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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development
Treatment OptionsFor
HABs Impacted Waters
Nicholas Dugan, PETom Waters, PE
Kansas HAB Meeting - Topeka KS January 22, 2020
Outline
A. Background and definitions
B. Drinking water treatment options:
i. Permanganate
ii. Powdered activated carbon (PAC)
iii. Coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation
iv. Filtration
v. Chlorination
vi. UV/ozone/chlorine dioxide
C. Analytical methods (if time and interest)
Background
All water bodies contain suspended (planktonic) micro-organisms. They are an essential part of the aquatic food web and include single-cell phototrophic micro-organisms such as:oAlgae (eukaryotic)oCyanobacteria (prokaryotic)
A harmful algal bloom (HAB) occurs when these micro-organisms multiply to the point that they disturb the baseline ecology of the water body If a bloom is caused by cyanobacteria, why is it called a “harmful algal
bloom?”oPrior to the use of DNA sequencing, cyanobacteria were
classified as “blue-green algae”oTerms such as “cyanobacteria” and “blue-green algae” are still
used interchangeably
Background
Why is a bloom potentially harmful?oUnpleasant appearanceoUnpleasant tastes and/or odorsoCyanobacterial toxinsoNegative impacts on aquatic food webo Increased difficulty in treating drinking water:
• Maintenance & operation issues• Potential for exceeding health advisory toxin concentration
values• Potential for loss of confidence in the quality of treated
drinking water
Water potentially unsuitable for body-contact recreation by
humans and animals
Background
Figure adapted from: Kamennaya, N.A., et al; Minerals 2012:2:338-364
Dissolved CO2
Complex organic compounds
Not all cyanobacteria produce toxins In toxin-producing cyanobacteria – timing of toxin production can vary When toxins produced, they are usually contained within the cell membrane Sometimes toxins released from cells into solution
All cyanobacteria contain light harvesting pigments:• Chlorophyll• Phycocyanin
Background
Microcystin → liverCylindrospermopsin → kidneys & liver
Anatoxin → central nervous system
Background
IntracellularToxins contained inside the cell
ExtracellularToxins in solution outside the cell
CombinedExtracellular + intracellular toxin
Water sample
Federal Finished Drinking Water Toxin Health Advisory Levels
Toxin Children < 6 yearsChildren ≥ 6 years
& adults
Microcystin 0.3 1.6
Cylindrospermopsin 0.7 3.0
US EPA 10-day health advisory levels (µg/L)
Bloom Response: Iowa
July 2016 – July 2017: conducted weekly raw water microcystin sampling at all surface water and GWUDI systems → no finished water detects in participating systems
No ongoing monitoring requirements for surface water or GWUDI systems; a few systems are monitoring as they deem necessary
2016 – 2017 study report: https://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/files/Microcystin_Surveillance_Study_Report_of_Findings_6-2018.pdf
Flowcharts from 2016 – 2017 study: https://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/do
cs/Microcystin_Flow_Chart.pdf https://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/do
cs/Cylindrospermopsin_Flow_Chart.pdf
https://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/files/Microcystin_Surveillance_Study_Report_of_Findings_6-2018.pdfhttps://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/docs/Microcystin_Flow_Chart.pdfhttps://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/docs/Cylindrospermopsin_Flow_Chart.pdf
Bloom Response: Missouri
If a bloom is observed in the vicinity of the system intake → contact the state
Conduct jar test or observe sample using microscope If positive for cyanobacteria → screen raw water using Abraxis test strips If screening test is: Positive, immediately conduct finished water screening, and contact
