TRANSITIONAL EDUCATION: THE EFFECTS OF VOCATIONAL

CURRICULUM AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES IN POST-COMPUÜ¥hOÀ

AUSTRALIAN ASSOCIATION FOR RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

ANNUAL CONFERENCE - BRISBANE, AUSTRALIA NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1997

New Times in Secondary Schooling: The effects of vocational education

on the development of self-concept and vocational preparation

Janis P Kane

School of Education, Macquarie University, NSW Australia

Vocational education has emerged in the past ten years as an important

facet of the post-compulsory years of schooling. The growth in

retention rates of students during that time to Years 11 and 12 has

been the impetus for the development of varied curriculum and pathways

of study to ensure that the needs of all students, not just those

aiming for tertiary entrance, are met. In NSW this has resulted in the

Pathways program for the Higher School Certificate, which has enabled

students to diversify their programs of study and to undertake

vocationally-oriented course work in employment preparation programs.

The development of vocational education has been supported by State and

Federal governments as a method of creating a more highly skilled and

educated workforce equipped with the competencies needed for the

changing workplace of the late 20th century.

This paper will give an overview of the development, particularly in

NSW schools, of vocational education. In this paper vocational

education refers to programs of study offered in the post-compulsory

years of secondary schooling, Years 11 and 12, which have a specific

focus on employment preparation and training, rather than on

preparation for tertiary entrance and study in the higher education

sector. and will report on a research project which investigated the

vocational education of low-academic achieving students and its

relationship with the development of self-concept and vocational

preparation, interests and perceptions of competence in the

post-compulsory years of secondary schooling. The results related

self-concept will be focused on and discussion will be developed

related to program design and implementation and implications for

future vocational education and research.

THE EMERGENCE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Greater diversity in curriculum and expected outcomes in the

post-compulsory years of secondary schooling developed as a result of

the emphasis which has been placed on vocational education and training

by the Federal Government and State educational authorities over the

past decade. One important starting point was the paper Higher

education: A policy statement (1988), issued by the Minister for

Higher Education and Training, John Dawkins, which highlighted the need

to create a more highly skilled and educated workforce and identified

the final two years of secondary schooling as a focus for this

development. The retention of high numbers of students in the

post-compulsory years of schooling was identified as a key element in

the plan to diversify curriculum to cater for the transition from

school to work, as well as for the transition from school to tertiary

study. Another major influence on the diversification of curriculum

was the demand from industry for students to exit school with

competencies which were relevant to the workforce. The relationship

between the expected outcomes of education in Years K to 12 and the

required workplace competencies of the employment sector became another

focus of educational planning and funding, driven by the more

sophisticated skills required for work and the 'diminishing

availability of unskilled work opportunities.' (Harris, Guthrie, Hobart

and Lundberg, 1995, p. 10).

A number of key reviews were commissioned by educational authorities

including the Finn Report on post-compulsory education and training

entitled Young People's Participation in Post-Compulsory Education and

Training (1991). This was followed by The Mayer Committee discussion

paper, Employment-Related Key Competencies: A Proposal for Consultation

(1992) and The Australian Vocational Certificate Training System

(1992) which was a report of The Employment and Skills Formation

Council of the National Board of Education and Training chaired by

Laurie Carmichael. The focus of these reports related to the

development of key competencies in senior secondary school students and

included a number of recommendations about the provision of effective

links and greater flexibility between schools, TAFE colleges and other

training institutions. Such reports also recommended broadening the

Years 11-12 curriculum to give greater emphasis to 'the integration of

vocational and general education.' (Focus K-12, 1992, p. 2). This

emphasis on the diversification of the curriculum and the continued

growth in retention rates of students in post-compulsory secondary

schooling resulted in a rapid and varied expansion of course

development and pathways of progression. It placed vocational

education firmly on the secondary schools' agenda.

