TQM Que Bank

8/2/2019 TQM Que Bank

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Chapter 1:

1. Evaluation of TQM. Need & introduction.p270

2. Strategy of TQM.

3. Implementation of TQM & TQM techniques .

4. Define quality p-259

5. Adoption of customer focus. P-5 (p)

6. Philosophy of TQM.

7. P.D.S.A p-3(p)

8. QFD(Quality function deployment) p-4(p)

9. Diff. between manufacturing and service in terms of quality. P-2(p)

Chapter 2:

10.Explain difference between old and new concepts of quality with the help of

timeline.

11.Give the detail note on quality gurus and their respective contribution.

12.Write a note on contribution of Deming and Judan.

13.7 deadly disaster /decease of management

14.14 principles of management.p13

Chapter 3:

15.Write a note on contribution of Ishikawa and tabugy on quality mgmt.p-6(p)

16.What do you understand by quality control and discuss quality control.263

17.What is significance/importance of quality control? Pg no 262

Chapter 6:

18.Explain quality tools and techniques 259

19.Cause and effect diagram. (quality tools+ techniques+ ishikawa + Diagram)p-

8(p)

20.Quality improvement.

Chapter 9:

21.Introduction of quality circle and explain features of quality circle.

22.What is the organization for quality circle? p-274

23.Operation of quality circle.

24.Formation of quality circle.


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Chapter 7:

25.Give a detail note on methods of quality mgmt & techniques of quality

improvement.p-263

26.Types of quality improvement.

27.Benefits of quality improvement.p-17(p)

28.10 steps of Jurans quality improvement process.p-18(p)

29.Important aspect- total employee involvement

30.Overall total employee involvement.

31.Manipulate quality improvement.

Chapter 12:

32.Explain Capability Maturity Model.

33.What are the 5 steps of maturity model?

34.What is structure of CMM?

Chapter 13:

35.Quality management is different in services than manufacturing sector.

Explain.

Chapter:9

36. Methods of 6 six sigma projects

37. Implementation of 6 sigma.

38. Expalin 6 sigma process or criticality explain.


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Q-10) Comparison of Traditional Quality approach and Total Quality

Management

Quality element Previous state (Traditional) Total Quality ManagementDefinition Product oriented Customer oriented

Priorities Second to service and cost First among the equals of

service and cost

Decisions Short term Long term

Emphasis Detection Prevention

Errors Operations System

Responsibility Quality Control Every one

Problem solving Managers Teams

Procurement Price Life cycle costs, partnership

Managers Role Plan, assign, control andenforce

Delegate, coach, facilitateand mentor

Q-11 & 12

I. Contribution of Deming:

Deming Philosophy

W. Edwards Deming is best known for his management philosophyestablishing quality,

productivity, and competitive position.

The philosophy of W. Edwards Deming has been summarized as follows:

"Dr. W. Edwards Deming taught that by adopting appropriate principles of

management, organizations can increase quality and simultaneously reduce costs

In the 1970s, Dr. Deming's philosophy was summarized by some of his Japanese

proponents with the following 'a'-versus-'b' comparison:

(a) When people and organizations focus primarily on Quality, quality tends to increase

and costs fall over time.

(b) However, when people and organizations focus primarily on Costs, costs tend to rise

and quality declines over time.

The most important Deming works are: Deming cycle, The Fourteen Principles, The

Seven Deadly Diseases.

A. Deming Cycle


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William Edwards Deming was born on October 14, 1900. He is most famous for Deming

PDAC Cycle, otherwise known as the Shewhart cycle, or the Deming Wheels Plan-Do-

Check-Act (modified to Plan-Do-Study-Act). Deming is widely credited with

improving production in the United States in the 1940s and then later in Japan in the1950s.

Before the Deming Cycle was implemented in Japan, consumer products with the label

Made in Japan was considered a joke: cheap, flimsy and just plain garbage.

PLAN: Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance

with the specifications.

DO: Implement the processes.

CHECK: Monitor and evaluate the processes and results against objectives and

Specifications and report the outcome

ACT: Apply actions to the outcome for necessary improvement. This means reviewing

all steps (Plan, Do, Check, Act) and modifying the process to improve it before its next

implementation.

II. JOSEPH MOSSES JURAN

Born : December 24, 1904 Died : February 28, 2008

Occupation: Management Consultant, quality guru

He defines quality as fitness for use in terms of design, conformance, availability, safety

and field use. He is prepared to measure everything and relies on systems and problem

solving techniques. He focuses on top-down management and technical methods rather

than worker pride and satisfaction.