the state. Additional treatment guidance will be provided as needed Negative, continue observing bloom
If finished water screening is: Positive, contact the state, submit sample to state lab for confirmation,
develop monitoring plan, additional response actions, and public notification in consultation with relevant agencies
Negative, continue observing bloom, additional screening if warranted
Bloom Response: Kansas and Nebraska
Kansas:o Raw water detect → contact the state → possibly increase
monitoring frequency and PAC concentrations (if equipped) Nebraska:
o Only 4 surface water systems in the stateo Proactively sampled raw water at SW and GWUDI systems in
2018 & 2019o Utilizing 18/19 sampling results and approaches from other
states to formalize 2020 sampling and response plan
Links to R7 State Response Information
MO: https://dnr.mo.gov/env/esp/wqm/docs/HABDrinkingWaterSamplingProtocol.pdfIA:https://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/docs/Microcystin_Flow_Chart.pdfIA:https://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/docs/Cylindrospermopsin_Flow_Chart.pdfKS: http://www.kdheks.gov/algae-illness/2019_Symposium/Rob_Gavin_2019-01-20_HAB_PWS_Response_Planning_and_Risk_Communication.pdf
https://dnr.mo.gov/env/esp/wqm/docs/HABDrinkingWaterSamplingProtocol.pdfhttps://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/docs/Microcystin_Flow_Chart.pdfhttps://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/water/wso/docs/Cylindrospermopsin_Flow_Chart.pdfhttp://www.kdheks.gov/algae-illness/2019_Symposium/Rob_Gavin_2019-01-20_HAB_PWS_Response_Planning_and_Risk_Communication.pdf
Conventional Surface Water Treatment
Sedimentation
Source Water
Chlorine(Cl2)
Permanganate(MnO4-)
Powdered activated carbon
(PAC)
Coagulant
Rapidmix Flocculation
Filtration
Chloramine(NH2Cl)
Clearwell
Distribution systemSludge
Permanganate
Permanganate (MnO4-):oApplied early in the treatment process – often the 1st chemical
addedoApplied as a sodium or potassium saltoTaste and odor controloDBP precursor controlo Iron and manganese controloControl of zebra mussels in intake structures o Induces oxidative stress in cyanobacterial cells → may lead to
the release of toxins into solutionoOxidizes toxins released into solution
Permanganate – Reaction Rates
Reaction rate constant (M-1s-1)
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Cylindrospermopsin
Microcystin
Anatoxin
Laboratory waterpH 7 - 820 - 22 C
67 X faster
1200 X faster
Permanganate – Reaction Rates
• The permanganate/toxin reaction rate depends on the type of toxin: anatoxin >> microcystin >> cylindrospermopsin
• The permanganate/toxin reaction rate will increase with increasing temperatures
• Within the pH range of 7 – 9, the permanganate/toxin reaction rate does not change significantly with pH
• Dissolved natural organic matter (NOM) and inorganic constituents such as iron and manganese can react with permanganate → possibility of competing reactions → potentially slower degradation of toxins
Time (minutes)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cel
ls w
ith d
amag
ed m
embr
anes
(Ct /
Co)
0
2
4
6
8
10
0
2
4
6
8
10
Dose = 1 mg/LDose = 2.5 mg/LDose = 5 mg/L
Impact of KMnO4 on Cyanobacterial Cell Membrane Integrity
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency
Permanganate exposure increases the concentration of cells with membrane damage
Time (minutes)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Chl
orop
hyll
(Ct /
Co)
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
Dose = 1 mg/LDose = 2.5 mg/LDose = 5 mg/L
Impact of KMnO4 on Chlorophyll in Cyanobacterial Cells
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency
Permanganate exposure decreases chlorophyll concentrations inside cells
Time (minutes)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Extra
cellu
lar m
icro
cyst
ins
(Ct /
Co)
1
10
100
1
10
100
Dose = 1 mg/LDose = 2.5 mg/LDose = 5 mg/L
