Tratamento Agua Compendium High

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Compendiumof Sanitation Systems

and Technologies


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Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies

Elizabeth Tilley, Christoph Lthi, Antoine Morel,Chris Zurbrgg and Roland Schertenleib.

Our special thanks go to:the NETSSAF Consortium, the GTZ ecosan programme

and the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA).

We would like to thank the following individualsfor their contributions and comments:

Chris Buckley, Pierre-Henri Dodane, Barbara Evans, Doulaye Kon,Elisabeth Kvarnstrm, Duncan Mara, Peter Morgan, Arne Panesar,

Eddy Perez, Elias Rosales, Arno Rosemarin, Sren Rud, Darren Saywell,Margaret Scott, Steven Sugden, Kevin Tayler, Kai Udert,

Carolien van der Voorden,Yvonne Voegeli, Anita Wittmer.

We would like to acknowledge support from:the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR)

North-South: Research Partnerships for Mitigating Syndromes of Global Change, co-funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF)

and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC).


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Investing in sanitation and hygiene is not only about sav-ing human lives and dignity; it is the foundation for inves-ting in human development, especially in poor urban andperi-urban areas. However, one of the main bottlenecksencountered the world over, is the limited knowledgeand awareness about more appropriate and sustainablesystems and technologies that keep project costs

affordable and acceptable.Abundant information exists about sanitation technolo-gies but it is scattered throughout dozens of books, re-ports, proceedings and journals; this Compendium aimsto pull the main information together in one volume.Another aim of the Compendium is to promote a systemsapproach; sanitation devices and technologies shouldalways be considered as parts of an entire system.In 2005, Sandec and the WSSCC published ProvisionalGuidelines for Household-centred Environmental Sani-tation (HCES), a new planning approach for implement-

ing the Bellagio Principles on Sustainable Sanitation inUrban Environmental Sanitation. The HCES approachemphasizes the participation of all stakeholders be-ginning at the household/neighbourhood in planningand implementing sanitation systems. By ordering andstructuring a huge range of information on fully andpartly tested technologies into one concise document,this Compendium is an important tool for stakehold-ers to make well informed decisions during the plan-ning process.Although this source book is primarily addressed to

engineers and planners dealing with infrastructure deliv-ery, the technology sheets also allow non-experts tounderstand the main advantages and limitations of dif-ferent technologies and the appropriateness of differentsystem configurations. It is our hope that this Compen-dium will allow all stakeholders to be involved in selectingimproved sanitation technologies and to help promotepeople-centred solutions to real sanitation problems.This is the first edition of the Compendium and we arelooking forward to receiving your feedback experiencesand suggestions for a next edition are very welcome!

E a w a g - S a n d e c S a n i t a t i o n S y s t e m s

F o r e w o r d

Foreword

3

Roland SchertenleibEawag/Sandec

Jon LaneWSSCC


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T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

Table of Contents

5

Introduction: The Aim and Use of this CompendiumBackground 7Target User of the Compendium 7Objective of the Compendium 7Structure of the Compendium 7

Part 1: Systems Templates

General Informations about Sanitation Systems 9Products 11Functional Groups 13Technologies 13Using the System Templates 14

Description of the System TemplatesSystem 1: Single Pit System 16System 2: Waterless System with Alternating Pits 18System 3: Pour Flush System with Twin Pits 20System 4: Waterless System with Urine Diversion 22System 5: Blackwater Treatment System with Infiltration 24System 6: Blackwater Treatment System with Sewerage 26System 7: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment System 28System 8: Sewerage System with Urine Diversion 30

Part 2: Functional Groups with Technology Information Sheets

Reading the Technology Information Sheets 33

Functional Group U: User Interface 35U1: Dry Toilet 37U2: Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT) 39

U3: Urinal 41U4: Pour Flush Toilet 43U5: Cistern Flush Toilet 45U6: Urine Diverting Flush Toilet (UDFT) 47

Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment 49S1: Urine Storage Tank/Container 51S2: Single Pit 53S3: Single Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) 55S4: Double Ventilation Improved Pit (VIP) 57S5: Fossa Alterna 59S6: Twin Pits for Pour Flush 61S7: Dehydration Vaults 63S8: Composting Chamber 65S9: Septic Tank 67


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S10: Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) 69S11: Anaerobic Filter 71S12: Anaerobic Biogas Reactor 73

Functional Group C: Conveyance 75C1: Jerrycan/tank 77C2: Human-Powered Emptying and Transport 79C3: Motorized Emptying and Transport 81C4: Simplified Sewers 83C5: Solids-Free Sewer 85C6: Conventional Gravity Sewer 87C7: Transfer Station (Underground Holding Tank) 89C8: Sewer Discharge Station (SDS) 91

Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment 93T1: Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) 95T2: Anaerobic Filter 97T3: Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP) 99T4: Aerated Pond 101T5: Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetland 103T6: Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland 105T7: Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland 107T8: Trickling Filter 109T9: Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB) 111T10: Activated Sludge 113T11: Sedimentation/Thickening Ponds 115T12: Unplanted Drying Beds 117T13: Planted Drying Beds 119T14: Co-Composting 121T15: Anaerobic Biogas Reactor 123

Use and/or Disposal 125D1: Fill and Cover/Arborloo 127D2: Application of Urine 129D3: Application of Dehydrated Faeces 131D4: Application of Compost/Eco-Humus 133D5: Irrigation 135D6: Soak Pit 137D7: Leach Field 139D8: Aquaculture Ponds 141D9: Floating Plant (Macrophyte) Pond 143D10: Water Disposal/Groundwater (GW) Recharge 145

D11: Land Application of Sludge 147D12: Surface Disposal 149

Glossary 151


T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

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I n t r o d u c t i o n

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BackgroundThis document was developed in the context of theHousehold Centered Environmental Sanitation (HCES)planning approach shown in Figure 1. The HCES ap-proach is a 10-step multi-sector and multi-actor partici-patory planning process. The guidelines for implement-ing HCES are available from www.sandec.ch.

Target User of the CompendiumThis Compendium is intended to be used by engineers,planners and other professionals who are familiar withsanitation technologies and processes. It is not a train-ing manual or stand-alone resource for people with noexperience in sanitation planning.The user of this document must have an interest in

learning more about alternative or novel technologieswhich may not be part of the common suite employedor taught in the local context. The approach and infor-mation presented herein is meant to broaden the spec-trum of innovative and appropriate technologies consid-ered for sanitation planning.

Objective of the CompendiumThe objective the Compendium is threefold:1. Expose the Compendium user to a broad range of

sanitation systems and innovative technologies;

2. Help the Compendium user understand and workwith the system concept, i.e. the process of buildinga complete system, by iteratively choosing and link-ing appropriate technologies;

3. Describe and fairly present the technology-specificadvantages and disadvantages.

Structure of the CompendiumThe Compendium is divided into 2 Parts; (1) the SystemTemplates and a description about how to use them;and (2) the Technology Information Sheets.

It is recommended that the Compendium user reviewsPart 1: Sanitation Systems to become familiar with theterminology and structure of the System Templates andtheir components. The user can then familiarize them-selves with the technologies of interest in Part 2:Technology Information Sheets. The user can movebetween the System Templates and the TechnologyInformation Sheets (they are cross-referenced) untilhe/she has identified some systems and/or technolo-gies that could be appropriate for further investigation.Eventually, the user should be able to develop one, orseveral system configurations that can be presented tothe community. The Compendium can then be used, fol-lowing the communitys suggestions, to re-evaluate andredesign the system accordingly.