In the 1990 Education Reform Act, the NSW Minister for Education, Terry

Metherell, proposed a structure in which the wide variety of

school-based courses were brought together under the categories of

Board of Studies Developed Courses (externally examined and gaining a

(TER) Tertiary Entrance Rank) and Board of Studies Content Endorsed

Courses (developed by schools and other institutions such as TAFE,

which contained curricula that had been approved as relevant and of an

adequate standard). In this period of time, vocational education began

to take on a more diverse form, with the development of Joint Secondary

Schools TAFE courses, which could lead to dual accreditation and the

emergence of private providers who developed industry and school-linked

programs. Cooney (1995, p. 7) has proposed that the curriculum reforms

of the 1990s led to 'the blurring of the distinction between the

training and school sectors and a substantial increase in the number of

subjects and courses available to senior secondary students.'

The NSW ÔHSC Pathways' program which began in 1994, had two main aims -

(1) to cater for the diverse needs of the large student population in

Years 11 and 12; and (2) to encourage more people to re-enter the

education system. Students were able to extend their period of study

to five years to complete all their HSC subjects and could combine

part-time work or TAFE study with school work (Pathways, Information

for Students and Parents, 1994). In this system, students were able to

create a program of study leading towards a Higher School Certificate

but not necessarily towards a Tertiary Entrance Rank. Before the

ÔPathways' program, every student received a TER score, but the

ÔPathways' approach allowed for 10 units of study, which could be split

into six Board Developed courses and four Board Content Endorsed

courses.

The 1996 McGaw Report indicated retention rates of NSW students to Year

12 increased from a rate of 33% in 1980 to a peak of 71% in 1993. The

1996 rate of 67.7% based on the Australian Bureau of Statistics most

recent figures indicates a slowing down of the retention rate. This

has been supported by a recent report from the Australian Council for

Educational Research (Lamb, 1997) which indicates that the student

retention rates have levelled off and in some states have begun to show

a decline. One reason for this decline they suggest, is that the

possible benefits of remaining at school are not being acknowledged by

students and that, as a consequence, there has been some loss of the

alternative packages of study being offered in schools. One of the

implications of this report is that educational programs in the

post-compulsory years of schooling need to be monitored and evaluated

in relation to the curriculum, the course design and school

organisation to ensure they are relevant and motivating for students

and that they offer a positive experience of schooling which delivers

outcomes that students perceive as valuable.

One outcome which has been raised in the literature and which has

direct links to motivation and positive experiences of schooling is to

do with self-concept and self-esteem. It is timely, then, to examine

these links and explore issues related to the links between vocational

development and self-concept.

Despite early work by Super (1951, 1957), Tyler (1951) and others

which established the link between vocational development and

self-concept, there has been limited Australian research in this area.

This link has been recognised in a number of reports as an important

facet in the developmental needs of young adolescents (eg, Board of

Teacher Registration Queensland (BTRQ), 1994). This study aimed to

develop this area of research in the Australian context with emphasis

on a small number of vocational programs developed in NSW schools

relevant to the transition from school to work. Rather than a large

scale survey, the approach taken in this study focused on three

particular programs, in an effort to abstract common themes and

features of curriculum and program design which lead to effective

vocational education for low-academic achievers.

Among many key issues considered in the research were positive concept

and its relationship to vocational potential (Harter, 1989; Damon and

Hart, 1988 (cited by Harter, 1989); the notion of the frame of

reference and its effects on self -concept (Marsh and Parker, 1984;

Marsh, 1987, 1991); the motivational component of self-concept and the

self-consistency motive (Rosenberg, 1979); the influence of the school

environment (Dale, 1974; Schneider, Coutts and Star, 1982 (cited by

Marsh, 1991); the influence of a supportive and positive learning

environment (Hoffman, 1996; Urdan and Maeher, 1995); and the effects

of the process of transition on self-concept (Marsh, Smith, Marsh and

Owens, 1988; Jerusalem, 1994).

The research study reported on in this paper sought to investigate and

clarify some of the issues raised above by investigating, as one of its

focus areas, the effects of vocational education curriculum on

low-academic achieving students in relation to the development of

self-concept.

METHOD

THE SAMPLE SELECTION

Schools

Three Catholic schools from the inner city region of the Sydney

metropolitan area were selected to participate in the study - a

single-sex female school, a co-educational school and a single-sex male

school. To reduce one source of variability, the educational system

was kept constant. The three schools chosen offered different and

innovative post-compulsory vocational education programs aimed at

developing an effective transition from school to work.