Impact of KMnO4 on Toxin Release from Cyanobacterial Cells
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency
Permanganate exposure increases extracellular microcystin concentration
Operational Considerations for Permanganate Pre-Oxidation
If possible, monitor for toxins in the treatment plant influent in addition to the source water:o Extracellular toxinso Extra + intracellular toxins (requires freeze/thawing of
samples) The degree to which toxins exist as extracellular versus
intracellular may drive treatment decisions
Operational Considerations for Permanganate Pre-Oxidation
If primarily extracellular, continuing permanganate feed will not hurt and increasing the dose may help:o Consider site-specific considerations regarding
production of colored watero Consider locations of permanganate and powdered
activated carbon (PAC) application – PAC has the potential to adsorb toxins but also to neutralize permanganate
Operational Considerations for Permanganate Pre-Oxidation
If significant intracellular toxins, have a contingency plan in place for temporarily suspending permanganate application:o Potential for color, taste & odor (T & O), DBP, or
operational issues if permanganate is used for T & O, iron, DBP precursor, or color control
o Be prepared to increase PAC dose and modify coagulation conditions to maximize removals of extracellular toxins and toxin-containing cells through coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation
o If possible, increase post-filtration chlorine dose
Conventional Surface Water Treatment
Sedimentation
Source Water
Chlorine(Cl2)
Permanganate(MnO4-)
Powdered activated carbon
(PAC)
Coagulant
Rapidmix Flocculation
Filtration
Chloramine(NH2Cl)
Clearwell
Distribution systemSludge
Background:Powdered Activated Carbon
Powdered activated carbon (PAC):oTaste and odor controloSeasonal control of trace organics (herbicides, insecticides,
etc.)oAdsorbs cyanobacterial toxins released into solutionoNeutralizes MnO4-
PAC Treatment
PAC effectiveness depends on:o Type of carbon (wood, coconut,
coal)o Type of cyanotoxin or other
compounds to be adsorbedo Dose and contact timeo Natural organic matter (NOM)
interference
Micropores: < 2 nmMesopores: 2 - 50 nmMacropores: > 50 nm
vs. microcystin-LR: 1-3 nm
Effectiveness of PAC in Natural Waters
Toxin
Toxin concentration
(µg/L) PAC typePAC dose
(mg/L)Contact time
(min) % Removal
MYC 5 ? 10 60 92
MYC 22 ? 10 15 41
MYC 22 Coal 10 60 30 – 60
MYC 22 Coal 50 60 ≥ 90
CYL 20 Coal 25 30 60 - > 90
ANA 73 Coal 30 864* > 80
* Approximately 14 hours
Impact of PAC Addition
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency
Time (minutes)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Extra
cellu
lar t
oxin
con
cent
ratio
n (
g/L)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Time (minutes)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Extra
cellu
lar t
oxin
con
cent
ratio
n (
g/L)
0
5
10
15
20
25
With PACNo PAC
– Carbon added after toxin release from cyanobacterial cells
Impact of PAC Addition
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency
Operational Considerations for PAC
• Consider sufficient supply, storage space, and safety prior to HAB season
• Consider operational impacts of adding PAC on sedimentation and filtration processes
• More frequent sludge removal, higher volumes
• Potential for filter clogging• Test higher PAC feed rates, if
needed, prior to HAB season to evaluate potential for line clogging at higher doses
Conventional Surface Water Treatment
Sedimentation
Source Water
Chlorine(Cl2)
Permanganate(MnO4-)
Powdered activated carbon
(PAC)
Coagulant
Rapidmix Flocculation
Filtration
Chloramine(NH2Cl)
Clearwell
Distribution systemSludge
Background:Coagulation/Flocculation/Sedimentation
Particulate removal (turbidity) DBP precursor removaloTo some degree when adding coagulant with primary goal of
optimizing settled water turbidityoTo a greater degree when increasing coagulant dose and
