 8 12

5(UNESCWA projections)

The current population pyramid (2010) and the projection both depict the total population of Bahrain. As seen in the figure, the pyramid is skewed towards the working ages of male population with the highest percentage of population being males from the age of 25-29. It is also telling that the population pyramid projection of 2050 is quite different clearly showing signs of an ageing population and an advanced stage of the demographic transition.

5 http://www.escwa.un.org/popin/members/bahrain.pdf (Accessed on 20th March, 2015)

III. Fertility rates in Bahrain and the Demographic Transition

From a fertility rate of 4.63 in 1980-85, the fertility rates have dropped to replacement

levels of 2.10 in 2010-15 and will face a further reduction of below replacement levels to

reach 1.69 in 2045-2050 (UN ESCWA). The reduction in fertility rates have been assisted by

the support of the state towards education of women. For this reason, pro-natalist policies

may not be easy to implement as they are in direct contradiction to the reality of the stage

of demographic transition.

Fargues (2011) avers that the lack of naturalization and intermarriages makes the two

populations reproduce in isolation. As a result of which, Nationals and non-nationals have

grown as two independent populations. Gulf countries are an extreme example of non-

integration into societies of host countries. He warns that at this rate, the demographic

base of the host countries will continue to become narrower necessitating a drastic reform

in immigration policies.


II. Population pyramid of Bahrain


Percentages

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

Age

gro

up

sA

ge g

rou

ps


Males

Females

12 8 4 0 4 8 12

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

Age

gro

up

sA

ge g

rou

ps


Percentages

Males

Females

12 8 4 0 4 8 12

5(UNESCWA projections)

The current population pyramid (2010) and the projection both depict the total population of Bahrain. As seen in the figure, the pyramid is skewed towards the working ages of male population with the highest percentage of population being males from the age of 25-29. It is also telling that the population pyramid projection of 2050 is quite different clearly showing signs of an ageing population and an advanced stage of the demographic transition.

5 http://www.escwa.un.org/popin/members/bahrain.pdf (Accessed on 20th March, 2015)

III. Fertility rates in Bahrain and the Demographic Transition

From a fertility rate of 4.63 in 1980-85, the fertility rates have dropped to replacement

levels of 2.10 in 2010-15 and will face a further reduction of below replacement levels to

reach 1.69 in 2045-2050 (UN ESCWA). The reduction in fertility rates have been assisted by

the support of the state towards education of women. For this reason, pro-natalist policies

may not be easy to implement as they are in direct contradiction to the reality of the stage

of demographic transition.

Fargues (2011) avers that the lack of naturalization and intermarriages makes the two

populations reproduce in isolation. As a result of which, Nationals and non-nationals have

grown as two independent populations. Gulf countries are an extreme example of non-

integration into societies of host countries. He warns that at this rate, the demographic

base of the host countries will continue to become narrower necessitating a drastic reform

in immigration policies.


"Migrants are incorporated into the economic structure but are excluded from the social

structure. Separation, not integration or assimilation is the goal" (Weiner (a), 1982: 27)

Migrants in Bahrain are usually referred to as "guest workers" or "Non-Bahraini Nationals"

at both legal and policy levels. The presence of foreign workers is not treated as the

presence of 'migrants' (Dito, 2007)

The MoU between the Government of India and the Kingdom of Bahrain in its Article 1

defines a migrant worker as an 'employee', "The term "employee" means all temporary

contractual expatriate employees employed in Bahrain for a certain period of time as per

the contract after the expiry of which such employees will leave the Kingdom of Bahrain for

India or any other country"

It is important to keep in mind that the increase in labour migration from non-Arab

countries and especially from South Asia to the Gulf countries was post 1970s after a

substantial increase in oil prices which fuelled growth in other sectors especially

construction. The oil boom therefore resulted in a migration boom (Fargues, 2011; Rajan

and Singh, 2015). This also is a marker for an increase in the import of goods from the sub-

continent. The relations between the two countries have only intensified since then

(Pradhan, 2010).

Indian labour movement to Bahrain:

According to estimates of the Indian Embassy in the Kingdom of Bahrain, of the nearly

650,000 expatriates, approximately 350,000 Indian nationals form the largest expatriate

community in Bahrain along with Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans, Pakistanis, Filipinos,

Indonesians and Arabs of different nationalities. The Indian workforce is the largest of the

expatriate workforce. Majority are from Kerala (about 200,000) followed by Tamil Nadu

(about 50,000), AP/Telangana (about 40,000), Karnataka (about 25,000) and rest from

Maharashtra, Goa, Punjab, UP and Rajasthan.

Over 65 percent of the Indian expatriate workforce is employed in construction, contracting

and maintenance sectors. There are also a relatively small number of Indian housemaids

estimated at around 12000-15000. They come mostly from AP/Telangana. The retail and

other business activities include provisions, hardware, jewelry, electronic etc. Some others

have taken up jobs such as storekeepers, chemists, carpenters, barbers etc. In addition to

the predominant blue-collar labour force, there is a sizeable number of doctors, engineers,

chartered accountants, bankers, managers and other professionals who play a vital role in


Labour migration to Bahrain


Bahrain's socio-economic development. Professionals such as doctors, engineers,

accountants etc. have also found opportunities in Bahrain.

Migration to Bahrain will certainly be affected if the downward trend in prices of oil

continue as this has a direct impact on the construction industry which employs the

maximum number of Indian expatriate workers.

Almost half of the population/ residents in Bahrain at any given point of time is composed

of temporary workers/guest workers. However, Bahrain is not a country of immigration.

Herein lies the contradiction, There are two separate demographic profiles in Bahrain- one

of the citizens and another of these temporary migrant workers. Therefore, the structural

changes in the demography of Bahrain cannot be corrected in the short term (Fargues,

2011).