PROGRAMS

Programs of study were comprised of a blend of Board of Studies

Developed courses and Board of Studies Content Endorsed courses

including Joint Secondary Schools TAFE courses.

SUBJECTS WITHIN SCHOOLS

Subjects were randomly sampled from Year 11 students who were

participating in two different programs of study in each school. To

control for achievement levels, the sample was selected from students

gaining a C grade in School Certificate English. The sample group was

made up of students participating in the vocational educations

programs, along with comparison groups formed from Year 11 students in

traditional academic programs in each school. Within each program

(Employment Preparation and Tertiary Preparation) within each school

(all female, co-educational and all male), approximately 12 students

were selected at random from students who had achieved a C grade in

School Certificate English. The comparison groups provided baseline

data on changes in self-concept and development of vocational interests

and competencies. A total of 59 students formed the sample group (see

Table 1).

Table 1: Sample Group by School by Program by Sex

School Type_Single-Sex Female_Co-Education_Single Sex Male__Program_E Prep_T

Prep_E Prep_T Prep_E Prep_T Prep__Sex_F_F_M_F_M_F_M_M__Number_12_8_6_3_5_6_10_ 9__

THE INSTRUMENTS

The instruments used to measure self-concept was the Self-Description

Questionnaire-II (Marsh, 1992). In the second stage of the study,

in-depth student interviews were conducted to obtain

qualitative data related to student perceptions of course design,

course value, personal growth in self-concept and career path

expectations and other influences which may have affected their

progress throughout the course.

(a) Self-Description Questionnaire-II (SDQ-II)

Marsh (1985) and Harter (1988) argued for and produced supporting

empirical evidence related to the multi-dimensionality of self-concept.

The Self-Description Questionnaire-II (SDQ-II) (Appendix 2) is a 102

item self-report inventory for high school students which is based on

the Shavelson model of self-concept (Marsh & Shavelson, 1985;

Shavelson, Hubner and Stanton, 1976) and the multiple dimensions of

self-concept outlined in that model. The SDQ-II is constructed to

measure global and multi-dimensional facets of self-concept in senior

high school-age adolescents and contains 11 scales in the following

areas: Academic; Non-Academic; and Global (Total Self, General

Self). Approximately half of the items are negatively worded.

Students are required to respond to simple statements with one of six

responses ranging from False to True. Raw scale scores are calculated

and factor scores are available for comparison to the norming

population. The SDQ-II has been validated in a number of studies eg.

Marsh, 1989, 1990; Marsh, Parker, & Barnes, 1985; Byrne, 1984;

Hattie, 1992.

(b) Interview Schedule

An interview schedule was constructed of a standard set of 35

questions. The interview questions were developed in the focus areas

of: Background Information; Evaluation of Self; Evaluation of

Curriculum; Evaluation of Teaching; and Evaluation of Program.

PROCEDURE

(a) Surveys

The questionnaire was administered to the two groups in a

pre-test/post-test design, aimed at investigating the effects of

vocational curriculum and program design on the development of

self-concept in low-academic achieving students participating in

post-compulsory education.

The pre-test surveys were administered in the early part of each

program, then re-administered as a post-test after approximately three

terms of study. It was necessary to administer post-test surveys at

this stage in order to fit in with the course duration of Program A -

Girls, which is a terminating Year 11 Diploma course conducted across a

10 month period. The survey instrument was group administered and

students were allocated 30 minutes for completion. The survey was

given under standard conditions and instructions.

(b) In-depth Student Interviews

From the group of fifty-nine subjects participating in the study,

eighteen were selected for in-depth student interviews to gather

qualitative data. Six students from each school were interviewed,

randomly selected from each group - three from the Employment

Preparation program and three from the Tertiary Preparation program.

The duration of each interview was approximately one hour and the

interviews were conducted during a one day visit to each school over a

period of one week.