lowering pH in order to achieve enhanced coagulation Physical removal of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts Coagulant chemical addition destabilizes particles → particles
remaining after sedimentation are more amenable to filtration Sedimentation basin provides contact time for PAC and
permanganate Potentially effective barrier to the passage of cyanobacterial cells
Cell removal (%)0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cell Removals through Coagulation and Sedimentation
Jar test, 65 mg/L alum2
Pilot-scale, 70 mg/L alum2
Full-scale, 150-220 mg/LPolyaluminum chloride1
1Zamyadi et al; Species Dependence of Cyanobacteria Removal Efficiency by Different Drinking Water Treatment Processes; Water Research; 2013:47:2689-27002Drikas et al; Using Coagulation, Flocculation and Settling to Remove Toxic Cyanobacteria; Journal AWWA; 2001:93:2:100-111
Bench-Scale Coagulation Experiments with M. aeruginosa
Water source/pH
Dose necessary to achieve 80% removal of cells (mg/L)
Aluminumchlorohydrate
(ACH) Ferric chloride Aluminum sulfate
Myponga Reservoir
pH 7.5 – 7.8 40 40 60
pH 6.3 20 40 60
River Murray
pH 7.2 – 7.6 20 40 80
pH 6.3 20 20 60
Myponga turbidity = 1.2 – 8.7 NTU, DOC = 10 – 12 mg/LMurray turbidity = 23 – 101 NTU, DOC = 5.3 - 17Source: Newcombe, G. et al; Optimizing Conventional Treatment for the Removal of Cyanobacteria and Toxins; Water Research Foundation, Denver CO; 2015
Toxin Removals through Pilot-Scale Coagulation, Sedimentation, and Filtration
Microcystin-LR concentration(µg/L)
Sample point Toxin type Trial 1 Trial 2
Influent Combined 119 60
Extracellular 3 2
Effluent Combined 3 2
Extracellular 3 2
Source: Drikas et al; Using Coagulation, Flocculation and Settling to Remove Toxic Cyanobacteria; Journal AWWA; 2001:93:2:100-111
Microcystin-LR concentration(µg/L)
Sample point Toxin type Trial 1 Trial 2
Influent Combined 119 60
Extracellular 3 2
Effluent Combined 3 2
Extracellular 3 2
Source: Drikas et al; Using Coagulation, Flocculation and Settling to Remove Toxic Cyanobacteria; Journal AWWA; 2001:93:2:100-111
Toxin Removals through Pilot-Scale Coagulation, Sedimentation, and Filtration
Cell Propagation through a Full-Scale Lake Erie Treatment Facility
Raw
Post
MnO
4
Post
PAC
Filte
r inf
luen
t
Filte
r effl
uent
Fini
shed
Chl
orop
hyll
a (
g/L)
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
May 19July 1July 21
Most of the cell removal work is accomplished prior to filtration
Physical Removal of Cells through Seven Full-Scale Lake Erie Facilities
West East150 miles
Each data point represents the average of 5 – 7 samples collected between May and October
Filtration of M. aeruginosaPilot-Scale Seeding Trial Results
Coagulant
Baseline filter loading rate
(m/hr)
Steady-state removal of
chlorophyll-a(∆ log)
Alum+
cationic polymer
7 2.8
10 2.5
Ferric chloride+
cationic polymer
7 2.9
10 3.8
• Average influent chlorophyll-a concentration = 26 µg/L (SD = 12 µg/L) • 1 m/hr = 0.41 gal/min•ft2
Jar Testing
Optimizing coagulant and polymer dosing can maximize cell removal through the treatment process. This can be effectively evaluated in most plants using jar testing.
To evaluate optimal coagulant and polymer dosing for cyanobacteria cell removal, the following parameters can be monitored:o Turbidityo NOMo Pigments (chlorophyll-a, phycocyanin)o Coloro UV254o Particle countso Streaming current or zeta potential
Jar Testing Case Study
Objectives: Understand effect of coagulant on
cyanobacteria cell removal.
Understand effect of KMnO4 on coagulation efficacy and cyanotoxin release from cyanobacteria cells.
Experimental setup: 4 jars stirred at mixing speed
equivalent to turbulence in raw water main.
Raw water sample augmented with concentrated cyanobacteria solution obtained with a phytoplankton net.
Coagulant added at plant’s dose.
KMnO4 added at plant dose and high dose.