"Migrants are incorporated into the economic structure but are excluded from the social

structure. Separation, not integration or assimilation is the goal" (Weiner (a), 1982: 27)

Migrants in Bahrain are usually referred to as "guest workers" or "Non-Bahraini Nationals"

at both legal and policy levels. The presence of foreign workers is not treated as the

presence of 'migrants' (Dito, 2007)

The MoU between the Government of India and the Kingdom of Bahrain in its Article 1

defines a migrant worker as an 'employee', "The term "employee" means all temporary

contractual expatriate employees employed in Bahrain for a certain period of time as per

the contract after the expiry of which such employees will leave the Kingdom of Bahrain for

India or any other country"

It is important to keep in mind that the increase in labour migration from non-Arab

countries and especially from South Asia to the Gulf countries was post 1970s after a

substantial increase in oil prices which fuelled growth in other sectors especially

construction. The oil boom therefore resulted in a migration boom (Fargues, 2011; Rajan

and Singh, 2015). This also is a marker for an increase in the import of goods from the sub-

continent. The relations between the two countries have only intensified since then

(Pradhan, 2010).

Indian labour movement to Bahrain:

According to estimates of the Indian Embassy in the Kingdom of Bahrain, of the nearly

650,000 expatriates, approximately 350,000 Indian nationals form the largest expatriate

community in Bahrain along with Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans, Pakistanis, Filipinos,

Indonesians and Arabs of different nationalities. The Indian workforce is the largest of the

expatriate workforce. Majority are from Kerala (about 200,000) followed by Tamil Nadu

(about 50,000), AP/Telangana (about 40,000), Karnataka (about 25,000) and rest from

Maharashtra, Goa, Punjab, UP and Rajasthan.

Over 65 percent of the Indian expatriate workforce is employed in construction, contracting

and maintenance sectors. There are also a relatively small number of Indian housemaids

estimated at around 12000-15000. They come mostly from AP/Telangana. The retail and

other business activities include provisions, hardware, jewelry, electronic etc. Some others

have taken up jobs such as storekeepers, chemists, carpenters, barbers etc. In addition to

the predominant blue-collar labour force, there is a sizeable number of doctors, engineers,

chartered accountants, bankers, managers and other professionals who play a vital role in


Labour migration to Bahrain


Bahrain's socio-economic development. Professionals such as doctors, engineers,

accountants etc. have also found opportunities in Bahrain.

Migration to Bahrain will certainly be affected if the downward trend in prices of oil

continue as this has a direct impact on the construction industry which employs the

maximum number of Indian expatriate workers.

Almost half of the population/ residents in Bahrain at any given point of time is composed

of temporary workers/guest workers. However, Bahrain is not a country of immigration.

Herein lies the contradiction, There are two separate demographic profiles in Bahrain- one

of the citizens and another of these temporary migrant workers. Therefore, the structural

changes in the demography of Bahrain cannot be corrected in the short term (Fargues,

2011).



Arab Spring, unemployment and nationalization of workforce

There has been a demonstrated intersection between demography, security and the Arab

Spring (LaGraffe, 2012). A large number of unemployed youth present a recipe for unrest

and an extremely dissatisfied society looking for a sense of purpose. What is striking is that

demographic transitions work across space and time and the problems that they bring in

their wake are structural and not cyclical (Gollerkeri and Chhabra, 2015). The Arab Spring

that has gone down in history as one of the most striking revolts against established

governance structures and authority. In order to address the problem of unemployment

amongst its youth, a number of countries responded by intensifying their nationalization

programmes for the labour markets of the private sector.

Affirmative action and positive discrimination have been used as strategies in different

countries ranging from the United States of America and India. Nationalisation of the

workforce is one such strategy. It has been identified as a good political decision to address

the problem of unemployment amongst a large number of youth especially in the GCC

countries. There is also a general consensus that a long-term dependence on an expatriate

workforce has long term implications and consequences (Randeree, 2012). However, it may

not necessarily translate to good economics especially if this is policy is not accompanied by

other strategies to educate and skill nationals and an increase in the participation of women

in the workforce (Ibid). To take the example of one nationalization programme in the largest

GCC country, let us turn to the example of Saudi Arabia. There are several businesses

especially in Saudi Arabia who have protested against the strict enforcement of the

unprecedented 'Nitaqat' law in 2011 that stipulates quotas for hiring of nationals in private

firms. This distortion of the labour market assumes ex ante that the supply of workers in the

host country is sufficient; that sufficient competition exists in the labour market. However,

this does lower the competitiveness of businesses especially as it raises costs as the

minimum wages for nationals are invariably higher. Some estimates suggest that the

salaries of foreign workers may only be 1/4th of the average salary of Saudi nationals. In

2009, the average monthly private sector wage for nationals was SR 3137 per month, and

for the same job, a foreign worker was paid around SR 765 (Hussain, 2014). There is also a

concern for nationals not willing to do certain types of jobs for which many expatriate guest

workers might be available from the sub-continent. The result is that even though the

programme has succeeded in generating employment for nationals, there has been a

significant impact on the performance of these firms. The competitiveness of firms has

been severely impacted resulting in the exit of a large number of firms and a reduction in

the overall number of jobs available (Peck, 2014).

Despite the shortcomings, this strategy has been adopted across GCC countries as a human

resource management strategy (Randeree, 2012). The economic boom of the 1970s brought

with it a commitment towards citizens through generous welfare programmes towards

healthcare and housing (Dito, 2007). This was the beginning of the Bahrainisation policy in

the early 1980s through the 'Project 10,000' aimed at increasing the participation of young

Bahraini citizens in the private sector. This was followed by the introduction of a 'Strategic

Choices Committee' in mid-1980s to address unemployment in Bahrain. This programme

then took shape of a five-year plan. This programme, in 2001, took the shape of a more

holistic programme with training programmes for employees and wage subsidies. The

result, however, has been a substantial increase in the employment of Bahraini nationals in

the public sector with the private sector still being dictated by market forces (Randeree,

2012)



Arab Spring, unemployment and nationalization of workforce

There has been a demonstrated intersection between demography, security and the Arab

Spring (LaGraffe, 2012). A large number of unemployed youth present a recipe for unrest

and an extremely dissatisfied society looking for a sense of purpose. What is striking is that

demographic transitions work across space and time and the problems that they bring in

their wake are structural and not cyclical (Gollerkeri and Chhabra, 2015). The Arab Spring

that has gone down in history as one of the most striking revolts against established

governance structures and authority. In order to address the problem of unemployment

amongst its youth, a number of countries responded by intensifying their nationalization

programmes for the labour markets of the private sector.