(d) Analysis

Data gathered in this 3 x 2 x 2 independent groups design with repeated

measures over time was analysed by a Multiple Analysis of Co-Variance

(MANCOVA) using the pre-test score as the co-variate and comparing

post-test scores using the adjusted post-test means. A MANCOVA was

conducted in preference to a repeated measures analysis of variance in

order to maximise the power of the statistical test.

The interview transcriptions were analysed in relation to the focus

areas of: Background Information; Evaluation of Self; Evaluation of

Curriculum; Evaluation of Teaching; and Evaluation of Program. Common

themes were extracted and illustrative quotes have been included in the

discussion.

RESULTS

THE SELF-DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE (SDQ-II)

The results of the analysis of data gathered using the Self-Description

Questionnaire will be reported as a summary of the sample at pre-test

and a review of the differences between schools and programs at over

time.

(a) Summary of the Sample at Pre-Test

Analysis of pre-test data revealed that the sample group of Year 11

students displayed a general consistency with the normative population

when factor scores of self-concept were compared. They did display

some differences which would be expected by a group of low academic

achievers, ie. lower levels of Self-Concept in relation to General Self

and General School.

On Total Self-Concept, the sample group from the Boys school

demonstrated significantly higher levels of Self-Concept than

the Girls and Co-Education schools.

On the Self-Concept sub-scales, a 2 (program) x 3 (school) MANOVA with

the 11 Self-Concept sub-scales as dependent variables revealed some

minor differences with pairs of schools differing significantly on

three of the eleven sub-scales. On Physical Abilities, subjects in the

Girls school indicated lower levels of Self-Concept than subjects in

the other two schools; on Physical Appearance, subjects in the Girls

school indicated lower levels of self-concept than subjects in the Boys

school, and on Verbal Abilities, subjects in the Co-Education school

indicated lower levels of Self-Concept than subjects in the Boys

school.

(b) School and Program Differences over Time

A MANCOVA with the post-test Total Self-Concept scores as the dependent

variable and the pre-test scores as covariates revealed a significant

main effect for school (F(2,47)=5.6, p<.005) and a main effect for

program (F(1,47)=4.96, p<.05). There was no significant school x

program interaction.

(i) School Differences on Total Self-Concept Over Time

Adjusted mean results showed that the Total Self-Concept increased more

in the Co-Education school than in the other schools.

Table 2: Total Self-Concept by School Over Time

SCHOOL_n_T1 Mean (SD)_T2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Girls_20_3.96 (.42)_4.04

(.42)_4.21__Co-Education_20_4.08 (.44)_4.46 (.49)_4.54__Boys_19_4.50 (.53)_4.42

(.57)_4.18__

(ii) School Differences on Sub-Scales of Self-Concept Over Time

Results revealed a significant main effect for school for Physical

Appearance (F(2,52)=4.54, p<.05), Maths Abilities (F(2,52)=9.83,

p<.001) and Verbal Abilities (F(2,52)=5.34, p<.01). A picture

consistent with Total Self-Concept was seen in relation to these

sub-scales with results showing self-concept increased more for

subjects in the Co-Education school than in the other two schools.

Multiple comparisons showed that the adjusted mean for Self-Concept on

Verbal Abilities was significantly higher in the Co-Education school

than in the Girls school, but not different to the Boys school adjusted

mean.

Table 3: Self-Concept Sub-Scale Differences by School Over Time

SUB-SCALES_School_n_T1 Mean (SD)_T2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Physical

Appearance_Girls

Co-Ed

Boys_20

20

19_3.24 (.80)

3.70 (.74)

4.37 (.90)_3.57 (1.04)

4.44 (.85)

4.49 (.81)_3.98

4.45

3.98__Math Abilities_Girls

Co-Ed

Boys_20

20

19_2.81 (1.30)

3.52 ( .92)

3.75 ( .99)_2.90 (1.26)

4.10 (1.00)

3.20 ( .95)_3.33

4.00

2.91__Verbal Abilities_Girls

Co-Ed

Boys_20

20

19_3.70 ( .93)

3.16 ( .82)

4.08 ( .85)_3.62 ( .82)

3.87 ( .97)

4.16 (1.05)_3.58

4.26

3.78__

(iii) Program Differences on Total Self-Concept Over Time

Adjusted mean results show that Total Self-Concept of subjects in the

Employment Preparation programs increased more than Total Self-Concept

of subjects in the Tertiary Preparation programs.