Contributions

A. Pareto principle


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In 1941 Juran stumbled across the work ofVilfredo Paretoand began to apply

thePareto principleto quality issues (for example, 80% of a problem is caused by 20%

of the causes). This is also known as "the vital few and the trivial many". In later years

Juran preferred "the vital few and the useful many" to signal that the remaining 80% of

the causes should not be totally ignored.

B. Management theory:

The principal focus in quality management was on the quality of the end, or finished,

product.

The tools used were from the Bell system of acceptancs sampling, inspection plans, and

control charts.

C. The Juran Trilogy:

I. Quality Planning

Create a process that will be able to meet established goals and do so under operating

conditions

Establish quality goals

Identify the customers

Determine the customers' needs

Develop product features that respond to the customers' needs

Develop processes that are able to produce the product features

Establish quality controls

Transfer the plans to the operating forces

II. Quality Control

Keep the waste from getting worse; meet quality goals during operations

Evaluate actual performance

Compare actual performance to quality goals Act on the difference

III. Quality Improvement

Breaking through to unprecedented levels of performance

Prove the need

Establish the infrastructure

Identify the improvement projects

Establish project teams
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Paretohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Paretohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Paretohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto


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Provide the teams with resources, training, and motivation to:

- Diagnose the causes and - Stimulate remedies

Establish controls to hold the gains

To support this triology juran has formulated a list of responsibilities of top managers.

Create awareness of the need & opportunity for improvement.

Create the infrastructure, establish a quality council, select project for

improvement, appoint team, provide faciliators.

Provide training in how to improve quality.

Review progress regularly.

Give recognition to the winning teams.

Revise the reward system to enforce the rate of improvement.

Maintain the momentum by enlarging the business plan to include the goals for

quality improvement.

Jurans views

The product development cycle should be shorthened through use of

participative planning.

Suppliers relations should be such that a minimal number of suppliers are used;

teamwork between a company & its suppliers would based on mutual trust &

contaracts should be greater generation.

Training should be result- oriented rather than tool-oriented;what is desired is

related more toward behavior change than toward education.

Ten points:

1. Build awareness of opportunities to improve.

2. Set goals for improvement.

3. Organize to reach goals.

4. Provide training.

5. Carry out projects to solve problems

6. Report progress.

7. Give recognition.

8. Communicate results.

9. Keep score.

10.Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular systems

and processes of the company


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III. In short other gurus

1. Feigenbaum

He used a total quality control approach that may very well be the forerunner of todaysTQM. He promoted a system for integrating efforts to develop, maintain and improve

quality by the various groups in an organization.

Feigenbaums philosophy is summarized in his three steps to quality:

1. Quality leadership2. Modern quality technology3. Organizational commitment

2. Philip Crosby(1926-2001)

Philosophy

Crosby is best known for the concepts Do It Right First Time and Zero Defects.

He does not believe workers are responsible for poor quality - you have to get

the management straight.

The essence of Crosby's quality philosophy is embodied in what he calls

(l) the "Absolutes of Quality Management" and

(2) the "14 Basic Elements of Improvement."

His absolutes of quality:

1. Quality is defined as conformance to requirements, not as 'goodness' or'elegance'.

2. The system for causing quality is prevention, not appraisal.3. The performance standard mustbe Zero Defects, not 'that's close enough'.4. The measurement of quality is the Price of Non-conformance, not indices.

Fourteen points:

1. Make it clear that management is committed to quality.2. Form quality improvementteams with senior representatives from each

department.

3. Measure processes to determine where current and potential quality problemslie.

4. Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool.5. Raise the quality awareness and personal concern of all employees.6. Take actions to correct problems identified through previous steps.7. Establish process monitoring for the improvement process.

8. Train supervisors to actively carry out their part of the quality improvementprogram.


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9. Hold a Zero Defect Day to let everyone realize that there has been a change andreaffirm management commitment.

10.Encourage individuals to establish improvement goals for themselves and theirgroups.

11.Encourage employees to communicate to management the obstacles they face in

attaining their improvement goals.12.Recognize and appreciate those who participate.13.Establish quality councils to communicate on a regular basis.14.Do it all over again to emphasize that the quality improvement program never

ends.