Affirmative action and positive discrimination have been used as strategies in different

countries ranging from the United States of America and India. Nationalisation of the

workforce is one such strategy. It has been identified as a good political decision to address

the problem of unemployment amongst a large number of youth especially in the GCC

countries. There is also a general consensus that a long-term dependence on an expatriate

workforce has long term implications and consequences (Randeree, 2012). However, it may

not necessarily translate to good economics especially if this is policy is not accompanied by

other strategies to educate and skill nationals and an increase in the participation of women

in the workforce (Ibid). To take the example of one nationalization programme in the largest

GCC country, let us turn to the example of Saudi Arabia. There are several businesses

especially in Saudi Arabia who have protested against the strict enforcement of the

unprecedented 'Nitaqat' law in 2011 that stipulates quotas for hiring of nationals in private

firms. This distortion of the labour market assumes ex ante that the supply of workers in the

host country is sufficient; that sufficient competition exists in the labour market. However,

this does lower the competitiveness of businesses especially as it raises costs as the

minimum wages for nationals are invariably higher. Some estimates suggest that the

salaries of foreign workers may only be 1/4th of the average salary of Saudi nationals. In

2009, the average monthly private sector wage for nationals was SR 3137 per month, and

for the same job, a foreign worker was paid around SR 765 (Hussain, 2014). There is also a

concern for nationals not willing to do certain types of jobs for which many expatriate guest

workers might be available from the sub-continent. The result is that even though the

programme has succeeded in generating employment for nationals, there has been a

significant impact on the performance of these firms. The competitiveness of firms has

been severely impacted resulting in the exit of a large number of firms and a reduction in

the overall number of jobs available (Peck, 2014).

Despite the shortcomings, this strategy has been adopted across GCC countries as a human

resource management strategy (Randeree, 2012). The economic boom of the 1970s brought

with it a commitment towards citizens through generous welfare programmes towards

healthcare and housing (Dito, 2007). This was the beginning of the Bahrainisation policy in

the early 1980s through the 'Project 10,000' aimed at increasing the participation of young

Bahraini citizens in the private sector. This was followed by the introduction of a 'Strategic

Choices Committee' in mid-1980s to address unemployment in Bahrain. This programme

then took shape of a five-year plan. This programme, in 2001, took the shape of a more

holistic programme with training programmes for employees and wage subsidies. The

result, however, has been a substantial increase in the employment of Bahraini nationals in

the public sector with the private sector still being dictated by market forces (Randeree,

2012)



Challenges

I. Common Challenges:

II. for Employers

1. Demographic challenges: Structural changes in the demography of Bahrain; issues of

citizenship, the nature of migration and the changing demographic profiles will create

compelling conditions and issues of sustainability while ageing populations will

necessitate in situ services. On the other hand, India's large population of youth will

continue to look for gainful employment within and outside of India.

2. Incorporating the idea of access through commonly agreed to social security systems:

A Survey of Blue-collared workers done recently revealed very poor housing conditions

for these workers (Kanchana and Rajan, 2014). It is important for governments of both

countries to negotiate and agree to a basic set of facilities for migrant workers to ensure

their safety and welfare. The policy of importing labour and not people may be

counterproductive in an increasingly interconnected and globalized world.

3. Skills will be at a premium (investment by both countries in training and skilling a huge

chunk of the population)

4. Reducing costs of remittances

5. Tackling Irregular Migration

1. Shortfall in level of skills of the employed migrant worker

(A lineman is hired instead of an electrician.)

2. Inability to adapt

(There is a different work culture and atmosphere in the Gulf countries to which

workers may or may not be able to adapt. This can also result from a lack of training for

the work place requirements.)

3. Low productivity

(The shortfall in the level of skills and the inability to adapt lead to a worker who is not

as productive as she/he could have been.)

4. High rate of attrition

(Locked in with an employer may lead to desertions. Also, the tenure is limited. This

high rate of turnover impacts the productivity of the employer.)

5. Reduction in Competitiveness:

(Following the quotas of nationalization programmes has resulted in a general decrease

in competitiveness. It has also resulted in the overall decrease in the number of jobs

available.)

This is due to the nature of migration to the Gulf countries:

1. Kafala system or Visa sponsorship: There is evidence to suggest that this still exists

despite the fact that it has been outlawed in most of the GCC countries. This kind of visa

sponsorship system is unique to the Gulf countries wherein workers are tied to their

employers. This increases the scope for abusive working conditions. François Crépeau,

the special rapporteur of the United Nations on the human rights of migrants in a

special report called for a fundamental reformation in the labour laws of the Gulf

countries. There has been a plea to specifically abolish the Kafala system. Ironically, the

Kafala is not a law but a tradition. It directly contradicts labour laws but it still has

precedence (Khan, 2014)

2. Reliance on third party recruitment: The lack of the 'first mile connectivity'; an absence

of the state or any credible authority where it's desperately needed- in providing

credible information to an intending migrant- results in the presence of a large number

of intermediaries increasing the risk of exploitation for the migrant and increasing

employer detriment. A bulk of the workers to the Gulf are unskilled or low skilled

workers being recruited by recruiting agents on behalf of the employers overseas.

The Recruitment Agents in India are largely unorganized and therefore pose a huge

challenge in regulation.



Challenges

I. Common Challenges:

II. for Employers

1. Demographic challenges: Structural changes in the demography of Bahrain; issues of

citizenship, the nature of migration and the changing demographic profiles will create

compelling conditions and issues of sustainability while ageing populations will

necessitate in situ services. On the other hand, India's large population of youth will

continue to look for gainful employment within and outside of India.