Table 4: Total Self-Concept by Program Over Time

PROGRAM_n_T 1 Mean (SD)_T 2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Employment

Preparation_31_4.17 (.41)_4.40 (.49)_4.41__Tertiary Preparation_28_4.20

(.52)_4.22 (.49)_4.21__

(iv) Program Differences on Sub-Scales of Self-Concept Over Time

A consistent pattern emerged in relation to program differences.

Results show significant differences related to program (Table

5) on two sub-scales, Opposite Sex Relations (F(1,52)=5.33,

p<.05) and Same Sex Relations (F(1,52)=6.05, p<.05). Results

revealed that subjects in the Employment Preparation programs increased

more in Self-Concept than subjects in the Tertiary Preparation

programs. Differences in General Self (F(1,52)=3.62, p=.06)

and General School (F(1,52)=3.98, p=.05) were marginally

significant and again showed a greater increase in Self-Concept for

Employment Preparation subjects.

Table 5: Self-Concept Sub-Scales Differences by Program Over Time

SUB-SCALES_Program_n_T1 Mean (SD)_T2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Opposite-Sex

Relations_E Prep

T Prep_31

28_4.66 ( .75)

4.15 (1.23)_5.02 ( .79)

4.29 (1.07)_4.83

4.47__Same-Sex Relations_E Prep

T Prep_31

28_4.78 ( . 68)

4.79 ( .75)_5.19 ( .82)

4.85 ( .80)_5.19

4.84__General Self_E Prep

T Prep_31

28_4.54 ( .77)

4.69 ( .75)_4.90 ( .77)

4.72 (.85)_4.95

4.89__General School_E Prep

T Prep_31

28_3.74 ( .92)

3.93 ( .70)_4.01 ( .92)

3.72 ( .81)_4.06

4.00__

DISCUSSION

SELF-CONCEPT RESULTS

Program Effects

The Student Interview findings gave some insights into the reasons for

the positive changes in self-concept which occurred for students in the

Employment Preparation programs. Students nominated the positive

experience of schooling in preparing them for employment and in

clarifying their career path expectations as key factors in relation to

their satisfaction with the program. This preparation for vocational

success and the development of a positive future view of the self in

relation to vocational or occupational success (Harter, 1989) would

appear to be a key element in the overall levels of positive

self-concept. In contrast, the mixed results evident in self-concept

in relation to the subjects in the Tertiary Preparation programs were

also shown in the interview responses. Tertiary Preparation students

expressed less certainty about the value of their course work for

themselves and for all students, particularly in relation to

progression to tertiary study.

For the Tertiary Preparation students, the comparison group may be

particularly salient. As Harter and others have argued (Harter, 1986,

1987, 1989; Rosenberg, 1979) the feelings of negative peer views and

self feelings of low value lead to a lowered self-concept and lower

self-esteem. One student interviewed made the explicit link between his

perceived academic ability in the current setting compared with his

previous schooling:

...when I was at the other school I guess I considered myself above

average .....there is a lot more students and I realised that there are

a lot more people smarter than me (T Prep Boy)

It is likely that, for Tertiary Preparation students, this is a more

general phenomenon. Marsh's work suggests that this important

realisation of the relevant frame of reference, which has been

characterised as moving from a big fish in a little pond to a little

fish in a big pond, is a key element in the development of self-concept

(Marsh, 1987, 1991; Marsh & Parker, 1984).

It was also clear from interview comments that students in the

Employment Preparation programs considered there was a sense of a real

transition from school to work which was stimulating and of great

interest. This key element of transition had been well-developed in

the Employment Programs within the three schools, with work experience

and Joint Secondary Schools TAFE courses being available to students.

In the program within the Girls school, this idea of transition had

been further developed to be incorporated successfully into the

structure and design of the program with students being given special

freedoms and privileges and responsibilities normally associated with

employment (eg. leaving the school grounds for lunch, wearing

business-style uniforms and signing on and off the attendance book).