4. Genichi Taguchi (3 rd is jurans)

Taguchis approach assumes that smaller the variation aboutthe nominal specification,the better is the quality. He measured quality as the variation from the target value of a

design specification and then translated that variation into an economic loss functionthat expresses the cost of variation in monetary terms.

Taguchi also contributed to improving engineering approached to product design. By

designing a product that is insensitive to variation in manufacture, specification limits

become meaningless. He advocated certain techniques of experimental design to

identify the most important design variables in order to minimize the effects of

uncontrollable factors on product variation. Thus his approaches attach quality

problems early in the design stage rather than react to problems that might arise later

in production.

5. Shigeo Shingo

He is associated with Just-in-Time (JIT) system. He also introduced single (digit) minute

exchange of die (SMED) system, in which set up times are reduced from hours to single

digit minutes. Towards achieving the zero defects, he invented poka-yoke (mistake

proofing) system. By using the devices or systems using poka-yoke principle, even a

single mistake is not allowed at all, even inadvertently. Poka-yoke device identifies the

problem and even before the item is processed, the production process is stopped and

corrections incorporated in the system after root cause analysis. Thus, not a single

defect is produced, nor it gets sent to the customer.

6.Walter Shewhart (1891-1967)

Western Electric & Bell Telephone Engineer Father of Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Founder of the Control Chart (e.g. X-bar R chart) Originator of PDCA cycle ASQC (American Society for Quality) 1stHonorary Member 1947

The Shewhart Philosophy

Shewhart was the pioneer and visionary of modern quality control.


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Shewhart is most widely recognized for his control chart development andstatistical contributions through Bell Laboratories.

Indeed, the Shewhart charts (e.g., X-bar and R charts) have become fundamentaltools of quality control; but, of wider impact, Shewhart published, in 1931,

Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, a landmark book in

modern quality control. His book was used by the Japanese after World War II, with the aid of visiting

consultants, to help shape modern quality practice in Japan.

Shewhart, using a literal definition of quality (Latin qualitas, from qualis,meaning "how constituted"), defined two common aspects of quality:

(1) "objective quality," which deals with the quality of a thing as an "objectivereality" (of the thing) independent of the existence of man and

(2) "subjective quality," which deals with the quality of a thing relative to whatman thinks, feels, or senses as a result of the "objective reality."

Shewhart linked the subjective quality property with value and concluded "it isimpossible to think of a thing as having goodness independent of some human

want."

This definition has been expanded by Ishikawa to include "true" (customer-language based) and "substitute" (technical-language-based) quality

characteristics which form the basis for modem quality planning and quality

function deployment.

It is of great historical interest to point out that the Shewhart postulates (lines ofreasoning) and general conclusions published in 1931 laid the foundation for

modern quality theory and practice throughout the industrial world.

His general conclusions are stated below:

It seems reasonable to believe that there is an objective state of control, making possible

the prediction of quality within limits even though the causes of variability are

unknown....It has been pointed out that by securing this state of control, we can secure

the following advantages:

1. Reduction in the cost of inspection.2. Reduction in the cost of rejection.3. Attainment of maximum benefits from quantity production.4. Attainment of uniform quality even though the inspection test is destructive.5. Reduction in tolerance limits where quality measurement is indirect.

Q-21)Quality Circle is a small group of employees in the same work-area or doing a similar

types of works who voluntarily meet regularly for about an hour every week to identify, analyze

and resolve works related problems, leading to improvement in their total performance and

enrichment of their work-life.

The above definition reveals, the following features of Quality Circles :

1. Small group of employees : Experience has shown that the optimum number of members

in quality circles is about 8 to 10. The philosophy behind small groups is it should allow

every member to actively participate and that fairly grade number minimize of employeesshould be present for the meetings.


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2. In the same work-area or doing similar type of works : Quality circle is a homogeneous

group and not the inter-departmental group. Designation of members need not necessarily

be equal but the work in which they all are engaged should be common.

3. Voluntarily : (Quality circle is not adopted practice but voluntary in nature. Employees

join Quality Circles on their own.

4. Meet regularly for about in hour every week: Normally, Quality Circles should meet for

about an hour every weeks which would help the members to identify and resolve

problems as and when they occur.

5. To identify, analyze and resolve work-related problems : The accepted theory is Unit

the worker/employees who do the works day after day better know the problems limiting

the excellence. The problems are identified by the members themselves by brainstorming

and also on the request from management and other departments. The problems are then

arranged priority wise to tackle them in a systematic manner.