2. Incorporating the idea of access through commonly agreed to social security systems:

A Survey of Blue-collared workers done recently revealed very poor housing conditions

for these workers (Kanchana and Rajan, 2014). It is important for governments of both

countries to negotiate and agree to a basic set of facilities for migrant workers to ensure

their safety and welfare. The policy of importing labour and not people may be

counterproductive in an increasingly interconnected and globalized world.

3. Skills will be at a premium (investment by both countries in training and skilling a huge

chunk of the population)

4. Reducing costs of remittances

5. Tackling Irregular Migration

1. Shortfall in level of skills of the employed migrant worker

(A lineman is hired instead of an electrician.)

2. Inability to adapt

(There is a different work culture and atmosphere in the Gulf countries to which

workers may or may not be able to adapt. This can also result from a lack of training for

the work place requirements.)

3. Low productivity

(The shortfall in the level of skills and the inability to adapt lead to a worker who is not

as productive as she/he could have been.)

4. High rate of attrition

(Locked in with an employer may lead to desertions. Also, the tenure is limited. This

high rate of turnover impacts the productivity of the employer.)

5. Reduction in Competitiveness:

(Following the quotas of nationalization programmes has resulted in a general decrease

in competitiveness. It has also resulted in the overall decrease in the number of jobs

available.)

This is due to the nature of migration to the Gulf countries:

1. Kafala system or Visa sponsorship: There is evidence to suggest that this still exists

despite the fact that it has been outlawed in most of the GCC countries. This kind of visa

sponsorship system is unique to the Gulf countries wherein workers are tied to their

employers. This increases the scope for abusive working conditions. François Crépeau,

the special rapporteur of the United Nations on the human rights of migrants in a

special report called for a fundamental reformation in the labour laws of the Gulf

countries. There has been a plea to specifically abolish the Kafala system. Ironically, the

Kafala is not a law but a tradition. It directly contradicts labour laws but it still has

precedence (Khan, 2014)

2. Reliance on third party recruitment: The lack of the 'first mile connectivity'; an absence

of the state or any credible authority where it's desperately needed- in providing

credible information to an intending migrant- results in the presence of a large number

of intermediaries increasing the risk of exploitation for the migrant and increasing

employer detriment. A bulk of the workers to the Gulf are unskilled or low skilled

workers being recruited by recruiting agents on behalf of the employers overseas.

The Recruitment Agents in India are largely unorganized and therefore pose a huge

challenge in regulation.



Way forward

I. Employers

II. What can the government of Bahrain do?

III. What can the Government of India do?

The possible solutions to these problems include:

1. Standard contracts

2. Direct recruitment/Check on unscrupulous intermediaries: This may be done through

innovative means through the use of technology. There are already a number of job

portals that connect the employers and employees directly without having to go

through the route of intermediaries or recruitment agents thereby making the process

easier and more ethical.

3. Regulations for contract enforcement

4. Proactive role of Employers

a. Commitment towards adherence to common standards

b. Investing in skill development

c. Mutual recognition of skills

5. Bilateral agreements between governments with the inclusion of employers in

upholding commonly agreed standards which are enforceable

1. Impact assessment of programmes for Nationalization of workforce: Reconsider the

impact of nationalization of workforce and find better and more innovative methods for

addressing the issue of unemployment amongst its youth

2. Long term investment in education, skill and training programmes

3. Strict abolition of the Kafala system

1. Organise mandatory pre-departure orientation programmes in India

2. Gender sensitivity in migration discourse: Even though a large number of women

migrate from India to the Gulf countries, the discourse surrounding the discussions on

the labour migration remains rather desensitized towards the gender aspect of this

migration. In fact, the number of female migrants will increase as the domestic service

industry is rather unaffected by the economic downturn or the consequences of

reduction in oil prices that the construction Industry may face (Abella, 2014).

3. Programmes for reintegration of returnee migrants: Studies and trends show (ICOE,

2009; Abella, 2014) that the downward trend in the prices of crude oil will affect the

number of jobs available in sectors such as construction and therefore a number of

migrants are expected to return as there will not be enough jobs. Therefore, there will

be a fairly large number of Indian returnee workers from Bahrain and the other GCC

countries that will need employment opportunities in their home countries. India can

respond suitably by encouraging entrepreneurship opportunities to these migrant

workers or involve them in skill development efforts in the country.

4. Reform in the Emigration Act, 1983: It is imperative for the Government to address the

need for reforms in the existing Act. There is a need for a more holistic policy that also

addresses immigration. The policy must take into consideration the voice of the

Industry as well.

5. Organisation of Recruitment Agents: Assisting in organizing Recruitment Agents into an

Industry so that they may be better regulated. To illustrate, at the moment, INR 20,000

is fixed as the maximum amount of money that Recruitment Agents can charge for the

emigration process. However, this has been fixed arbitrarily without extensive

consultation with Recruitment Agents. This has resulted in underhand dealings which

results in exploitation of migrant workers.

6. The government is almost absent from the financing of migration resulting in huge debt

burdens for migrant workers. The Government is also not involved in providing

necessary information pro-actively to intending migrants which results in migrants

obtaining information from intermediaries which include Recruitment Agents, family

and friends. This information may not be entirely credible.

1. Moving forward on the Abu Dhabi Dialogue.

The Abu Dhabi Dialogue was an initiative by the United Arab Emirates to host ministerial

consultations between Asian destination countries and the Colombo Process countries with

the GCC States, plus Yemen and two additional Asian countries of destination namely

Malaysia and Singapore. It constituted a milestone in regional cooperation on contractual

labour mobility because it launched a collaborative approach to address development in

temporary labour mobility in Asia.

IV. What can be done collectively?



Way forward

I. Employers

II. What can the government of Bahrain do?

III. What can the Government of India do?

The possible solutions to these problems include:

1. Standard contracts

2. Direct recruitment/Check on unscrupulous intermediaries: This may be done through

innovative means through the use of technology. There are already a number of job

portals that connect the employers and employees directly without having to go

through the route of intermediaries or recruitment agents thereby making the process

easier and more ethical.