The first four steps of the HCES planning approach define

the project-specific social, cultural, economic, health andenvironmental priorities which will influence technologyselection and the system design. The goal of steps five(5) and six (6) is to identify specific technological optionsand to evaluate feasible service combinations. The fol-lowing steps, seven (7) through ten (10), lead to the for-mulation or design of a comprehensive Urban Environ-mental Sanitation Services (UESS) plan.This Compendium is designed to serve as a resourcetool during steps 5 and 6 of the HCES planning approach.It is presupposed that the user of this Compendium hasa well-developed awareness of the context and priori-ties of the community and other stakeholders as thesocial-cultural elements of sanitation planning are notexplicitly addressed in this document.

Figure 1. The 10-step process in the HCES planning approach(EAWAG, 2005)

1 Request for assistance2 Launch of the planning and consultative process3 Assessment of current status4 Assessment of user priorities

5 Identification of options6 Evaluation of feasible service combinations7 Consolidated UESS plans for study area8 Finalizing of consolidated UESS plans9 Monitoring (internal) evaluation and feedback10Implementation

The 10-Step process

Introduction

Enabling Environment

Government Support Legal FrameworkCredit and other Finacial Arrangements

Institutional Arrangements Required Skills


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S y s t e m T e m p l a t e s

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This Compendium defines sanitation as a multi-stepprocess in which wastes are managed from the point ofgeneration to the point of use or ultimate disposal. Asanitation system is comprised of Products (wastes)which travel through Functional Groups which containTechnologies which can be selected according to thecontext. A sanitation system also includes the manage-

ment, operation and maintenance (O&M) required toensure that the system functions safely and sustain-ably. By selecting a Technology for each Productfrom each applicable Functional Group, one candesign a logical sanitation system.The purpose of this Part is to clearly explain the SystemTemplates by describing what they consist of, whatqualities they have and how they are to be used.

This Compendium describes eight (8) different SystemTemplates.

System 1: Single Pit SystemSystem 2: Waterless System with Alternating PitsSystem 3: Pour Flush System with Twin PitsSystem 4: Waterless System with Urine DiversionSystem 5: Blackwater Treatment System with

InfiltrationSystem 6: Blackwater Treatment System with

SewerageSystem 7: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment SystemSystem 8: Sewerage System with Urine Diversion

A System Template defines a suite of compatibleTechnology combinations from which a system can bedesigned. Each System Template is distinct in terms ofthe characteristics and the number of Products gener-ated and processed. The System Templates present log-ical combinations of Technologies, but the planner mustnot lose a rational, engineering perspective. It must alsobe noted that although this Compendium is thorough, itis not an exhaustive list of Technologies and/or associ-ated systems.

Although the System Templates are predefined, theCompendium user must select the appropriateTechnology from the options presented. The choice iscontext specific and should be made based on the localenvironment (temperature, rainfall, etc.), culture (sit-ters, squatters, washers, wipers, etc.) and resources(human and material).

System templates 1 to 8 range from simple (with fewTechnology choices and Products) to complex (withmultiple Technology choices and Products).The first section of this chapter defines the parts of theSystem Templates. Products, Functional Groups, andTechnologies are explained.The second part of this chapter explains how theSystem Templates can be read, understood, and usedto build a functional Sanitation System.The final section of this Chapter presents a descriptionof how the system works, what are the main considera-

tions, and what type of applications that system isappropriate for.



Part 1: System Templates

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ProductsProducts are materials that are also called wastesor resources. Some Products are generated directlyby humans (e.g. urine and faeces), others arerequired in the functioning of Technologies (e.g. flushwater to move excreta through sewers) and some aregenerated as a function or storage or treatment (e.g.faecal sludge).

For the design of a robust sanitation system, it is nec-essary to define all of the Products that are flowing into(Inputs) and out (Outputs) of each of the sanitationTechnologies in the system. The Products referencedwithin this text are described below.

Urine is the liquid waste produced by the body torid itself of urea and other waste Products. In this con-text, the urine Product refers to pure urine that is notmixed with faeces or water. Depending on diet, humanurine collected during one year (ca. 500 L) contains

24 kg nitrogen. With the exception of some rare cases,urine is sterile when it leaves the body.

Faeces refers to (semi-solid) excrement withouturine or water. Each person produces approximately50 L per year of faecal matter. Of the total nutrientsexcreted, faeces contain about 10% N, 30% P, 12% Kand have 10 710 9 faecal coliforms /100 mL.

Anal cleansing water is water collected after ithas been used to cleanse oneself after defecating

and/or urinating. It is only the water generated by theuser for anal cleansing and does not include dry mate-rials. The volume of water collected during anal cleans-ing ranges from 0.5 L to 3 L per cleaning.

Stormwater is the general term for the rainfallrunoff collected from roofs, roads and other surfacesbefore flowing towards low-lying land. It is the portionof rainfall that does not infiltrate into the soil.

Greywater is the total volume of water generatedfrom washing food, clothes and dishware as well asfrom bathing. It may contain traces of excreta andtherefore will also contain pathogens and excreta.Greywater accounts for approximately 60% of the

wastewater produced in households with flush toilets. Itcontains few pathogens and its flow of nitrogen is only1020% of that in blackwater.

Flushwater is the water that is used to transportexcreta from the User Interface to the next technology.Freshwater, rainwater, recycled greywater, or any combi-

nation of the three can be used as a Flushwater source.

Organics refers here to biodegradable organic mate-rial that could also be called biomass or green organicwaste. Although the other Products in this Compendiumcontain organics, this term refers to undigested plantmaterial. Organics must be added to some technologies inorder for them to function properly (e.g. compostingchambers). Organic degradable material can include butis not limited to leaves, grass and market waste.

Dry Cleansing Materials may be paper, corncobs,rags, stones and/or other dry materials that are used foranal cleansing (instead of water). Depending on the sys-tem, the dry cleansing materials may be collected anddisposed of separately. Although extremely important,we have not included a separate Product name for men-stral hygiene products like sanitary napkins and tam-pons. In general (though not always), they should betreated along with the Dry Cleansing Materials that aredescribed here.

Blackwater is the mixture of urine, faeces and flush-water along with anal cleansing water (if anal cleansing ispracticed) and/or dry cleansing material (e.g. toiletpaper). Blackwater has all of the pathogens of faeces andall of the nutrients of urine, but diluted in flushwater.

Faecal Sludge is the general term for the raw (orpartially digested) slurry or solid that results from thestorage of blackwater or excreta. The composition offaecal sludge varies significantly depending on the loca-tion, the water content, and the storage. For example,ammonium (NH 4-N) can range from 3003000 mg/Lwhile Helminth eggs can reach up to 60,000 eggs/L.The composition will determine the type of treatmentthat is possible and the end-use possibilities.



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Treated Sludge is the general term for partiallydigested or fully stabilized faecal sludge. The USEnvironmental Protection Agency has strict criteria todifferentiate between degrees of treatment and conse-quently, how those different types of sludges can beused. Treated Sludge is used in the System Templatesand in the Technology Information Sheets as a general

term to indicate that the sludge has undergone somelevel of treatment, although it should not be assumedthat treated sludge is fully treated or that it is automat-ically safe. It is meant to indicate that the sludge hasundergone some degree of treatment and is no longerraw. It is the responsibility of the user to inquire aboutthe composition, quality and therefore safety of thelocal sludge.

Excreta consists of urine and faeces that is notmixed with any flushing water. Excreta is small in volume,

but concentrated in nutrients and pathogens. Dependingon the quality of the faeces it is solid, soft or runny.