6. Leading to improvement in their total performance : As the Quality Circle resolves the

problem relating to quality, cost-reduction, safety etc. the total performance of the work-

area goes up.

Q-23) How Do Quality Circles Operate?

Appointment of a steering committee, facilitator and QC team leaders.

Formation of QCs by nomination/voluntary enrolment of QC members.

Training of all QC members (by an expert consultant).

Training of non-participating employees (by an expert consultant). Problem data bank and identification of problems for QC work.

QC problem resolution by QCs through standardized techniques.

Presentation of QC solutions to management.

Evaluation of award/recognition

Q-25) Give a detail note on methods of quality mgmt & techniques of quality

improvement.

Quality Management:

The term quality management has a specific meaning within many business sectors. This

specific definition, which does not aim to assure 'good quality' by the more general definition,

but rather to ensure that an organization or product is consistent, can be considered to have

four main components: quality planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality

improvement. Quality management is focused not only on product/service quality, but also the

means to achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality assurance and control of

processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_assurancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_assurancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_control


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Answer from book p-263

Q-29& 30) Employee Involvement

Just as is true with TQM, there is no single authoritative source or theory to support

employee involvement as a management approach. It has a long history dating back to early

research work which was done on democratic leadership in work organizations. That research

work, which started in the 1930s,emphasized the consequences of employees being involved

in decision making. It shows that under certain conditions employees are more committed to

decisions and that better decisions are made if they are involved.

Another important part of the work on employee involvement concerns work design and its

impacton intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction. The work on individual job enrichment,

as well as the work on self-managing work teams and sociotech work systems, forms a

critical part of the historical thinking that has been combined to develop management

approaches that stress employee involvement.

Perhaps the most important overall focus in the work on employee involvement concerns

pushing decisions to the lowest level in the organization. The approach consistently

advocates a "bottoms up" approach to management. Jobs or work at the lowest level is

thought of as designed best when individuals or teams do a whole and complete part of an

organization's work process. In addition, it is argued that the individuals or teams should be

given the power, information, and knowledge they need to work autonomously or

independently of management control and direction. The job of management is seen as one

of preparing the individuals or teams to function in an autonomous manner. Management isan enabler, culture setter, and supporter rather than a director of employee action.

Some of the writings on employee involvement place a strong emphasis on reward systems.

They suggest combining participation in decision making and democratic supervision with

rewards for skill acquisition and for organizational performance. The Scanlon Plan, profit

sharing plans, and employeeownerships are important reward system practices which are

associated with employee involvement efforts.

The writings on employee involvement give a considerable amount of attention to

organizational change. They stress "bottom up" change and, in most cases, start with

retraining supervisors and redesigning work relationships at the first level of the organization.In many respects, employee involvement does not argue for a continuous improvement

approach so much as discontinuous change because it talks of substantial gains in

organizational effectiveness as a result of moving to completely new work structures and new

ways of organizing work.

The logical evolution of employee involvement programs is toward a substantial flattening of

the organization and, in many cases, the elimination of substantial amounts of staff work and

support work.

This work is often seen as moving either out of the organization or being done at lower andlower levels in the organization. Employee involvement programs stress that substantial


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amounts of the work that is done by managers is unnecessary because it simply supports a

command and control approach to management which is not needed when employees are

involved in their work and are capable of self-managing.

Q-32) explain PCMM?5 levels of maturity model?

PCMM introduction

People Capability Maturity Model, (PCMM,P-CMM) is a maturity framework that focuses

on continuously improving the management and development of the human assets of an

organization. It describes an evolutionary improvement path from ad hoc, inconsistently

performed practices, to a mature, disciplined, and continuously improving development of the

knowledge, skills, and motivation of the workforce that enhances strategic business

performance. Based on the best current practices in fields such as human resources,

knowledge management, and organizational development, the People CMM guides

organizations in improving their processes for managing and developing their workforces.

The People CMM helps organizations characterize the maturity of their workforce practices,

establish a program of continuous workforce development, set priorities for improvement

actions, integrate workforce development with process improvement, and establish a culture

of excellence.

The People CMM is a process-based model; it assumes that workforce practices are standard

organizational processes that can be improved continuously through the same methods that

have been used to improve other business processes.

The only unique characteristic of the People CMM is its staged framework for

introducing and steadily improving successful workforce practices.