3. Regulations for contract enforcement

4. Proactive role of Employers

a. Commitment towards adherence to common standards

b. Investing in skill development

c. Mutual recognition of skills

5. Bilateral agreements between governments with the inclusion of employers in

upholding commonly agreed standards which are enforceable

1. Impact assessment of programmes for Nationalization of workforce: Reconsider the

impact of nationalization of workforce and find better and more innovative methods for

addressing the issue of unemployment amongst its youth

2. Long term investment in education, skill and training programmes

3. Strict abolition of the Kafala system

1. Organise mandatory pre-departure orientation programmes in India

2. Gender sensitivity in migration discourse: Even though a large number of women

migrate from India to the Gulf countries, the discourse surrounding the discussions on

the labour migration remains rather desensitized towards the gender aspect of this

migration. In fact, the number of female migrants will increase as the domestic service

industry is rather unaffected by the economic downturn or the consequences of

reduction in oil prices that the construction Industry may face (Abella, 2014).

3. Programmes for reintegration of returnee migrants: Studies and trends show (ICOE,

2009; Abella, 2014) that the downward trend in the prices of crude oil will affect the

number of jobs available in sectors such as construction and therefore a number of

migrants are expected to return as there will not be enough jobs. Therefore, there will

be a fairly large number of Indian returnee workers from Bahrain and the other GCC

countries that will need employment opportunities in their home countries. India can

respond suitably by encouraging entrepreneurship opportunities to these migrant

workers or involve them in skill development efforts in the country.

4. Reform in the Emigration Act, 1983: It is imperative for the Government to address the

need for reforms in the existing Act. There is a need for a more holistic policy that also

addresses immigration. The policy must take into consideration the voice of the

Industry as well.

5. Organisation of Recruitment Agents: Assisting in organizing Recruitment Agents into an

Industry so that they may be better regulated. To illustrate, at the moment, INR 20,000

is fixed as the maximum amount of money that Recruitment Agents can charge for the

emigration process. However, this has been fixed arbitrarily without extensive

consultation with Recruitment Agents. This has resulted in underhand dealings which

results in exploitation of migrant workers.

6. The government is almost absent from the financing of migration resulting in huge debt

burdens for migrant workers. The Government is also not involved in providing

necessary information pro-actively to intending migrants which results in migrants

obtaining information from intermediaries which include Recruitment Agents, family

and friends. This information may not be entirely credible.

1. Moving forward on the Abu Dhabi Dialogue.

The Abu Dhabi Dialogue was an initiative by the United Arab Emirates to host ministerial

consultations between Asian destination countries and the Colombo Process countries with

the GCC States, plus Yemen and two additional Asian countries of destination namely

Malaysia and Singapore. It constituted a milestone in regional cooperation on contractual

labour mobility because it launched a collaborative approach to address development in

temporary labour mobility in Asia.

IV. What can be done collectively?



However, even though this platform served to discuss issues related to the recruitment

system and the problems faced therein by the employers and the employees, it has not

found a concrete way forward yet. Instead of reinventing the zero, any plans to work

collectively to address challenges faced in labour movements must take advantage of this

platform.

2. Post 2015 Development Agenda

The need for integrating migration as one of the key subjects in the Post-2015

Development Agenda has been expressed a number of times by International and Inter-

governmental organisations such as the United Nations and the International

Organisation for Migration. Temporary migration is just as important, if not more, than

permanent migration and especially in the South-South corridor. Discussions on

temporary contractual mobility must be incorporated in the Agenda.

3. Use of existing initiatives by International Organisation

Signing up to programmes such as the International Recruitment Integrity System (IRIS)

which is a voluntary, online platform of the International Organisation for Migration

(IOM) for committing to a basic set of Ethical Recruitment Principles.

The relationship between the GCC States and India will continue to grow in importance.

This is a direct result of the overall geo-politics of the region. India will grow for a long

period of time at a comparatively high growth rate. This makes India's appetite for energy

rather large. However, dependence on the GCC states for energy is just one reason

underpinning the importance of this relationship. Other reasons include security in

maritime trade, investment flows, trade of goods and services and of course the large

number of Indians who reside in the GCC States. There has been a marked change in the

engagement of the Indian Government with its Diaspora. Therefore, the relationship that

the Government shares with its Diaspora in the Gulf will continue to be of importance.

Remittances from these Indians residing in the Gulf countries are important as they serve to

promote and maintain consumption stability and are more or less unaffected by cyclical

changes (Global Economic Prospects, 2015). The Indian Government must therefore

consciously serve to reduce the costs of remittances. Another major reason for concern vis-

à-vis Indian migrants in the Gulf countries has been the huge cost of migration due to the

wide prevalence of the intermediaries and the absence of the Government in providing

information and finance to these intending migrants thereby making them vulnerable to

exploitation. With reference to protection of these migrants there must also be an

investment in pre-departure orientation programmes and these should be made mandatory

especially for women as the number of women migrant workers is set to increase.

A long term concern has also been the absence of standard contracts and the absence of a

social protection system for these migrants. Moving forward, it is important that these are

negotiated and a minimum set of facilities agreed to. Also, on return, there may be

opportunities to gainfully employ these migrants in the various skill development efforts of

the country across various flagships programmes of the new government. The nature of this

migration is circular. When the migrant leaves the country he/she is young, healthy and

indebted and when they return they are older and may or may not still be indebted. The

Indian government must commit itself to reintegration of these migrant workers into the

Indian economy.

The Gulf countries must commit towards ethical recruitment practices. The Kafala system of

visas persists despite a ban on these by all GCC countries. There are also reports of poor

housing and other facilities to low skilled migrants. A commitment by the Governments to

rectify this will be very welcome.

Conclusion



However, even though this platform served to discuss issues related to the recruitment

system and the problems faced therein by the employers and the employees, it has not

found a concrete way forward yet. Instead of reinventing the zero, any plans to work

collectively to address challenges faced in labour movements must take advantage of this

platform.