Brownwater consists of faeces and flushwater(although in actual practice there is always some urine,as only 7085% of the urine is diverted). Brownwater isgenerated by urine-diverting flush toilets and therefore,the volume depends on the volume of the flushwaterused. The pathogen and nutrient load of faeces is notreduced, only diluted by the flushwater.

Dried faeces are faeces that have been dehydrat-ed at high temperatures (and high pH) until theybecome a dry, sanitized powder. Very little degradationoccurs during dehydration and this means that thedried faeces are still rich in organic material. Faeces willreduce in volume by around 75%. There is a small riskthat some organisms can be reactivated in the rightenvironments.

Stored urine is urine that has been hydrolyzednaturally over time, i.e. the urea has been converted byenzymes into carbon dioxide and ammonia. Storedurine has a pH of approximately 9. After 6 months ofstorage, the risk of pathogen transmission is reducedconsiderably.

Effluent is the general term for liquid that hasundergone some level of treatment and/or separationfrom solids. It originates at either a Collection andStorage/Treatment or a (Semi-) Centralized TreatmentTechnology. Depending on the type of treatment, theeffluent may be completely sanitized or may require fur-ther treatment before it can be used or disposed of.

Compost/EcoHumus is the earth-like, brown/blackmaterial that is the result of decomposed organic mat-ter. Generally Compost/EcoHumus has been hygien-ized sufficiently that it can be used safely in agriculture.Because of leaching, some of the nutrients are lost, butthe material is still rich in nutrients and organic matter.

Biogas is the common name for the mixture ofgases released from anaerobic digestion. Typically bio-gas is comprised of methane (5075%), carbon dioxide

(2550%) and varying quantities of nitrogen, hydrogensulphide, water and other components.

Forage refers to aquatic or other plants that grow inplanted drying beds or constructed wetlands and may beharvested for feeding livestock.

This Compendium is primarily concerned with systemsand Technologies directly related to excreta and doesnot address the specifics of greywater or stormwater

management but shows when they can be co-treatedwith excreta. So although greywater and stormwaterare shown as Products in the System Templates, therelated Technologies are not described in detail. For amore comprehensive summary of dedicated greywaterTechnologies refer to the following resource:

_ Morel A. and Diener S. (2006). Greywater Management inLow and Middle-Income Countries, Review of different treatment systems for households or neighbourhoods. SwissFederal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology

(Eawag). Duebendorf, Switzerland.Available free for download: www.eawag.ch



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Functional GroupsA Functional Group is a grouping of technologies whichperform a similar function. There are five (5) differentFunctional Groups from which the technologies used tobuild a system are chosen. It is not necessary for a Pro-duct to pass through a technology from each FunctionalGroup; however, the ordering of the Functional Groupsshould usually be maintained regardless of how many of

them are included within the sanitation system. Also,each Functional Group has a distinctive colour; techno-logies within a given Functional Group share the samecolour code so that they are easily identifiable.The five (5) Functional Groups are:

User Interface (Technologies U1U6): Red

Collection and Storage/Treatment(Technologies (S1S12): Orange

Conveyance (Technologies C1C8): Yellow

(Semi-) Centralized Treatment(Technologies T1T15): Green

Use and/or Disposal (Technologies D1D12): Blue

Each technology within a given Functional Group is as-signed a reference code with a single letter and number;the letter corresponds to the Functional Group (e.g. U forUser Interface) and the number, going from lowest to

highest, indicates approximately how resource intensive(i.e. economic, material and human) the technology is.

User Interface (U) describes the type of toilet, pe-destal, pan, or urinal that the user comes in contactwith; it is the way that the user accesses the sanitationsystem. In many cases, the choice of User Interface willdepend on the availability of water. Note that greywaterand stormwater do not originate at the User Interface,but may be treated along with the Products that origi-nate at the User Interface.

Collection and Storage/Treatment (S) describesthe ways of collecting, storing, and sometimes treatingthe Products that are generated at the User Interface.

S

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C

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Treatment that is provided by these Technologies isoften a function of storage and usually passive (e.g. noenergy inputs). Thus, Products that are treated bythese Technologies often require subsequent treatmentbefore use or disposal.

Conveyance (C) describes the transport of

Products from one Functional Group to another.Although Products may need to be transferred in vari-ous ways between Functional Groups, the longest, andmost important gap is between Collection and Storage/Treatment and (Semi-) Centralized Treatment; thus, forsimplicity, conveyance is limited to transporting Pro-ducts at this point.

(Semi-) Centralized Treatment (T) refers to treat-ment Technologies that are generally appropriate forlarge user groups (i.e. multiple households). The opera-

tion, maintenance, and energy requirements for Techno-logies within this Functional Group are more intensive.The Technologies are divided into 2 groups: Techno-logies T1T10 are primarily for the treatment of black-water, whereas Technologies T11T15 are primarily forthe treatment of sludge.

Use and/or Disposal (D) refers to the methods inwhich Products are ultimately returned to the environ-ment, as either useful resources or reduced-risk mate-rials. Furthermore, Products can also be cycled back

into a system (e.g. the use of treated greywater forflushing).

TechnologiesTechnologies are defined as the specific infrastructure,methods, or services that are designed to contain,transform, or transport Products to another FunctionalGroup. There are between 6 and 15 different techno-logies within each Functional Group. The TechnologyInformation Sheets located in Part 2 provide a detaileddescription of each technology identified within eachSystem Template.

D

T

C



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Using the System TemplatesEach system is a matrix of Functional Groups (columns)and Products (rows) that are linked together where log-ical connections exist. Where these logical connectionsexist, a Technology choice is presented (i.e. for a certainProduct (row) intersecting a specific Functional Group(column)).Each Functional Group is colour-coded and the same

colour code is used within a System Template. To facil-itate efficient reference between System Templates andTechnology Information Sheets the Technologies withineach Functional Group adopt the same colour-code.The colour-code for each Functional Group within theSystem Template is presented below in Figure 2.Figure 3 is an example from a System Template. A boldcolour-coded box indicates a Technology choice withina given Functional Group. This System Template showshow three Products (Faeces, Urine and Flushwater)enter into a User Interface (Pour Flush Toilet and some-

times a Urinal) and emerge as Blackwater. Blackwaterthen enters the Collection and Storage/TreatmentFunctional Group and is transformed in the Twin Pits forPour Flush into Compost/EcoHumus and Effluent. TheCompost/EcoHumus is transported (Human Powered)to a final point of use and the Effluent is absorbed bythe soil (Disposal/Recharge).

Bold lines with arrows are used to link the most appro-priate Functional Groups for a given Product. Thin linesindicate other flow paths which are possible, but notalways common or recommended (see Figure 4).



1 4

U User Interface SCollectionand Storage/Treatment

C Conveyance T(Semi-)CentralizedTreatment

D Use and/orDisposal

Inputs/OutputsInputs Inputs/Outputs Inputs/Outputs

Figure 2. System Template header with colour-code for the Functional Groups

for

1 Three Inputs (Faeces, Urine and Flushwater) enter into 2 Functional Group U User Interface (Pour Flush Toilet).The Blackwater generated 3 then enters into 4 Functio nal Group S Collection and Storage/Treatment (Twin Pits For PourFlush Latrine) and is transformed into 5 Compost/EcoHumus and Effluent. The Com post/EcoHumus enters into6 Functio nal Group C Conveyance (Human Powered Emptying & Transport) and passes 7 Functional Group T (Semi-)Centralized Treatment without treatment with no further 8 Inputs/Outputs. Compost/EcoHumus is transported directly to

the final 9 Functional Group D Use and/or Disposal (Compost/Eco-Humus, Surface Disposal).The 5 Effluent does not enter into 6 Functional Group C nor 7 Functional Group T (therefore there are 8 no Inputs/ Outputs)but the Effluent is directly discharged 9 in Functional Group D (Disposal/Recharge).