Since its release in 1995, thousands of copies of the People CMM have been distributed, and

it is used world-wide by organizations, small and large, such as IBM, Boeing, BAESystems,

Tata Consultancy Services, Ericsson, Lockheed Martin and QAI (India) Ltd.

Current Version of the PCMM is Version 2, was released in 2001

Benefits of implementing PCMM

Characterize the maturity of their human resource practices

Set priorities for improving the competence of its work-force


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Integrate competence growth with process improvement

Establish a culture of workforce excellence

Q-33) People CMM Maturity Levels

The People Capability Maturity Model adapts the maturity framework of the Capability

Maturity Model for Software, to managing and developing an organization's work force.

PCMM has five maturity levels and each maturity level provides a layer in the foundation for

continuous improvement and equips the organization with increasingly powerful tools for

developing the capability of its workforce.

PCMM Process Area

The maturity level of the PCMM Version 2 is consisting the 22 Process Area. The below

depiction shows the name of all the 22 processes areas along with level.

Maturity Level Focus Process Areas


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5

Optimizing

Continuously improve and

align personal work group and

organizational capability

Continuously Workforce Innovation

Organizational Performance Alignment

Continuous Capability Improvement

4

Predictable

Empower and integrate

workforce competencies and

manage performance

quantitatively

Mentoring

Organizational Capability Management

Quantitative Performance Management

Competency Based Assets

Empowered Workgroups

Competency Integration

3

Defined

Develop workforce

competencies and workgroups,

and align with business strategy

and objectives

Participatory Culture

Workgroup Development

Competency-Based Practices

Career Development

Competency Development

Workforce Planning

Competency Analysis

2

Managed

Managers take responsibility

for managing and developing

their people

Compensation

Training and Development

Performance Management

Work Environment

Communication Coordination

Staffing

1

initial

Organizations at the Initial Level of maturity usually have difficulty retaining talented


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individuals. Even though many low maturity organizations complain about a talent shortage,

the inconsistency of their actions belies whether they actually believe it Low maturity

organizations are poorly equipped to respond to talent shortages with anything other than

slogans and exhortations. Despite the importance of talent, workforce practices in low

maturity organizations are often ad hoc and inconsistent. In some areas, the organization has

not defined workforce practices, and, in other areas, it has not trained responsible individuals

to perform the practices that exist.

Organizations at the Initial Level typically exhibit four characteristics:

1. Inconsistency in performing practices,

2. Displacement of responsibility,

3. Ritualistic practices, and

4. An emotionally detached workforce.

Q-34) what is the structure of CMM?

CMM Overview

2.1 Introducing the Capability Maturity Model

The Capability Maturity Model for Software (CMM) is a framework that describes the key

elements of an effective software process. The CMM describes an evolutionary improvement

path from an ad hoc, immature process to a mature, disciplined process.

The CMM covers practices for planning, engineering, and managing software development

and maintenance. When followed, these key practices improve the ability of organizations to

meet goals for cost, schedule, functionality, and product quality.

The CMM establishes a yardstick against which it is possible to judge, in a repeatable way,

the maturity of an organization's software process and compare it to the state of the practice

of the industry [Kitson92]. The CMM can also be used by an organization to plan

improvements to its software process.

DEFINITION:

The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a methodology used to develop and refine an

organization's software development process.

Structure of the CMM


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The CMM is composed of five maturity levels. With the exception of Level 1, each maturity

level is composed of several key process areas. Each key process area is organized into five

sections called common features. The common features specify the key practices that, when

collectively addressed, accomplish the goals of the key process area. This structure of the

CMM is illustrated in Figure

The components of the CMM include:

Maturity levels A maturity level is a well-defined evolutionary plateau toward achieving a

mature software process. The five maturity levels provide the top-level structure of the

CMM.

Process capability Software process capability describes the range of expected results that

can be achieved by following a software process. The software process capability of an


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organization provides one means of predicting the most likely outcomes to be expected from

the next software project the organization undertakes.

Key process areas Each maturity level is composed of key process areas. Each key process

area identifies a cluster of related activities that, when performed collectively, achieve a set of

goals considered important for establishing process capability at that maturity level. The key

process areas have been defined to reside at a single maturity level. For example, one of the

key process areas for Level 2 is Software Project Planning.

Goals The goals summarize the key practices of a key process area and can be used to

determine whether an organization or project has effectively implemented the key process

area. The goals signify the scope, boundaries, and intent of each key process area.