2. Post 2015 Development Agenda

The need for integrating migration as one of the key subjects in the Post-2015

Development Agenda has been expressed a number of times by International and Inter-

governmental organisations such as the United Nations and the International

Organisation for Migration. Temporary migration is just as important, if not more, than

permanent migration and especially in the South-South corridor. Discussions on

temporary contractual mobility must be incorporated in the Agenda.

3. Use of existing initiatives by International Organisation

Signing up to programmes such as the International Recruitment Integrity System (IRIS)

which is a voluntary, online platform of the International Organisation for Migration

(IOM) for committing to a basic set of Ethical Recruitment Principles.

The relationship between the GCC States and India will continue to grow in importance.

This is a direct result of the overall geo-politics of the region. India will grow for a long

period of time at a comparatively high growth rate. This makes India's appetite for energy

rather large. However, dependence on the GCC states for energy is just one reason

underpinning the importance of this relationship. Other reasons include security in

maritime trade, investment flows, trade of goods and services and of course the large

number of Indians who reside in the GCC States. There has been a marked change in the

engagement of the Indian Government with its Diaspora. Therefore, the relationship that

the Government shares with its Diaspora in the Gulf will continue to be of importance.

Remittances from these Indians residing in the Gulf countries are important as they serve to

promote and maintain consumption stability and are more or less unaffected by cyclical

changes (Global Economic Prospects, 2015). The Indian Government must therefore

consciously serve to reduce the costs of remittances. Another major reason for concern vis-

à-vis Indian migrants in the Gulf countries has been the huge cost of migration due to the

wide prevalence of the intermediaries and the absence of the Government in providing

information and finance to these intending migrants thereby making them vulnerable to

exploitation. With reference to protection of these migrants there must also be an

investment in pre-departure orientation programmes and these should be made mandatory

especially for women as the number of women migrant workers is set to increase.

A long term concern has also been the absence of standard contracts and the absence of a

social protection system for these migrants. Moving forward, it is important that these are

negotiated and a minimum set of facilities agreed to. Also, on return, there may be

opportunities to gainfully employ these migrants in the various skill development efforts of

the country across various flagships programmes of the new government. The nature of this

migration is circular. When the migrant leaves the country he/she is young, healthy and

indebted and when they return they are older and may or may not still be indebted. The

Indian government must commit itself to reintegration of these migrant workers into the

Indian economy.

The Gulf countries must commit towards ethical recruitment practices. The Kafala system of

visas persists despite a ban on these by all GCC countries. There are also reports of poor

housing and other facilities to low skilled migrants. A commitment by the Governments to

rectify this will be very welcome.

Conclusion


As India makes efforts towards facilitating an easier and more conducive environment for

investors, the hope is that investment from GCC will also improve. Skills will be at a

premium in the coming years and therefore the private sector from these countries may

benefit immensely from investing in skill development programmes in countries of origin.

This will also remain important as the demographic base of the countries of the GCC is

rather narrow with dwindling fertility rates due to the stage of demographic transition they

are in.

The marker for an increase in labour migration from the subcontinent to the GCC countries

was the increase in oil prices in the 1970s which fuelled growth in other sectors. It is quite

possible that the downward trend faced in oil prices which have almost halved cost of per

barrel in the past 20 years will have a substantial impact on the employment of foreign

workers. The decline in oil prices coupled with nationalization programmes for employment

generation in the GCC countries will reduce the number of jobs available to migrant workers

especially in sectors such as construction but jobs in the domestic sector as well as for other

in situ services is expected to grow. The Indian government must be prepared to

accommodate these workers who would have otherwise found employment in the GCC

countries.

Finally, there are plenty of opportunities to find ways of maximizing the potential and

benefits of temporary, contractual migration between the GCC countries and the sub-

continent. Focusing on good economics, keeping in mind the competitiveness of the

businesses and a commitment to ethical recruitment is the way forward.

References

Abella, Manolo "Outlook on Migration in Asia in 2015" Vol. IV, Number 5, December 2014-

January 2015 Migration Policy Practice

Bahrain Labour Market Indicators, Issue 27/ Third Quarter 2014. Available here:

http://lmra.bh/portal/files/cms/shared/file/Newsletter/NewsletterQ3%28En%29.pdf

(Accessed 2nd March, 2015)

Baru, Sanjaya "The Gulf and Asia: Geopolitical Implications of Geo-Economic Changes"

IISS Geo-Economics and Strategy Programme. 2014

Department of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, 2015

- http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/iecnt.asp (Accessed 30th March, 2015)

- http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/irgncnt.asp (Accessed on 30th March, 2015)

Dito, Mohammed. "Migration policies and challenges in the Kingdom of Bahrain."

Conference on Migration and Refugee Movements in the Middle East and North Africa. The

American University in Cairo, Egypt. 2007.

Fargues, Philippe. "Immigration without inclusion: non-nationals in nation-building in the

gulf states." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 20.3-4 (2011): 273-292.

FICCI Arab Division "India- Bahrain Economic Ties" 2015

Global Economic Prospects, January, 2015 "Can Remittances Help Promote Consumption

Stability?" Available here:

http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/GEP/GEP2015a/pdfs/GEP2015a_chap

ter4_report_remittances.pdf (Accessed on 18th March, 2015)

Gollerkeri, Gurucharan and Chhabra, Natasha (2015) Mobility Matters: Future of Migration

in a Globalising World (forthcoming)

Hussain, Zakir (2014) Nitaqat- Second Wave of Saudization in India Migration Report,

2014(Edited by Irudaya Rajan)

ICOE, "Impact Assessment of Global Recession on Indian Migrant Workers in Countries of

the Gulf Cooperation Council and Malaysia". New Delhi: Indian Council of Overseas

Employment, 2009.Available here:

http://moia.gov.in/services.aspx?ID1=80&id=m1&idp=75&mainid=73 (Accessed on 20th

March, 2015)

IDSA Policy Brief 'Arab Spring: Implications for India' West Asia Centre, 2014



As India makes efforts towards facilitating an easier and more conducive environment for

investors, the hope is that investment from GCC will also improve. Skills will be at a

premium in the coming years and therefore the private sector from these countries may

benefit immensely from investing in skill development programmes in countries of origin.