Bench-scale Coagulation Experiments with Lake Erie Water and Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacterial cells may have different surface chemistry than suspended clay and silt
Cyanobacterial cells will have lower specific gravity (1.0 – 1.1) than inorganic particles (> 2)
Some species of cyanobacteria have gas vacuoles → positive buoyancy
Cyanobacteria can be found as single cells, “clumps” of individual cells, individual filaments, or “mats” of filaments
For the reasons outlined above, different coagulation chemicals and doses may be required during blooms
Optimizing coagulation conditions for cyanobacterial cell removal during sedimentation is worth the effort because it will protect the filters
Operational considerations for Coagulation, Flocculation, Sedimentation and Filtration
Optimize coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation process through jar testing
Filters that regularly achieve turbidity ≤ 0.10 NTU are better suited to remove cyanobacteria in the event of a HAB
Backwashing filters based on water quality data, such as effluent turbidity, rather than length of time in service can lead to more optimal filter operation
Trend water quality data regularly to understand baseline operation
More frequent clarifier sludge removal may be necessary during a HAB
Operational considerations for Coagulation, Flocculation, Sedimentation and Filtration
Conventional Surface Water Treatment
Sedimentation
Source Water
Chlorine(Cl2)
Permanganate(MnO4-)
Powdered activated carbon
(PAC)
Coagulant
Rapidmix Flocculation
Filtration
Chloramine(NH2Cl)
Clearwell
Distribution systemSludge
44
Permanganate and Chlorine – Reaction rates
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Cylindrospermopsin
Microcystin
Anatoxin
Apparent rate constant (M-1s-1)
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Cylindrospermopsin
Microcystin
Anatoxin
Cl2Laboratory waterpH 4 - 9T = 20 C
KMnO4Laboratory waterpH 7 - 8T = 20 - 22 C
Impact of Chlorination on Microcystin Concentrations
> 2X increase in
CT
> 3X increase in CT
*Figure based on data from Acero et al, Water Research, 2005:39:1628-1638
CT for 3-log Giardia inactivation@ 1.0 mg/L Cl2, t = 25° C:• pH 7: 37• pH 8: 54• pH 9: 78
(CT = 26)
(CT = 71)
(CT = 235)
Oxidation of Microcystins with Chlorine:Kinetic Study
Objective: evaluate microcystin oxidation by chlorine in the plant’s raw water at the plant’s typical chlorine dose.
Augmented a raw water sample with concentrated solution of cyanotoxins obtained from another water body that was experiencing a HAB.
Cyanobacteria subjected to freeze/thaw and a filtration step to ensure that toxins were extracellular.
Compared experimental results with AWWA’s CyanoTOX model results: o Calibrated “model” using free chlorine sample results.o Interested in predicted vs. observed microcystins.o Difference is raw water vs. lab water.o Presence of ammonia, other inorganics, and NOM in raw water reduces
efficacy of chlorine against microcystins.o Understand if a safety factor necessary when predicting chlorine dose
necessary to oxidize extracellular microcystins in a full-scale wastewater treatment plant (WTP). 47
Chlorine and Microcystins Kinetic Study
CyanoTOX Inputs
CALCULATOR INPUT PAGE
STEP 1. Select the cyanotoxin of interest from the dropdown list Variant MC-LR MC-RR MC-YR MC-LA MC-LY MC-LF MC-MixCyanotoxin Type Microcystin-Mix (MC-Mix) → Percent 5% 20% 50% 10% 5% 10% 100%
STEP 2. Input the following system parameterspH (between 6-10) 9.2
Temperature (between 10-30°C) 10
STEP 3. Input the initial cyanotoxin concentrationCyanotoxin Initial Concentration (µg/L) 3.79(If not known, enter an assumed value for the scenario)
STEP 4. Select your target option from the dropdown listTarget. Options: 1) Input target cyanotoxin conc. 1) Input target cyanotoxin conc.
2) No targetTarget cyanotoxin concentration (µg/L) 0.3
STEP 5. Select the oxidant of interest from the dropdown listOxidant Type Free Chlorine
STEP 6. Go to your chosen calculator version: CT based or Dose-decay based (tabs in blue)
STEP 7. Input the following parameters
Baffling Factor 1Oxidant Dose (mg/L) 7
Instantaneous oxidant demand (mg/L) 2.95Contact Time (i.e., hydraulic detent. time, min) 300
Effective Oxidant Half Life (min) 360(Enter a value in minutes OR "ND" for No Decay")
American Water Works Association 49
CyanoTOX Oxidation Calculator
Dose-decay based results: CT-based results:
Operational Considerations for Chlorination
Consider the toxin:o Chlorine is effective for microcystin and cylindrospermopsino Chlorine is not effective for anatoxin
Consider pH:o As pH increases, chlorine reaction rate with microcystin
decreaseso As pH increases, chlorine reaction rate with
cylindrospermopsin increases and peaks at pH = 7, then begins to decrease
Consider temperature – all reaction rates increase with temperature
51
Operational Considerations for Chlorination
Consider competing oxidant demands:o NOMo Iron, manganeseo Ammonia
Consider the potential for formation of disinfection byproducts Consider contact time:
o In the treatment planto Between the treatment plant and the first connectiono Other locations in the distribution system (storage tanks)
Consider where chlorine is dosed and if any competing technologies would limit its effectiveness
52
UV Irradiation
UV contactors installed toward the end of the treatment process –cells and intracellular toxins have been removed, only extracellular toxin remaining.