An example of a goal from the Software Project Planning key process area is "Software

estimates are documented for use in planning and tracking the software project." See

"Capability Maturity Model for Software, Version 1.1" [Paulk93a] and Section 4.5, Applying

Professional Judgment, of this document for more information on interpreting the goals. (kp

PP.GO.1)

Common features ; The key practices are divided among five Common Features sections:

Commitment to Perform, Ability to Perform, Activities Performed, Measurement and

Analysis, and Verifying Implementation. The common features are attributes that indicate

whether the implementation and institutionalization of a key process area is effective,

repeatable, and lasting.

The Activities Performed common feature describes implementation activities. The other four

common features describe the institutionalization factors, which make a process part of the

organizational culture.

Key practices Each key process area is described in terms of key practices that, when

implemented, help to satisfy the goals of that key process area. The key practices describe the

infrastructure and activities that contribute most to the effective implementation and

institutionalization of the key process area.


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For example, one of the practices from the Software Project Planning key process area is

"The project's software development plan is developed according to a documented

procedure."

Q-35)

Sr.

No.

Characteristic Service Manufacturing

1. Quality Improvement

Approach

Short term related to day-to-day

problem solving, less strategically

oriented

Long term, structured, strategic

2. Stages w.r.t quality simultaneous production and

consumption (co-creation between

producer and consumer)

consumption and production at different

stages

3. Tangibility many critical aspects are intangible many critical aspects are tangible

4. Quality is achieved Through direct customer contacts Through channels

5. inventory concept of inventory may not be

material, but can be virtual such as

requests and, in healthcare, patients

waiting for service can be

considered a type of inventory

usually has inventory and buffers

6. Quality control through

machines

Limited Extensive

7. Transactions Large volume of paper work

involving low amount of money

Small volume of paper work involving

high amount of money

8. Scope of quality errors More Less

9. Customers preparation

of former specification of

quality of

service/product required

Do not prepare Detailed specifications are prepared.

10. Variability in quality considerable variability in service

delivery

some variation

11. Set of varietyopen universe in variety of service

casesclosed set in variety in product

manufacturing

12. Benefits substantive and peripheral benefits mainly substantive product benefits

13. Customer expectations Dynamic Not much dynamic

14. Customer involvement Direct Indirect

15. Quality Focus factor Human factor Product quality

16. Indicators of quality Customer complaints/declining sales Quality standards specifications
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Q-36)

Quality management tools and methods used in Six Sigma

Methods tools and techniques are vital to the success of any six sigma project. Method is a way

ofdoing something in a systematic way. Here systematic implies an orderly logical sequence

of steps or tasks. A tool provides a mechanical or mental advantage in accomplishing a task.

A technique is a specific approach to efficiently accomplish a task in a manner that may not be

immediately obvious.

1.SIPOC - SIPOC is a high-level picture of the process that depicts how the given process is

serving the customer. It is an acronym for Suppliers-Input-Outputs-Customers.

2.Operational definition - Operational definitions are the first step towards effective

management. It helps us build a clear understanding of a concept or a phenomenon so that it can

be unambiguously measured.3.Benchmarking - Benchmarking is a standard by which something can be measured or

judged. This term was first used by surveyors. They set a benchmark by marking a point of

known vertical elevation. Therefore, benchmark becomes a point of reference for a

measurement.

4.Brainstorming - Brainstorming is a technique to systematically generate ideas usually to

handle a challenging situation from a group of people by nurturing free address using

brainstorming is problem solving, new design or new product development and research and

development.

5.AffinityDiagram - The process of affinity programming requires the team to categories the

ideas based on their subject knowledge thereby making it easy to shift and priorities ideas.

6.FishboneDiagram - The fishbone diagram is a graphical method for finding the root cause

of an effect. The effect can be either a negative one such as any defect or positive one such as

described process outcome.

7.RiskManagement - It involves two key elements

Uncertainty

Impact in terms of potential loss. It is a continuous process.

8.Sampling - It is a method to draw inference about one or more characteristics of a large

group of items by examining a smaller but representing selection of group items.

Q-37) Implementation roles

One key innovation of Six Sigma involves the "professionalizing" of quality management

functions. Prior to Six Sigma, quality management in practice was largely relegated to the

production floor and tostatisticiansin a separate quality department. Six Sigma borrowsmartial

artsranking terminology to define a hierarchy (and career path) that cuts across all business

functions.