These innovative approaches to transition, which had been supported by

students and parents in a formal survey of the program undertaken in

1992 (Price, 1992), seemed to be excellent and effective initiatives

in this area of education.

It was clear, however, that for these special privileges to be

effective the program needed to be accommodated in separate facilities

and a separated location. Originally the Program had been established

in a separate location within the school campus but in the year of

collecting data, the students had been moved into the mainstream

buildings. The subjects expressed a sense of unease in relation to

their status within the school and a desire to be located as a separate

unit within the school, especially as they were clearly identified as

different through the specialised uniform they wore. Despite these

misgivings, students in the Employment Preparation program were

enthusiastic about the program and displayed a greater increase in

self-concept than students in the Tertiary Preparation program.

Another key factor to emerge from the interview analysis was the

importance of relevant and motivating curriculum. Curriculum which is

seen as relevant, of value and offering the opportunity to achieve

success, can be a vital element for students in maintaining and

developing self-concept. It allows not only for the development of

positive self-esteem as an aspect of self-concept, but it also allows

students to maintain their self-consistency (Rosenberg, 1979; Skaalvik,

1983) as they achieve success in areas of value to them. In each of

the Employment Preparation programs specific curriculum had been

developed to cater for the needs and interests of the students and the

requirements of employers in the workplace. In this type of

environment, students had experienced the opportunity for success and a

consequent growth in self-concept. In all schools some common

initiatives had been developed such as the use of specially dedicated

rooms and facilities to cater for specific curriculum, eg. Automotive

Studies, catering facilities for Hospitality Studies. In each school,

Board of Studies Content Endorsed Courses had been developed and

adapted to suit the particular needs of the students and the

marketplace, as those needs changed from year to year. The role of the

Board of Studies in maintaining a consistency in relation to

curriculum integrity and standards was a valuable component of the

development of effective curriculum.

The pattern of subjects undertaken was also important in determining

students' overall perceptions of the programs. Academic subjects were

nominated as a large proportion of the 'least useful subjects' by

students in both programs and vocationally-oriented subjects nominated

amongst the best aspects of the course. There are several possible

explanations for this positive view of vocational subjects. It could

be a reflection of the overall academic ability of the low-achieving

students in the Tertiary Preparation programs or a value judgement

related to the particular subjects chosen. Additionally, the

self-consistency motive (Rosenberg, 1979) could be evident, whereby

students devalue those areas in which they are not achieving success.

The fact that the vocational aspects of the program were appreciated

can be seen in comments related to recommendations about the program.

A number of Tertiary Preparation students nominated the vocational or

occupational aspects of their program as of value, eg. ' ...The

subjects I did helped me a lot to get a job'.

Another possible explanation is that confidence in practical skills and

perceptions of opportunities for employment engender higher levels of

self-esteem as opposed to the anxiety and uncertainty of an extended

educational pathway into higher education (Cienki & Brooks, 1989).

This positive sense of self-concept related to preparation for future

employment prospects was supported by the Employment Preparation

students and could be a function of the identification of positive

'possible selves' (Markus and Nurius, (1986) cited in Harter, 1989)

which envisages a 'well-paying job, loved by family, recognised and

admired by peers' (p. 217) as opposed to negative 'possible selves'

which include unemployment and social disconnection. In contrast, the

sense of uncertainty related to tertiary study was evident in comments

from Tertiary Preparation students, eg. 'I'm not sure, most students

don't need to go to University'.

An important element related to the implementation of curriculum, which

was identified by subjects in both programs, was the value of

supportive and specially-trained staff. Students indicated a

dissatisfaction with teachers who did not give them time or lacked

patience and the ability to relate to them. The importance of teaching

emerged from the interview phase of the study where students identified

as outstanding teachers, those who gave them time, explained things

clearly and were willing to revise and re-explain as often as necessary

and were able to interact in a very supportive and less formal

teaching approach. Although these teacher qualities are ideally present

in all programs, it would seem particularly important that programs

aimed at low achieving, poorly motivated students would employ teachers

with the skills to address their special needs. Therefore, teachers

who had the patience and insights necessary to work with low-achieving

students would seem to be key elements in the planning and delivery of

high quality and effective vocational courses.