Figure 3. System Template: how Inputs enter into Functional Groups and are transformed

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


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Although the most logical combinations are presentedherein, the Technologies and associated links are notexhaustive. The designer should attempt to minimizeredundancy, optimize existing infrastructure and makeuse of local resources.

This methodology should be followed for each area

(region or planning zone) under consideration. However,any number of systems can be chosen and it is not nec-essary that each home, compound, or community with-in the area choose the same Technologies. Some Tech -nologies may already exist; in that case it is the goal ofthe planners and engineers to optimize existing infra-structure and reduce redundancy but maintain flexibili-ty with user satisfaction as the primary goal.


S y s t e m T

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Flushwater

Anal CleansingWater

Greywater

Stormwater

U.4 Pour Flush Toilet Blackwater

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D.5 IrrigationD.6 Soak PitD.10 Disposal/

Recharge

D.10 Disposal/Recharge

EffluentD.10 Disposal/

Recharge

Stormwater Drains

S.6 Twin Pits forPour Flush

Figure 4. Bold lines with arrows are used to link the most appropriate Functional Groups for a given Input or Output.Thin lines indicate other flowstreams which are possible.

> The eight System Templates are presented and des -cribed on the following pages. Each System Temp late isexplained in detail.

Steps for selecting a System Template:

a) Identify the Products that are generatedand/or are available locally (e.g. Anal CleansingWater or Flushwater).

b) Identify the System Templates that processthe defined Products

c) For each template, select a Technology fromeach Functional Group where there is a Tech no-logy choice presented (bold coloured box); theseries of Technologies makes up a System

d) Compare the systems and iteratively changeindividual Technologies or use a differentSystem Template based on user priorities,economic constraints, and technical feasibility.


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b e d s

T . 1 4 C o - C o m p o s t

i n g

T . 1 5 B i o g a s

R e a c

t o r

T r e a t e

d S l u d g e

C . 8

S e w e r

D i s c h a r g e

S t a t i o n

E f f l u e n

t

F l u s h w a

t e r

G r e y w a t e r

C . 2

H u m a n

P o w e r e d

E m p t y i n g

&

T r a n s p o r t

C . 3

M o t o r

i z e d

E m p t y -

i n g

& T r a n s p o r t

E x c r e

t a

B l a c k w a t e r

U . 4

P o u r

F l u s h

T o i l e t


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S y s t e m T

e m p l a t e 1

S i n g l e P i t S y s t e m

1 7

IL

l

t i n 1

ti n

I L I I

> 3 0 c m

aircurrents

>11cmventpipe

flyscreen

ILL

2

System 1: Single Pit System

This system is based on the use of a single pit to col-lect and store the excreta. The system can be usedwith or without Flushwater depending on the UserInterface.The inputs to the system can include Urine, Faeces, AnalCleansing Water, Flushwater and Dry Cleansing Materials.The use of Flushwater and/or Anal Cleansing Water will

depend on water availability and local habit.There are two different User Interfaces for this system,which include a Dry Toilet (U1) or a Pour Flush Toilet (U4).The User Interface is directly connected to a Collectionand Storage/Treatment Technology: a Single Pit (S2) or aSingle Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) (S3).When the pit is full there are several options. If there isspace, the pit can be filled with soil and planted with atree, as per the Fill and Cover (D1), and a new pit built.This is generally only possible when the superstructureis mobile. Alternatively, the Faecal Sludge that is gen-

erated from the Collection and Storage/TreatmentTechnology has to be removed and transported for fur-ther treatment. The Conveyance Technologies that canbe used include Human Powered Emptying andTransport (E&T) for solid sludge (C2) or Motorized E&Tfor liquid sludge (C3). When the Faecal Sludge is thin-ner, it must be emptied with a vacuum truck. As theFaecal Sludge is highly pathogenic prior to treatment,human contact and agricultural applications should beavoided. When it is not feasible to empty the full pit,(Semi-) Centralized Treatment can be omitted and the

pit can be filled and covered with a suitable material fordecommissioning (Fill and Cover: D1). The decommis-sioned pit can be planted with a fruit or flowering treesince it will thrive in the nutrient rich environment.Faecal Sludge that is removed can be transported to adedicated Faecal Sludge treatment facility (Technolo giesT11 to T15). In the event that the treatment facility is noteasily accessible, the Faecal Sludge can be discharged toeither a Sewer Discharge Station (C8) or a Transfer Station(C7). From the Sewer Discharge Station, the FaecalSludge is transported by the sewer and is co-treated withthe Blackwater flowing in the sewer network (Techno -logies T1 to T10). The Faecal Sludge from the Sewer Di s-charge station is released either directly into the sewer orat timed intervals. If sludge is introduced directly into a

sewer, there must be enough water to adequately diluteand transport the sludge to the treatment facility. From theTransfer Station the Faecal Sludge must be transportedto a dedicated Faecal Sludge treatment facility (Tech -nologies T11 to T15) by a motorized vehicle (C3).All (Semi-) Centralized Treatment Technologies, T1 toT15, produce both Effluent and Faecal Sludge, which

require further treatment prior to Use and/or Dis posal.Technologies for the Use and/or Disposal of the treat-ed Effluent include Irrigation (D5), Aquaculture (D8),Macrophyte Pond (D9) or Discharge to a water body orRecharge to groundwater (D10).

Considerations This system is best suited to ruraland peri-urban areas where there is appropriate soil fordigging and absorbing the Effluent from the pit. Thissystem should be chosen only where there is eitherspace to continuously dig new pits or when there is an

appropriate manner of emptying and disposing of theFaecal Sludge. In dense urban settlements, there maynot be sufficient transportation or access to empty ormove to another pit. This system is also best suited toareas that are not prone to heavy rains or flooding,which may cause the pits to overflow. Some Greywaterin the pit may help degradation, but excessive additionsof Greywater may shorten the life of the pit.Although different types of pits are common in mostparts of the world, a well designed pit-based systemwith appropriate transport, treatment and use or dis-

posal, is still very rare.This system is one of the least expensive to construct(capital cost) however the maintenance costs may beconsiderable, depending on the depth of the pit andhow often it must be emptied. If the ground is appropri-ate, i.e. good absorptive capacity, the pit may be dugvery deep (e.g. >5m) and can be used for several years(up to 30 years) without emptying.All types of solid cleansing materials can be discardedinto the pit, although they may shorten the life of the pitand make pit emptying more difficult. Whenever possi-ble, solid cleansing materials should be disposed ofseparately.