This will also remain important as the demographic base of the countries of the GCC is

rather narrow with dwindling fertility rates due to the stage of demographic transition they

are in.

The marker for an increase in labour migration from the subcontinent to the GCC countries

was the increase in oil prices in the 1970s which fuelled growth in other sectors. It is quite

possible that the downward trend faced in oil prices which have almost halved cost of per

barrel in the past 20 years will have a substantial impact on the employment of foreign

workers. The decline in oil prices coupled with nationalization programmes for employment

generation in the GCC countries will reduce the number of jobs available to migrant workers

especially in sectors such as construction but jobs in the domestic sector as well as for other

in situ services is expected to grow. The Indian government must be prepared to

accommodate these workers who would have otherwise found employment in the GCC

countries.

Finally, there are plenty of opportunities to find ways of maximizing the potential and

benefits of temporary, contractual migration between the GCC countries and the sub-

continent. Focusing on good economics, keeping in mind the competitiveness of the

businesses and a commitment to ethical recruitment is the way forward.

References

Abella, Manolo "Outlook on Migration in Asia in 2015" Vol. IV, Number 5, December 2014-

January 2015 Migration Policy Practice

Bahrain Labour Market Indicators, Issue 27/ Third Quarter 2014. Available here:

http://lmra.bh/portal/files/cms/shared/file/Newsletter/NewsletterQ3%28En%29.pdf

(Accessed 2nd March, 2015)

Baru, Sanjaya "The Gulf and Asia: Geopolitical Implications of Geo-Economic Changes"

IISS Geo-Economics and Strategy Programme. 2014

Department of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, 2015

- http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/iecnt.asp (Accessed 30th March, 2015)

- http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/irgncnt.asp (Accessed on 30th March, 2015)

Dito, Mohammed. "Migration policies and challenges in the Kingdom of Bahrain."

Conference on Migration and Refugee Movements in the Middle East and North Africa. The

American University in Cairo, Egypt. 2007.

Fargues, Philippe. "Immigration without inclusion: non-nationals in nation-building in the

gulf states." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 20.3-4 (2011): 273-292.

FICCI Arab Division "India- Bahrain Economic Ties" 2015

Global Economic Prospects, January, 2015 "Can Remittances Help Promote Consumption

Stability?" Available here:

http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/GEP/GEP2015a/pdfs/GEP2015a_chap

ter4_report_remittances.pdf (Accessed on 18th March, 2015)

Gollerkeri, Gurucharan and Chhabra, Natasha (2015) Mobility Matters: Future of Migration

in a Globalising World (forthcoming)

Hussain, Zakir (2014) Nitaqat- Second Wave of Saudization in India Migration Report,

2014(Edited by Irudaya Rajan)

ICOE, "Impact Assessment of Global Recession on Indian Migrant Workers in Countries of

the Gulf Cooperation Council and Malaysia". New Delhi: Indian Council of Overseas

Employment, 2009.Available here:

http://moia.gov.in/services.aspx?ID1=80&id=m1&idp=75&mainid=73 (Accessed on 20th

March, 2015)

IDSA Policy Brief 'Arab Spring: Implications for India' West Asia Centre, 2014


Indian Embassy in Kingdom of Bahrain: http://www.indianembassybahrain.com/ (Accessed

25th February, 2015)

International Organisation for Migration, Facts and Figures for Bahrain:

http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/where-we-work/africa-and-the-middle-

east/middle-east-and-north-africa/bahrain.html (Accessed on 25th February, 2015)

Jain, Ravindra K. Indiancommunities abroad: Themes and literature. South Asia Books, 1993.

Jayaram, Narayana, Ed. The Indian Diaspora: Dynamics of Migration. SAGE Publications

India, 2004.

Kanchana, Radhika and Rajan, Irudaya "Indian Migrant Experiences in Oman and Bahrain" in

the India Migration Report, 2014 (Ed. Irudaya Rajan)

Khadria, Binod (ed.) India Migration Report 2009, International Migration and Diaspora

Studies Project, Jawarhalal Nehru University, New Delhi, 2009

Knerr, Beatrice "South Asian Countries as Competitors on the World Labour Market", in

Colin Clark, et.al, South Asian Overseas: Migration and Ethnicity Cambridge, Cambridge

University Press, p. 173, 1990.

Krishnamurthy, Rajeshwari "A New Foreign Policy Agenda for Modi: 'Look West'. Institute of

Peace and Conflict Studies. Available here: http://www.ipcs.org/article/india/a-new-foreign-

policy-agenda-for-modi-look-west-4506.html (Accessed on 25th March, 2015)

Labour Market Regulatory Authority of Bahrain: http://lmra.bh/portal/en/home (Accessed


LaGraffe, Daniel. "The youth bulge in Egypt: an intersection of demographics, security, and

the Arab spring." Journal of Strategic Security 5.2 (2012): 9.

Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, Government of India (2009) Memorandum of

Understanding between the Republic of India and the Kingdom of Bahrain on Labour and

Manpower Development. Available here:

http://moia.gov.in/writereaddata/pdf/BAHRAIN1.pdf (Accessed on 20th March, 2015)

Pant, Girijesh "South Asian Migration to the Arab Gulf: Issues and Prospects", South Asia

Journal (New Delhi), October-November, 2(2): 111-127, 1998.

Peck, Jeniffer. Can Hiring Quotas Work? The Effect of the Nitaqat Program on the Saudi

Private Sector. Working Paper, KACST and MIT March, 2014.