It is important to note that there were no school by program

interactions related to self-concept. Therefore, despite the fact that

there were significant differences between schools, the effect for

program was consistent across all schools and school differences did

not influence the program results.

Whilst students in the Employment Preparation programs demonstrated

significantly greater increases in self-concept over time, it can be

seen from raw scale scores that the Tertiary Preparation students did

not always decrease in levels of self-concept and at times, remained

almost the same or increased slightly between time 1 and time 2, for

example, on Total Self-Concept, Opposite-Sex Relations and General Self

measures. It is possible that, as suggested by Marsh (1987), whilst

the level of academic self-concept can be negatively affected by

comparison with fellow students of higher ability when students are

placed in a high ability program, in some cases the level of

self-concept can be positively affected simply by being a member of the

high ability group and the positive feelings associated with that

membership. Therefore, despite the fact that some of the Tertiary

Preparation students were experiencing difficulties with the level of

work and a sense of uncertainty related to their perception of the

value of the program, their acceptance and participation in the

tertiary preparation pathway may have maintained overall self-concept

due their perceived higher academic status within the school.

School Effects

Overall, students in the Co-Education school showed an increased

self-concept over the length of the study. Students in the Tertiary

Preparation and Employment Preparation programs within this school

cited somewhat different reasons for their positive attitudes. The

Employment Preparation students nominated relevance and motivation of

the course work whilst the Tertiary Preparation students nominated a

change towards a more positive and co-operative attitude towards

school.

It is important to note that these students had generally remained

within the same school from Year 7. This school does not receive

students from feeder schools for the post-compulsory years and

therefore students have not generally been affected by transition into

the final two years of schooling. In contrast, at the time of the

study, both the Girls and Boys schools were recipients of students

from feeder schools into their Years 11 and 12 programs. It is likely

that, as suggested by Harter (1989) and supported by Marsh et al.

(1988), the transition to new school environments can cause a

re-evaluation of competence and social confidence which can affect

self-concept and this may have influenced the results in the Girls and

Boys schools.

In the current study and in contrast to previous research, (Foon, 1989;

Block & Robins, 1993; Marsh, Smith, Marsh and Owens, 1988) there was no

clear evidence of differences between males and females in relation to

the global measure of self-esteem or overall self-concept. The overall

results revealed no significant differences on Total Self-Concept

between female subjects in the Girls single-sex school and male

subjects in the Boys single-sex school nor any significant differences

in self-concept on the significant sub-scales of Physical Appearance,

Mathematics Abilities and Verbal Abilities. In each instance, the

subjects in the Co-Education school demonstrated greater changes over

time, and raw scale scores indicate few differences between Girls and

Boys over time.

IMPLICATIONS

The main outcome to emerge from the study was that, for low-academic

achieving students, vocational education programs are more effective

than tertiary preparation programs in developing positive changes in

self-concept. Subjects in the Employment Preparation programs

identified the relevance of the course work, the development of

practical skills, the opportunity for achievement of success and

gaining of credentials, along with growth in self-confidence and

increased motivation through a positive experience of schooling as key

outcomes of their programs of study.

Therefore, one of the main implications to emerge from this study is

that, in order to provide a positive experience of schooling in the

post-compulsory years for low-academic achieving students, effective

vocational programs need to be in place and readily available to all

students.

In order to identify some of the key components and processes involved

in the development of effective vocational curriculum, it is of value

to highlight the initiatives and innovations in place in the three

Employment Preparation programs and to draw more general implications

related to program design and implementation of course work. The

following sections highlight the strengths of each program in turn.

PROGRAM A (GIRLS)

One of the key features of this program was the dynamic and sensitive

nature of the curriculum which had responded to the changing needs of

students and the varied demands of the workforce. An important aspect

to emerge from this program was the challenge to maintain this

responsiveness whilst still meeting the requirements of the Board of

Studies.

The implication of this effective program outcome is that vocational

education curriculum needs to be responsive to student needs and to the

external demands of the employment sector whilst maintaining the

standards and integrity required by the Board of Studies NSW.