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S y s t e m T

e m p l a t e 2 W a t e r l e s s S y s t e m w

i t h A l t e r n a t i n g P i t s

1 8

O r g a n

i c s

A n a l

C l e a n s i n g

W a t e r

D r y

C l e a n s i n g

M a t e r i a l

G r e y w a t e r

S t o r m w a t e r

U . 1

D r y

T o i l e t

E x c r e

t a

E f f l u e n

t

C . 2

H u m a n

P o w e r e d

E m p t y i n g

&

T r a n s p o r t

G r e y w a t e r

T r e a t m e n

t

D . 4

A p p

l i c a t

i o n

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 5

I r r i g a t

i o n

D . 6

S o a

k P i t

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

S a n

i t a t

i o n

S y s t e m

2 :

W a t e r

l e s s

S y s t e m

w i t h A l t e r n a t

i n g

P i t s

C o m p o s t

/

E c o

H u m u s

F a e c e s

S t o r m w a t e r

D r a

i n s

S . 4

D o u

b l e V I P

S . 5

F o s s a

A l t e r n a

S . 8

C o m p o s t

i n g

C h a m

b e r

U r i n e

U

U s e r

I n t e r f a c e

S

C o

l l e c t

i o n

a n

d S t o r a g e

/

T r e a

t m e n

t

C

C o n v e y a n c e

T

( S e m

i - )

C e n

t r a

l i z e

d

T r e a

t m e n

t

D

U s e a n

d / o r

D i s p o s a

l

I n p u

t / O u t p u

t

P r o

d u c t s

I n p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O u

t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O

u t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s


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This system is designed to produce a dense, compost-like material by using alternating pits without the addi-tion of Flushwater.The inputs to the system can include Urine, Faeces,Organics, Anal Cleansing Water, and Dry CleansingMaterials.A Dry Toilet (U1) is the only recommended User Inter -

face for this system. A Dry Toilet does not require waterto function and in fact, water should not be input intothis system; Anal Cleansing Water should be kept to aminimum or even excluded from this system if possible.Depending on the Collection and Storage/Treat mentTechnology, the Dry Cleansing Materials can be addedto the pit, otherwise they should be collected separate-ly and directly transferred for disposal (D12).Excreta is produced at the User Interface. The UserInterface is connected directly to a Collection andStorage/Treat ment Technology: a Double VIP (S4),

Fossa Alterna (S5) or a Composting Chamber (S8).Alternating the pits gives the material an opportunityto drain, degrade, and transform into a nutrient-rich,hygienically-improved, humic material that can be usedor disposed of safely. While one pit is filling withExcreta (and potentially organic material), the other pitremains out of service. When the first pit is full, it iscovered and temporarily taken out of service. Thedrained and degraded Excreta within the second pit isemptied and the pit is put back into service. The sec-ond pit collects Excreta until it is filled, covered and

taken out of service and the cycle is repeated indefi-nitely. Although a Composting Chamber is not strictlyan alternating pit technology, it can have multiplechambers and produces a safe, useable compost-Product. For these reasons it is included in this SystemTemplate.The Compost/EcoHumus that is generated from theCollection and Storage/Treatment Technology can beremoved and transported for Use and/or Disposalmanually using a Human Powered E&T (C2) Convey -ance Technology. Since it has undergone significantdegradation, the humic material is quite safe to handleand use in agriculture. If there are concerns about thequality, it can be composted further in a dedicatedcom posting facility but there is no need to transport

the Com post/ EcoHumus to a (Semi-) Centralized Treat -ment facility as decomposition of the Excreta takesplace onsite.For the Use and/or Disposal of Compost/EcoHumus,the Application of Compost/EcoHumus (D4) Techno -logy is utilized.This system is different than System 1 because of the

Conveyance and Use and/or Disposal options: in theprevious system, the sludge requires further treatmentbefore it can be used, whereas the Compost/EcoHu -mus produced in this system is ready for Use and/orDisposal following Collection and Storage/Treatment.

Considerations Because the system is permanentand can be used indefinitely (as opposed to some sin-gle pits, which may be filled and covered), it can beused where space is limited. Additionally, because theProduct must be removed manually, this system is

appropriate for dense areas that do not have access tomechanical emptying/trucks.The success of this system depends on an extended stor-age period. If a suitable and continuous source of soil,ash or organic matter (leaves, grass clippings, coconut orrice husks, woodchips, etc.) is available, the decomposi-tion process is enhanced and the storage period can bereduced. The storage period can be minimized if thematerial in the pit remains well aerated and not toomoist. Therefore, the Greywater must be collected andtreated separately. Too much moisture in the pit will fill

the air-voids and deprive the microbes of oxygen, whichmay impair the degradation process.This system is especially appropriate for water-scarceareas and where there is an opportunity to use thehumic material. Dry cleansing materials can be discard-ed into the pit/chamber, especially if they are carbona-ceous (e.g. toilet paper, newsprint, corncobs, etc.) asthis may help with degradation and airflow.


S y s t e m T


i t h A l t e r n a t i n g P i t s

System 2: Waterless System with Alternating Pits

1 9

l

i

i

LI I -L


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S y s t e m T

e m p l a t e 3 P o u r F l u s h S y s t e m w

i t h T w i n P i t s

2 0

D r y

C l e a n s i n g

M a t e r i a l

U r i n e

F l u s h w a

t e r

A n a l

C l e a n s i n g

W a t e r

G r e y w a t e r

S t o r m w a t e r

U . 4

P o u r

F l u s h

T o i l e t

B l a c k w a t e r

E f f l u e n

t

C . 2

H u m a n

P o w e r e d

E m p t y i n g

&

T r a n s p o r t

G r e y w a t e r

T r e a t m e n

t

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 1

1 A p p

l i c a t

i o n

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 5

I r r i g a t

i o n

D . 6

S o a

k P i t

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

S a n

i t a t

i o n

S y s t e m

3 :

P o u r

F l u s h

S y s t e m

w i t h T w i n

P i t s

E f f l u e n

t

T r e a t e

d S l u d g e

F a e c e s

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

S t o r m w a t e r

D r a

i n s

S . 6

T w i n P i t s

f o r

P o u r

F l u s h

S . 1

2 B i o g a s

R e a c

t o r

U

U s e r

I n t e r f a c e

S

C o

l l e c t

i o n

a n

d S t o r a g e

/

T r e a

t m e n

t

C

C o n v e y a n c e

T

( S e m

i - )

C e n

t r a

l i z e

d

T r e a

t m e n

t

D

U s e a n

d / o r

D i s p o s a

l

I n p u

t / O u t p u

t

P r o

d u c t s

I n p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O u

t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O

u t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s


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This is a water-based system utilizing the Pour FlushToilet (pedestal or squat pan) to produce a partiallydigested, humus-like Product, which can be used as asoil amendment. If water is not available, please refer toSystems 1, 2 and 4. Greywater can be used in systemand does not require separate treatment.The inputs to the system can include Faeces, Urine,

Flushwater, Anal Cleansing Water, Dry CleansingMaterials and Greywater.The User Interface Technology for this system is a PourFlush toilet (U4). A Urinal (U3) should only be used inaddition to, and not instead of, the Pour Flush Toilet.Twin Pits for Pour Flush (S6) is one of the technologiesused for the Collection and Storage/Treatment of theBlack water output from the User Interface. The TwinPits are lined with a porous material that allows theEffluent to infiltrate into the ground while solids accu-mulate and degrade at the bottom of the pit. While one

pit is filling with Blackwater, the other pit remains out ofservice. When the first pit is full, it is covered and tem-porarily taken out of service. It should take a minimumof two (2) years to fill a pit. When the second pit is full,the first pit is re-opened and the contents are removed.The Treated Sludge that is generated in the pit after two(2) years is removed and transported for Use and/ orDisposal manually using a Human Powered E&T (C2)Conveyance Technology. Since it has undergone signi -ficant degradation, it is not as pathogenic as raw, undi-gested sludge. There is no need to transport the treat-

ed sludge to a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facility astreatment of the Blackwater takes place onsite.Dry Cleansing Mate rials may clog the pit and preventwater from infiltrating into the soil and so it should becollected separately and transferred for SurfaceDisposal (D12).Alternatively, the blackwater can be directed towardsan Anaerobic Biogas Reactor (S12). The reactor willfunction better if animal manure and organic waste arealso added; liquid imputs like Greywater should be keptto a minimum. The Biogas that is generated (not shown)can be used for cooking, and the Treated Sludge can beused as a soil amendment.