Required UV doses for 2-log disinfection of Cryptosporidium = 5.8 mJ/cm2, Giardia = 5.2 mJ/cm2, virus = 100 mJ/cm2.
These doses drive full-scale UV contactor design.
UV doses required for microcystin degradation are significantly higher – existing UV infrastructure not a barrier to toxin passage.
53
Ozone and Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide, at the doses used in drinking water treatment (to limit the formation of chlorite) is not considered effective against microcystins – reaction rate is approximately 3 orders of magnitude lower than permanganate.
Ozone has been proven effective at degrading microcystins as well as cylindrospermopsins and anatoxin – reaction rate is sufficient to achieve degradation within the confines of ozone contactors used in full-scale drinking water treatment.
54
When optimized, conventional treatment processes (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration) are highly effective at removing cyanobacterial cells.
PAC effectively adsorbs microcystins however, the exact carbon dose will vary depending on the type of cyanotoxin, type of carbon, and the NOM background.
Conclusions
Chlorine effectively degrades microcystins – but the rate of degradation is temperature and pH dependent.
Ozone effectively degrades microcystins.
Chlorine dioxide and UV, at the dose levels commonly employed in drinking water treatment, are not effective.
Permanganate effectively degrades dissolved microcystins –however, the typical location for permanganate addition, early in the treatment process where cyanobacterial cell concentrations are still high, sets up a potential for toxin release – vigilance is recommended.
Conclusions
Disclaimer
57
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, through its Office of Research and Development, funded and managed, or partially funded and collaborated in, the research described herein. It has been subjected to the Agency’s internal peer and administrative review and has been approved for external publication. Any opinions expressed in this presentation are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Agency, therefore, no official endorsement should be inferred. Any mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. This presentation is for informational purposes only and is not intended as legal advice. You are urged to consult legal counsel concerning any specific situation or legal issues. This presentation does not address all federal, state, and local regulations, and other rules may apply. This presentation does not substitute for any EPA regulation and is not an EPA rule.
Analytical Methods
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
Toxin molecule Antibody (specific to toxin molecule)
“Immunosorbent”
+Toxin-antibodycomplex Enzyme
“Enzyme-linked immunosorbent”
Analytical Methods
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
+Toxin-antibody
complex Enzyme
+Reagent
Enzyme catalyzes reactionthat results in color change
proportional to toxin concentration
Analytical Methods
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
ELISA plate ready for reading
Analytical Methods
Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometer (LC/MS/MS)
Sample
Chromatographycolumn
Mass spectrometer∆ t
Separation by mass andfragmentation pattern inthe mass spectrometer
Separation by timeon the column
ELISA versus LCMS(Extracellular Toxin)
ELISA vs. LCMS (Extra + Intracellular Toxin)
EPA Water Treatment Document
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-11/documents/water_treatment_optimization_for_cyanotoxins.pdf
Bibliography
65
Permanganate:o Kim et al, Environmental Science & Technology:2018:52:12:7054-7063o Jeong et al, Water Research:2017:114:189-199o Ding et al, Journal of Environmental Engineering:2010:136:1:2-11o Rodriguez et al, Water Research:2007:41:15:3381-3393o Rodriguez et al, Water Research:2007:41:9:2048-2056o Rodriguez et al, Water Research:2007:41:1:102-110
Powdered activated carbon:o Park et al, Chemosphere:2017:177:15-23o Vlad, MS Thesis, University of Waterloo, 2015, http://hdl.handle.net/10012/9392o Drogui et al, Environmental Technology:2012:33:4:381-391o Ho et al, Water Research:2011:45:9:2954-2964o Cook & Newcombe, Environmental Technology:2008:29:5:525-534o Cook & Newcombe, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply:2002:2:5-6:201-207
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