The transitional path which moved students from the mind-set of the

school to that of the workforce, was a positive feature of this Diploma

program. The importance of an effective atmosphere of transition to

work through the blending of school requirements and work routines,

expectations and privileges was another implication for vocational

education.

PROGRAM B (CO-EDUCATION)

The emphasis in this program on achievement of success, in order to

develop positive self-esteem and self-confidence, rather than a primary

focus on immediate job attainment was an innovative approach to

vocational education which took a long-term view of the benefits of a

positive experience of schooling and fostered the notion of life-long

education and retraining. The gaining of credentials which could be

used for future employment or TAFE training were an important external

sign of achievement of success. Quantitative results which showed that

subjects in this Co-Education school demonstrated a greater increase in

positive self-concept over time.

Therefore, an important implication to arise from the investigation of

this program is that vocational education would benefit from the

development of an achievement-based approach to learning, which

encourages and offers the opportunity to achieve success and build

self-concept as a basis for a positive attitude to life-long learning

and future employment potential.

PROGRAM C (BOYS)

The variation in career pathways developed in this program by combining

the curriculum into focused employment packages was an innovation which

offered tremendous possibilities for non-academic students and opened

up their options beyond non-skilled, semi-skilled or stereotypic areas

of employment. The blending of varied but focused curriculum allowed

for depth of learning in particular employment fields such as retailing

and hospitality and opened up the possibilities for effective industry

links. It also offered the opportunity to gain relevant credentials

which were useful for future training and employment.

Therefore an implication of the study to arise from this program is

that vocational education should be focused on specific employment

areas so that students can gain depth of knowledge, breadth of skills

and competencies and specific insights into a particular field of work.

As well, students should have the opportunity to gain credentials

relevant to future employment or ongoing training to give them a

starting-point for their career paths.

OVERALL IMPLICATIONS

As the previous sections have suggested, there are general implications

arising from this study for the design and implementation of future

vocational education programs:

1) Given the increase in self-concept and vocational interests and

perceptions of competence that Employment Preparation programs

engender, it is important that low-academic achieving students be

encouraged to participate in these programs of study, not only to

develop the skills and competencies necessary for the workforce, but

also to develop a positive belief in themselves and their life-long

potential. This may require some effort on the part of schools to

publicise the benefits of such programs.

2) It is important for the implementation of vocational education

programs that there be dedicated and experienced staff involved. The

quality of each program seemed to be inextricably linked to the

expertise and enthusiasm of the staff who had the patience and insights

necessary to work with low achieving students and those with special

needs. Therefore, staff appointments to vocational education programs

need to be carefully considered, not only in relation to the

experience and training necessary, but also to the interests and

abilities of staff to work effectively with low-academic achievers.

This implication is equally important for the staffing of the Joint

Secondary Schools TAFE program.

3) The successful tracking of low-academic achievers into vocational

education programs requires that the programs maintain a status within

the school which makes them attractive to students. Such programs,

therefore, should not be viewed colloquially as Ôa last resort', but

rather they should grow in status in Years 7-12 secondary schools as a

valid and appropriate alternative to the tertiary pathway. One way to

engender this status is for schools to actively encourage effective

links with TAFE and employers to offer work experience programs, not

just across a broad range of jobs, but specifically focused on growth

areas of employment. This narrowing of the broad base of work

experience placements would assist in the development of specific

networks between schools, TAFE and growth industries and would offer

students real opportunities to gain appropriate skills and credentials

to enhance their employment prospects and to access both workplace and

TAFE training.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The study has been limited by focusing on three schools only in one

education system. Whilst the outcomes of the study have clearly

established the effectiveness of vocational education programs in

developing self-concept and vocational preparedness, one recommendation

for future research would be to replicate the study across a larger

number of schools and programs in order to test generalisability of

findings across schools.

An additional recommendation would be to develop a longitudinal study

which tracks subjects through the post-compulsory years of schooling

and into their career pathways, to ascertain the effectiveness of

vocational education in preparing them for employment and life-long

education and training.

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