For the Use and/or Disposal component of the SystemTemplate, the Application of Sludge (D11) Technologyis utilized. Effluent from the Twin Pits for Pour Flush(S6) is directly Infiltrated into the soil (D10) onsite fromeach pit. Therefore, this system should only be installedwhere there is a low groundwater table that is not atrisk of contamination from these pits.

Considerations Depending on the Collection andStorage/Treatment technology chosen, the system willdepend on different criteria. In the case of the doublepits, the system will depend on soil which can continu-ally and adequately absorb moisture; clayey or denselypacked soils are not appropriate. The material that isremoved should be in a safe, useable form, although thetask of removing, transporting and using it may not befavourable in some circumstances. The use of a house-hold biogas digester is best suited to peri-urban or rural

areas where there is a source of organic and/or animalwaste material and a need for the digested sludge. Thepiping system for the gas must be well maintained toprevent leaks and potential explosions.This system is well-suited for anal cleansing withwater. Dry cleansing materials should be disposed ofseparately because they could easily clog the pit orthe reactor (D12).


S y s t e m T

e m p l a t e 3 P o u r F l u s h S y s t e m w

i t h T w i n P i t s

System 3: Pour Flush System with Twin Pits

2 1

: I E FL ILE : I E FL ILE: I I -FL L I E ( FL

leach pit

leach pit

LI I -


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S y s t e m T


i t h U r i n e D i v e r s i o n

2 2

D r y

C l e a n s i n g

M a t e r i a l

F a e c e s

U r i n e

C . 2

H u m a n

P o w e r e d

E m p

t y i n g

&

T r a n s p o r t

S t o r m w a t e r

D r a

i n s

C . 1

J e r r y c a n

C . 2

H u m a n

P o w e r e d

E m p

t y i n g

&

T r a n s p o r t

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 3

A p p

l i c a t

i o n

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 2

A p p

l i c a t

i o n

D . 5

I r r i g a t

i o n

D . 6

S o a

k P i t

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l / R e c

h a r e

S a n

i t a t

i o n

S y s t e m

4 :

W a t e r

l e s s

S y s t e m

w i t h U r i n e

D i v e r s i o n

S . 7

D o u

b l e D e h y -

d r a

t i o n

V a u

l t s

A n a l

C l e a n s i n g

W a t e r

D r i e

d F a e c e s

S t o r e

d U r i n e

E f f l u e n

t

D . 2

A p p

l i c a t

i o n

G r e y w a t e r

T r e a

t e m e n

t

A n a l

C l e a n s i n g

W a t e r

U r i n e

U

U s e r

I n t e r f a c e

S

C o

l l e c t

i o n

a n

d S t o r a g e

/

T r e a

t m e n

t

C

C o n v e y a n c e

T

( S e m

i - )

C e n

t r a

l i z e

d

T r e a

t m e n

t

D

U s e a n

d / o r

D i s p o s a

l

I n p u

t / O u t p u

t

P r o

d u c t s

I n p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O u

t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O

u t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

G r e y w a t e r

S t o r m w a t e r

U . 2

U r i n e

D i v e r t

i n g

D r y

T o i l e t

U . 3

U r i n a l

F a e c e s

S . 1

S t o r a g e

T a n

k

D . 6

S o a k

P i t


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This system is designed to separate Urine and Faecesto allow Faeces to dehydrate and/or recover the Urinefor beneficial use. This system can be used anywhere,but it is especially appropriate for rocky areas wheredigging is difficult, where there is a high groundwatertable, or in water-scarce regions.The inputs to the system can include Faeces, Urine, Anal

Cleansing Water and Dry Cleansing Materials.There are two User Interface Technologies for this sys-tem; a Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT) (U2) or a Urinal(U3). UDDTs with a third diversion for Anal Clean singWater are not common, but can be manufactured local-ly or ordered depending on local washing customs. Drycleansing materials will not harm the system, but theyshould be collected separately from the UDDT (U2) anddirectly transferred for Surface Disposal (D12).Double Dehydration Vaults (S7) are used for the Col -lection and Storage/Treatment Technology for Faeces.

Anal Cleansing Water should never be put into Dehy -dration Vaults, but it can be diverted and put into a SoakPit (D6). When storing the Faeces in chambers, theyshould be kept as dry as possible to encourage dehydra-tion and hygienization. Therefore, the chambers shouldbe watertight and care should be taken to ensure that nowater is introduced during cleaning.Also important is a constant supply of ash, lime, or dryearth to cover the Faeces to minimize odours and pro-vide a barrier between the Faeces and potential vectors(flies). The pH increase will also help to kill organisms.

A separate Greywater system is required since it shouldnot be introduced into the Dehydration Vaults andpreferably not into the pits.Urine can be disposed of easily and without risk to theenvironment because it is generated in relatively smallvolumes and is nearly sterile. The Urine can be diverteddirectly to the ground for Use and/or Disposal as LandApplication (D2), Irrigation (D5) or soil infiltrationthrough a Soak Pit (D6). Storage Tanks (S1) can be usedfor the Collection Storage/Treatment of Urine.The Dried Faeces that are generated from the Col -lection and Storage/Treatment Technology can beremoved and transported for Use and/or Disposal. TheConveyance Technology that can be used is HumanPowered E&T (C2). The Dried Faeces pose little human

health risk. Stored Urine can be transported for Useand/ or Disposal using either the Jerrycan (C1) or Moto -rized E&T (C3) Technologies.Guidelines for the safe use of Excreta, Faecal Sludgeand Urine have been published by the World HealthOrganization (WHO) and are referenced on the relevantTechnology Information Sheets.

Considerations The success of this system de -pends on the efficient separation of urine and faecesas well as the use of a suitable drying agent; a dry, hotclimate can also contribute considerably to the rapiddehydration of the faeces. The system can be usedregardless of the users acceptance to Urine use; itcan be adapted to suit the agricultural and culturalneeds of the users.All types of solid cleansing materials can be used,although they should be discarded separately. Anal

Cleansing Water must be separated from the Faecesalthough it can be mixed with the Urine before it istransferred to the Soak Pit (not shown in the SystemTemplate). If Urine is used in agriculture, Anal CleansingWater should be kept separate and treated along withGreywater.