Six Sigma identifies several key roles for its successful implementation.

Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They areresponsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also empower the other
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role holders with the freedom and resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough

improvements.

Championstake responsibility for Six Sigma implementation across the organization in an

integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper management. Champions

also act as mentors to Black Belts.Master Black Belts, identified by champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma. They

devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They assist champions and guide Black Belts and

Green Belts. Apart from statistical tasks, they spend their time on ensuring consistent

application of Six Sigma across various functions and departments.

Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specific

projects. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma

project execution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying

projects/functions for Six Sigma.

Green Belts, the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with their other job

responsibilities, operate under the guidance of Black Belts.

Yellow Belts, trained in the basic application of Six Sigma management tools, work with the

Black Belt throughout the project stages and are often the closest to the work.

Q-38) Origin and meaning of the term "six sigma process"

A process which is six sigma (six sigma process quality is considered a world class quality) will

yield just 2 instance of non conferences out of every opportunities, provided there is no shift in

the process average. Moreover, the same process will yield 3.4 instances of non-conformances

out of every million opportunities with an expected shift 1.5 sigma in process average. A

process at four sigma level (considered average process) is expected to yield 63 instances of

non-conformances for every million opportunities without shift in process average and 6210

instance of non-conformances with 1.5 sigma in the process.

Criticism

1.Lack of originality - Noted quality expertJoseph M. Juranhas described Six Sigma as "a

basic version of quality improvement", stating, "There is nothing new there. It includes what we

used to call facilitators. They have adopted more flamboyant terms, like belts with differentcolors. I think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be very helpful.
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Again, that is not a new idea. TheAmerican Society for Qualitylong ago established

certificates, such as for reliability engineers."

2.Role of consultants - The use of "Black Belts" as itinerant change agents has

(controversially) fostered acottage industryof training and certification. Critics argue there is

overselling of Six Sigma by too great a number of consulting firms, many of which claim

expertise in Six Sigma when they only have a rudimentary understanding of the tools and

techniques involved.

Some commentators view the expansion of the various "Belts" to include "Green Belts,"

"Master Black Belts" and "Gold Belts" as a parallel to the various "belt factories" that exist in

martial arts.

3.Potential negative effects - AFortunearticle stated, "of 58 large companies that have

announced Six Sigma programs, 91 percent have trailed theS&P 500since". The statement is

attributed to "an analysis by Charles Holland of consulting firm Qualpro (which espouses a

competing quality-improvement process)." The summary of the article is that Six Sigma is

effective at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to fix an existing process"

and does not help in "coming up with new products or disruptive technologies." Many of these

claims have been argued as being in error or ill-informed.

ABusinessWeekarticle says thatJames McNerney's introduction of Six Sigma at3Mmay have

had the effect of stifling creativity. It cites twoWharton Schoolprofessors who say that Six

Sigma leads to incremental innovation at the expense of blue-sky work.This phenomenon is

further explored in the book, Going Lean, which provides data to show thatFord's "6 Sigma"

program did little to change its fortunes.

4.Based on arbitrary standards - While 3.4 defects per million opportunities might work well

for certain products/processes, it might not operate optimally or cost effectively for others. A

pacemakerprocess might need higher standards, for example, whereas adirect mailadvertising

campaign might need lower standards. The basis and justification for choosing 6 (as opposed to

5 or 7, for example) as the number of standard deviations is not clearly explained. In addition,

the Six Sigma model assumes that the process data always conform to thenormal distribution.

The calculation of defect rates for situations where the normal distribution model does not apply

is not properly addressed in the current Six Sigma literature.

5.Criticism of the 1.5 sigma shift - The statisticianDonald J. Wheelerhas dismissed the 1.5sigma shift as "goofy" because of its arbitrary nature. Its universal applicability is seen as

doubtful.The 1.5 sigma shift has also become contentious because it results in stated "sigma

levels" that reflect short-term rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-term

defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma convention, described as

a "6 sigma process." The accepted Six Sigma scoring system thus cannot be equated to actual

normal distribution probabilities for the stated number of standard deviations, and this has been

a key cause of disagreement about how Six Sigma measures are defined. The fact that it is rarely

explained that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma

performance rather than actual 6 sigma performance has led several commentators to expressthe opinion that Six Sigma is aconfidence trick.
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