Pradhan, Prasanta Kumar. "India's Relationship with the Gulf Cooperation Council: Need to

look beyond business". IDSA Monograph Series No. 37, May 2014 Pradhan, Samir "Gulf-

South Asia Economic Relations: Realities and Prospects in 'Will Stabilisation Limit


Protectionism? The 4th GTA Report. 2014

Raja Mohan, C. "Modi and the Middle East: Towards a Link West Policy" Carnegie

Endowment for International Peace, October 5, 2014 Indian Express. Available here:

http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/modi-and-the-middle-east-towards-a-

link-west-policy/ (Accessed on 25th March, 2015)

Rajan, S. Irudaya and Singh, Didar. A. (2015) Politics of Migration (forthcoming)

Randeree, Kasim. "Workforce nationalization in the Gulf Cooperation Council states."

(2012).

Rajan, S. Irudaya, and D. Narayana. "The financial crisis in the Gulf and its impact on South

Asian migrant workers." (2010).

Siddiqui, Fazzur Rahman, "India's New Look West Asia Policy" India Council of World Affairs

Policy Brief 10th December, 2014

The Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India (2012) Gulf Cooperation Council

(GCC). Available here:

http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRhttp://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/gulf

-cooperation-council-april-2012.pdfelation/gulf-cooperation-council-april-2012.pdf

The World Bank data on Bahrain: http://data.worldbank.org/country/bahrain (Accessed on


UN ESCWA: The Demographic Profile of Bahrain:

http://www.escwa.un.org/popin/members/bahrain.pdf (Accessed 20th February, 2015)

Weiner, Myron (a) "Displaced People after Gulf Crisis" in 'The Cambridge Survey of World

Migration' Edited by Robin Cohen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1982

Weiner, Myron (b) "International Migration and Development: Indians in the Persian Gulf",

Population and Development Review (New York), March, 8 (1): 10, 1982


Indian Embassy in Kingdom of Bahrain: http://www.indianembassybahrain.com/ (Accessed


International Organisation for Migration, Facts and Figures for Bahrain:

http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/where-we-work/africa-and-the-middle-

east/middle-east-and-north-africa/bahrain.html (Accessed on 25th February, 2015)

Jain, Ravindra K. Indiancommunities abroad: Themes and literature. South Asia Books, 1993.

Jayaram, Narayana, Ed. The Indian Diaspora: Dynamics of Migration. SAGE Publications

India, 2004.

Kanchana, Radhika and Rajan, Irudaya "Indian Migrant Experiences in Oman and Bahrain" in

the India Migration Report, 2014 (Ed. Irudaya Rajan)

Khadria, Binod (ed.) India Migration Report 2009, International Migration and Diaspora

Studies Project, Jawarhalal Nehru University, New Delhi, 2009

Knerr, Beatrice "South Asian Countries as Competitors on the World Labour Market", in

Colin Clark, et.al, South Asian Overseas: Migration and Ethnicity Cambridge, Cambridge

University Press, p. 173, 1990.

Krishnamurthy, Rajeshwari "A New Foreign Policy Agenda for Modi: 'Look West'. Institute of

Peace and Conflict Studies. Available here: http://www.ipcs.org/article/india/a-new-foreign-

policy-agenda-for-modi-look-west-4506.html (Accessed on 25th March, 2015)

Labour Market Regulatory Authority of Bahrain: http://lmra.bh/portal/en/home (Accessed


LaGraffe, Daniel. "The youth bulge in Egypt: an intersection of demographics, security, and

the Arab spring." Journal of Strategic Security 5.2 (2012): 9.

Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, Government of India (2009) Memorandum of

Understanding between the Republic of India and the Kingdom of Bahrain on Labour and

Manpower Development. Available here:

http://moia.gov.in/writereaddata/pdf/BAHRAIN1.pdf (Accessed on 20th March, 2015)

Pant, Girijesh "South Asian Migration to the Arab Gulf: Issues and Prospects", South Asia

Journal (New Delhi), October-November, 2(2): 111-127, 1998.

Peck, Jeniffer. Can Hiring Quotas Work? The Effect of the Nitaqat Program on the Saudi

Private Sector. Working Paper, KACST and MIT March, 2014.

Pradhan, Prasanta Kumar. "India's Relationship with the Gulf Cooperation Council: Need to

look beyond business". IDSA Monograph Series No. 37, May 2014 Pradhan, Samir "Gulf-

South Asia Economic Relations: Realities and Prospects in 'Will Stabilisation Limit


Protectionism? The 4th GTA Report. 2014

Raja Mohan, C. "Modi and the Middle East: Towards a Link West Policy" Carnegie

Endowment for International Peace, October 5, 2014 Indian Express. Available here:

http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/modi-and-the-middle-east-towards-a-

link-west-policy/ (Accessed on 25th March, 2015)

Rajan, S. Irudaya and Singh, Didar. A. (2015) Politics of Migration (forthcoming)

Randeree, Kasim. "Workforce nationalization in the Gulf Cooperation Council states."

(2012).

Rajan, S. Irudaya, and D. Narayana. "The financial crisis in the Gulf and its impact on South

Asian migrant workers." (2010).

Siddiqui, Fazzur Rahman, "India's New Look West Asia Policy" India Council of World Affairs

Policy Brief 10th December, 2014

The Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India (2012) Gulf Cooperation Council

(GCC). Available here:

http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRhttp://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/gulf

-cooperation-council-april-2012.pdfelation/gulf-cooperation-council-april-2012.pdf

The World Bank data on Bahrain: http://data.worldbank.org/country/bahrain (Accessed on


UN ESCWA: The Demographic Profile of Bahrain:

http://www.escwa.un.org/popin/members/bahrain.pdf (Accessed 20th February, 2015)

Weiner, Myron (a) "Displaced People after Gulf Crisis" in 'The Cambridge Survey of World

Migration' Edited by Robin Cohen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1982

Weiner, Myron (b) "International Migration and Development: Indians in the Persian Gulf",

Population and Development Review (New York), March, 8 (1): 10, 1982


Documents

Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration (focus on …ficci.in/spdocument/20606/Trends-Bahrain.pdf · 2015-07-13 · Trends in Gulf Demographics and Labour Migration For hundreds