S y s t e m T


i t h U r i n e D i v e r s i o n

2 3

System 4: Waterless System with Urine DiversionI

i l

: I E E I E

i

i

i

i i i


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S y s t e m T

e m p l a t e 5 B l a c k w a t e r T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m w

i t h I n f i l t r a t i o n

2 4

S t o r m w a t e r

G r e y w a t e r

F a e c e s

U r i n e

F l u s h w a

t e r

A n a l

C l e a n s i n g

W a t e r

D r y

C l e a n s i n g

M a t e r i a l

U . 4

P o u r

F l u s h

T o i l e t

U . 5

C i s t e r n

F l u s h

B l a c k w a t e r

F a e c a

l S l u d g e

S t o r m w a t e r

D r a

i n s

C . 7

T r a n s f e r

S t a t i o n

T . 3

W S P

T . 4

A e r a

t e d P o n

d

T . 5

F W S C W

T . 6

H S F C W

T . 7

V F C W

T . 8

T r i c k l i n g

F i l t e r

T . 9

U A S B

T . 1 0 A c t

i v a t e

d S l u d g e

T . 1 1 S e

d i m e n

t a t i o n

/

T h i c k e n

i n g

T . 1 2 U n p

l a n

t e d d r y

i n g

b e

d s

T . 1 3 P l a n

t e d d r y i n g

b e d s

T . 1 4 C o - C o m p o s t

i n g

T . 1 5 B i o g a s

R e a c

t o r

E f f l u e n

t

T r e a t e

d S l u d g e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 5

I r r i g a t

i o n

D . 8

A q u a c u

l t u r e

D . 9

M a c r o p

h y t e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 1

1 L a n

d A p p

l i c a t

i o n

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

S a n

i t a t

i o n

S y s t e m

5 :

B l a c k w a t e r

T r e a t m e n

t S y s t e m

w i t h I n f i l t r a

t i o n

S . 9

S e p

t i c

T a n

k

S . 1

0 A B R

S . 1

1 A n a e r o

b i c F i l t e r

E f f l u e n

t

D . 6

S o a

k P i t

D . 7

L e a c

h F i e l d

C . 8

S e w e r

D i s c h a r g e

S t a t i o n

U

U s e r

I n t e r f a c e

S

C o

l l e c t

i o n

a n

d S t o r a g e

/

T r e a

t m e n

t

C

C o n v e y a n c e

T

( S e m

i - )

C e n

t r a

l i z e

d

T r e a

t m e n

t

D

U s e a n

d / o r

D i s p o s a

l

I n p u

t / O u t p u

t

P r o

d u c t s

I n p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O u

t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O

u t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

C . 2

H u m a n

P o w e r e d

E m p

t y i n g

&

T r a n s p o r t

C . 3

M o t o r

i z e d

E m p t y -

i n g

& T r a n s p o r t


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This is a water-based system that requires a flush toiletand a Collection & Storage/Treatment Technology thatis appropriate for storing large quantities of water.The inputs to the system can include Faeces, Urine,Flushwater, Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleansing Mate -rials and Greywater.There are two User Interface Technologies that could

be used for this system: a Pour Flush Toilet (U4) or aCistern Flush Toilet (U5). In the event that DryCleansing Materials are collected separately from theflush toilets, they can be directly transferred forSurface Disposal (D12).The User Interface is directly connected to aCollection and Storage/Treatment Technology for theBlackwater generated: either a Septic Tank (S9), aAnaerobic Baff led Reactor (ABR) (S10), or anAnaerobic Filter (S11) may be used. The anaerobicprocesses reduce the organic and pathogen load, but

the Effluent is still not suitable for direct use.Greywater should be treated along with Blackwater inthe same Collection & Storage/Treat ment Technology,but if there is a need for water-recovery, it can betreated separately (not shown on the SystemTemplate).Effluent generated from the Collection and Storage/Treatment can be diverted directly to the ground forUse and/or Disposal through a Soak Pit (D6) or a LeachField (D7). For these Technologies to work there mustbe sufficient space available and the soil must have a

suitable capacity to absorb the Effluent. If this is not thecase, refer to System 6: Blackwater Treatment Systemwith Sewerage. Although it is not recommended, theEffluent can also be discharged into the StormwaterDrainage network for Use and/or Disposal as Ground -water Recharge (D10). This should only be considered ifthe quality of the Effluent is high and there is not capac-ity for onsite infiltration or transportation offsite.The Faecal Sludge that is generated from the Collectionand Storage/Treatment Technology must be removedand transported for further treatment. The ConveyanceTechnologies that can be used include Human PoweredE&T (C2) or Motorized E&T (C3). As the Faecal Sludge ishighly pathogenic prior to treatment, human contactand direct agricultural applications should be avoided.

Faecal Sludge that is removed can be transported to adedicated Faecal Sludge treatment facility (Techno -logies T11 to T15). In the event that the treatment facili-ty is not easily accessible, the Faecal Sludge can be dis-charged to either a Sewer Discharge Station (C8) or aTransfer Station (C7). From the Sewer Discharge Station,the Faecal Sludge is transported by the sewer and is co-

treated with the Blackwater flowing in the sewer net-work (Technologies T1 to T10). The Faecal Sludge fromthe Sewer Discharge station is released either directlyinto the sewer or at timed intervals (to optimize the per-formance of the (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facility).If sludge is introduced directly into a sewer, there mustbe enough water to adequately dilute and transport thesludge to the treatment facility. From the TransferStation, the Faecal Sludge must be transported to a ded-icated Faecal Sludge treatment facility by a motorizedvehicle (Technologies T11 to T15).

All (Semi-) Centralized Treatment Technologies, T1 toT15, produce both Effluent and Faecal Sludge, whichrequire further treatment prior to Use and/or Dis -posal. Technologies for the Use and/or Disposal of thetreated Effluent include Irrigation (D5), Aquaculture(D8), Macrophyte Pond (D9) or Dis charge to a waterbody or Recharge to groundwater (D10). Technolo giesfor the Use and/or Disposal of the treated FaecalSludge include Land Application (D11) or Surface Dis -posal (D12).

Considerations This system is only appropriate inareas where desludging services are available andaffordable and where there is an appropriate way to dis-pose of the sludge. This system can be adapted for usein colder climates, even where there is ground frost.The system requires a constant source of water.The capital investment for this system is considerable(excavation and installation of an onsite storageTechnology), but the costs can be shared by a numberof households if the system is designed for a largernumber of users.This water-based system is suitable for Anal CleansingWater, and since the solids are settled and digestedonsite, easily degradable Dry Cleansing Materials canalso be used.


S y s t e m T


i t h I n f i l t r a t i o n

2 5

System 5: Blackwater Treatment System with Infiltration

: FL ILE

l

t l

: E I

sludge

settlementzone

scum

outlet

inlet inlettee liquidlevel

accesscovers

L i l

settlingtanks

settledeffluent


25/158


S y s t e m T


i t h S e w e r a g e

2 6

S t o r m w a t e r

G r e y w a t e r

F a e c e s

U r i n e

F l u s h w a

t e r

A n a l

C l e a n s i n g

W a t e r

D r y

C l e a n s i n g

M a t e r i a l

U . 4

P o u r

F l u s h

T o i l e t

U . 5

C i s t e r n

F l u s h

B l a c k w a t e r

C . 4

S i m p

l i f i e d

S e w e r

C . 5

S o

l i d s -

f r e e

S e w e r

S t o r m w a t e r

D r a

i n s

T T . 3 W S P

T . 4

A e r a

t e d P o n

d

T . 5

F W S C W

T . 6

H S F C W

T . 7

V F C W

T . 8

T r i c k l i n g

F i l t e r

T . 9

U A S B

T . 1 0 A c t

i v a t e

d S l u d g e

T . 1 1 S e d

i m e n

t a t i o n

/

T h i c k e n

i n g

T . 1 2 U n p

l a n

t e d d r y -

i n g

b e d s

T . 1 3 P l a n

t e d d r y i n g

b e d s

T . 1 4 C o - C o m p o s t

i n g

T . 1 5 B i o g a s

R e a c t o r

E f f l u e n

t

T r e a t e

d S l u d g e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 5

I r r i g a t

i o n

D . 8

A q u a c u

l t u r e

D . 9

M a c r o p

h y t e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 1

1 L a n

d A p p

l i c a t

i o n

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

S a n

i t a t

i o n

S y s t e m

6 :

B l a c k w a t e r

T r e a t m e n

t S y s t e m

w i t h S e w e r a g e

E f f l u e n

t

F a e c a

l S l u d g e

C . 8

S e w e r

D i s c h a r g e

S t a t i o n

C . 2

H u m a n

P o w e r e d

E m p

t y i n g

&

T r a n s p o r t

C . 3

M o t o r

i z e d

E m p t y -

i n g

& T r a n s p o r t

C . 7

T r a n s f e r

S t a t i o n

U

U s e r

I n t e r f a c e

S

C o

l l e c t

i o n

a n

d S t o r a g e

/

T r e a

t m e n

t

C

C o n v e y a n c e

T

( S e m

i - )

C e n

t r a

l i z e

d

T r e a

t m e n

t

D

U s e a n

d / o r

D i s p o s a

l

I n p u

t / O u t p u

t

P r o

d u c t s

I n p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O u

t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O

u t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

S . 9

S e p

t i c

T a n

k

S . 1

1 A B R

S . 1

0 A n a e r o

b i c F i l t e r

T . 1 5 B i o g a s

R e a c

t o r


26/158

This system is characterized by the use of a household-level Technology to remove and digest settleable solidsfrom the Blackwater, and a simplified or settled sewersystem to transport the Effluent to a (Semi-) CentralizedTreatment facility.The inputs to the system can include Faeces, Urine,Flushwater, Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleansing

Materials and Greywater. This system is comparable toSystem 5: Blackwater Treatment System with Infil -tration except the management and processing of theEffluent generated during Collection and Storage/Treat ment of the Blackwater is different. As such,please refer to System Template for System 5: Black -water Treatment System with Infiltration, for a detaileddescription of the components.There are two transport pathways for the Effluent gen-erated from the Collection and Sto rage/ Treatment ofthe Blackwater. Similar to System 5, Effluent can be dis-

charged into the Stormwater Drainage network for Useand/or Disposal as Groundwater Recharge (D10),although this is not the recommended approach. TheEffluent should be transported from a Collection andStorage/Treatment facility to a (Semi-) CentralizedTreat ment facility via a Simplified Sewer network (C4)or a Solids-Free Sewer network (C5). An interceptortank is required before the Effluent enters the sewer, oralter natively, this system can be used as a way of up -grading under-performing onsite Technologies (e.g. sep-tic tanks) by providing improved, (Semi-) Centralized

Treatment. Effluent trans ported to a (Semi-) CentralizedTreatment facility is treated using one of the Tech -nologies T1 to T10.All (Semi-) Centralized Treatment Technologies, T1 toT15, produce both Effluent and Faecal Sludge, whichrequire further treatment prior to Use and/orDisposal. Technologies for the Use and/or Disposal ofthe treated Effluent include Irrigation (D5), Aqua -culture (D8), Macrophyte Pond (D9) or Discharge to awater body or Recharge to Groundwater (D10). Tech -nologies for the Use and/or Disposal of the treatedFaecal Sludge include Land Application (D11) or Sur -face Disposal (D12).

Considerations With the offsite transport of theEffluent to a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facility, thecapital investment for this system is moderate to con-siderable. Excavation and installation of the onsite stor-age technology as well as the infrastructure required forthe simplified sewer network may be costly (althoughcosts would be considerably less than the design and

installation of a conventional sewer network). As well, ifthere is no pre-existing treatment facility, one must bebuilt to ensure that discharge from the sewer is notdirectly input to a water body.The success of this system depends on high user com-mitment to operation and maintenance of the sewernetwork; alternatively, a person or organization can bemade responsible on behalf of the users. There must bean accessible, affordable and systematic method fordesludging the interceptor (or septic) tanks since oneusers improperly kept tank could adversely impact the

entire community. Also important is a well-functioningand properly managed Centralized Treatment facility; insome cases this will be managed at the municipal /re -gional level, but in the case of a more local solution (e.g.wetland), there must also be a well-defined structure foroperation and maintenance.This system is especially appropriate for dense, urbansettlements where there is little or no space for onsitestorage technologies or emptying. Since the sewer net-work is shallow and (ideally) watertight, it is also appli-cable for areas with high groundwater tables.

This water-based system is suitable for Anal CleansingWater inputs, and, since the solids are settled anddigested in one of the Collection and Storage/Treat -ment Technologies, easily degradable Dry CleansingMaterials can also be used. However, durable materials(e.g. leaves, rags) could clog the system and causeproblems with emptying and therefore, should not beused.


S y s t e m T


i t h S e w e r a g e

2 7

System 6: Blackwater Treatment System with SewerageI L IL I L IL

: I LIFIE E E

inspectionchamber

l

sludge

inlet

outlet


27/158


S y s t e m T

e m p l a t e 7 ( S e m i - ) C e n t r a l i z e d T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m

2 8

S t o r m w a t e r

G r e y w a t e r

F a e c e s

U r i n e

F l u s h w a

t e r

A n a l

C l e a n s i n g

W a t e r

U . 4

P o u r

F l u s h

T o i l e t

U . 5

C i s t e r n

F l u s h

B l a c k w a t e r

C . 4

S i m p

l i f i e d

S e w e r

C . 6

G r a v i

t y S e w e r

S t o r m w a t e r

D r a

i n s

T . 1

A B R

T . 2

A n a e r .

F i l t e r

T . 3

W S P

T . 4

A e r a

t e d P o n

d

T . 5

F W S C W

T . 6

H S F C W

T . 7

V F C W

T . 8

T r i c k l i n g

F i l t e r

T . 9

U A S B

T . 1 0 A c t .

S l u d g e

T . 1 1 S e d

i m e n

t a t i o n

/

T h i c k e n

i n g

T . 1 2 U n p

l a n

t e d d r y -

i n g

b e d s

T . 1 3 P l a n

t e d d r y i n g

b e d s

T . 1 4 C o - C o m p o s t

i n g

T . 1 5 B i o g a s

R e a c t o r

E f f l u e n

t

T r e a t e

d S l u d g e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 5

I r r i g a t

i o n

D . 8

A q u a c u

l t u r e

D . 9

M a c r o p

h y t e

D . 1

0 D i s p o s a

l /

R e c h a r g e

D . 1

1 L a n

d A p p

l i c a t

i o n

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

D . 1

2 S u r f a c e

D i s p o s a

l

S a n

i t a t

i o n

S y s t e m

7 :

( S e m

i - ) C e n

t r a l

i z e d

T r e a t m e n

t S y s t e m

U

U s e r

I n t e r f a c e

S

C o

l l e c t

i o n

a n

d S t o r a g e

/

T r e a

t m e n

t

C

C o n v e y a n c e

T

( S e m

i - )

C e n

t r a

l i z e

d

T r e a

t m e n

t

D

U s e a n

d / o r

D i s p o s a

l

I n p u

t / O u t p u

t

P r o

d u c t s

I n p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O u

t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

I n p u

t / O

u t p u

t

P r o

d u c

t s

U

S

C o

l l e c t

i o n

a n

d S t o r a g e

/

T r e a

t m e n

t

C

C o n v e y a n c e

T

( S e m

i - )

C e n

t r a

l i z e

d

T r e a

t m e n

t

D

U s e a n

d / o r

D i s p o s a

l

D r y

C l e a n s i n g

M a t e r i a l


28/158

This is a water-based sewer system in which Blackwateris transported to a centralized treatment facility. Theimportant characteristic of this syste

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