TITLE OF PAPER · Web viewBoth vessels are stabilised mono-hull vessels, where a central slender displacement hull and two outriggers respectively reduce resistance and increase transverse

Marine Design, 3-4 September 2014, Coventry, UK

CRASH COMPATIBILITY IN THE DESIGN OF A TRIMARAN HIGH SPEED CRUISE LOGISTICS FERRY (CLF)

C Bastien, S McCartan and O Grimes, EBDIG-IRC, Coventry University, UKD Boote, T Colaianni, and T Pais, EBDIG, DITEN, University of Genoa, ITALY SUMMARY

Crash in high speed vessels has more in common with automotive accidents that those of slower larger vessels. A computer simulation model was developed to predict the structural damage and the injuries to ship crew and passengers, in the event of a 40knot crash of the CLF with a harbour structure. The work involved reviewing and implementing established crash modelling and occupant simulation methodologies from the automotive sector. In terms of an injury prediction model, standing occupant models were used to simulated injuries and trauma at selected positions in the ship. The results will be used to inform a GA development process to improve evacuation and propose innovative active safety technology, to mitigate the risk of fatalities.

1. INTRODUCTION

The EU Trans-European network “motorways of the sea” (MoS) concept aims at introducing new intermodal maritime -based logistics chains in Europe, which should bring about a structural change in transport organisation. These chains will be more sustainable, and should be commercially more efficient, than road-only transport. Motorways of the sea will thus improve access to markets throughout Europe, and bring relief to the over-stretched European road system [1]. Informed by the MoS proposal EBDIG-IRC have developed the CLF (Cruise-Logistics-Ferry) concept [2]. The CLF is a high speed vessel to compete with road transport and air transport, supported by specialised infrastructure to optimise the vessel loading and unloading process for cars and HGVs. The vessel design combines the following functions: high speed ferry as an alternative to HGV road transport; passenger ferry as a alternative to flights; luxury cruising cabins. It is based on a 120m trimaran platform designed to operate at 40 knots as a coastal cruiser in the Mediterranean, connecting the coast of Spain, France and Italy. The structural design and non-linear crash analysis of a new CLF design are presented in this paper.

The CLF concept is an engagement in Design-Driven Innovation (DDI), with the objective of changing the design meaning of what a multi- purpose commercial vessel can be. It is a new market sector for the commercial marine industry. The key driver is sustainable luxury, as the vessel is multifunctional, providing a high speed alternative to less sustainable modes of transport. This addresses the growing European definition of green luxury and could create a new market sector between cruise ships and high end passenger ferries, reducing motorway traffic and hence logistics carbon footprint.

1.1 DESIGN-DRIVEN INNOVATION

The process of Design-Driven Innovation is an exploratory research project, which aims to create an entirely new market sector for a given product through changing the design meaning the user has for the product. It occurs before product development and is not the fast creative brainstorming sessions that are typical of concept generation but a design investigation similar to technological research[3]. In essence, it is the development of a design scenario through engaging with a range of interpreters in technology and cultural production. Knowledge is generated from immersion with the design discourse of the interpreter's groups. The process can be structured or unstructured and is dependent upon the nature of the relationship of the client with the interpreters. In this project there was unstructured design discourse between researchers within the EBDIG-IRC group at Coventry University and DITEN at Genoa University. It also included input from their industry networks. This resulted in the design scenario of the design brief, which was executed by a group of Coventry University 3rd year Boat Design student as a professional internship project within the EBDIG-IRC. It involved implementing the emotional design framework developed for superyacht design [4]. The key issues of the design proposal were:

Need for a high speed platform to compete with truck motorway delivery times Determine the key truck logistics routes around the Mediterranean that could be replaced by MOS and identify the volume.

Identify the potential to replace air freight in the coastal Mediterranean areas.

Identify the potential to replace air travel in costal Mediterranean.

Building on the ultra-luxury cruise market with the USP of low carbon as vessel has logistics as a primary role with speeds that are closer to road transport. Boote et al

© 2014: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects


[5] identified the motorways of the sea potential market for a fast ferry trimaran in the medium and small size segment. Specifying a medium size fast ferries, carrying up to about 800 passenger and 250 cars, with a displacement of 800-2000 tons and length 70-120m, operating at a service speed 35-55 knots. The trimaran platform was recommended as it has better seakeeping performance than existing fast vessel catamaran and monohull platforms in short seas. It also has a lower specific resistance with respect to a monohull fast ferry having a comparable mission profile. Combined with unrestricted initial transverse stability needs due to splitting the displacement into more hulls providing more opportunities for optimising the hull depth/weight ratio. A market and competitors analysis identified the target scenario of the vessel to be typical short in limited fetch seas, such as the Mediterranean or the Northern Sea, competing with passenger and ro-ro fast ferries. The Mediterranean sea offers many different routes between Greece, Italy and from mainland to all the islands. Some routes, such as Napoli-Palermo, could be competitive because the crossing time is much shorter than the car or train journey, as is the case for Scandinavia [5]. On the basis of the these considerations for the CLF, it was critical to quantify potential market volumes in terms of logistics, public transport and ultra-luxury cruising to inform concept design. In order to optimise the GA and superstructure to maximise competitiveness and economical success. In a previous CLF project [2] a steel structure was used. The basis of the preliminary design concept presented in this paper was to use aluminium to facilitate two extra decks for a similar displacement.

2.0 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS AND DESIGN

The need for enhanced safety in the navigation of large high speed vessels is critical. It could be achieved through the use of port controlled navigation to ensure the human error issues are reduced. Bruno and Lutzhoft [6] suggest that the issue of remote pilotage is best discussed not in the context of technology drivers but in the context of control. They proposed that by defining piloting as control of a complex system, fundamental and technology-independent problems become apparent and these problems have to be mitigated in any implementation of remote pilotage. The implication being that higher degrees of mitigation would be required with more extensive implementations, such as the CLF. They outlined possible solutions based on control theory and the results of an empirical study which identified two of the main problems as lack of trust between ships and VTS operators and the lack of standardized communication routines, which have been addressed in the aviation industry. There is an analogy between shipping and practices in the aviation industry. As air traffic operates successfully under ground-based control, it should also be possible to safely and efficiently control maritime traffic from the shore. A study made by the Swedish Maritime Administration to examine whether experiences from aviation could be applied to shipping,

found that the domains had little of relevance in common. The most significant difference being the much higher degree of global standardization within commercial aviation. Formal international standards govern the layout and design of airports and navigational procedures in aviation. A consequence of this is that flight crew generally do not need specific knowledge of local conditions. Whereas, in shipping, no two fairways are the same and local conditions vary significantly between ports. Furthermore, ships are by necessity navigated in much closer proximity to obstacles than aircraft [6]. Another consideration is the separation of the vessel docking system from other infrastructure through using a floating structure to align with the vessel, bring the vessel further from other vessels and port structures in order to minimise the risk of high speed crash.

Operating with a faster platform has two key requirements, structural optimisation to mitigate the risk of injury to passengers during crash and advanced e-navigation technology to ensure safety of high speed vessels in busy shipping lanes and ports. A critical infrastructure requirement to facilitate the MoS project is achieving the EU emissions target will be the storage and bunkering of LNG. There is currently a significant amount of research and implementation of LNG infrastructure across the EU funded by MOS and other initiatives. As a replacement for diesel fuel, LNG in the maritime sector offers large advantages in air pollutant emissions, and it is likely to be able to meet the requirements of Tier III and CCNR IV, which become mandatory in 2016 [7]. Having a large high pressure container of LNG with the potential risk of explosion during crash, requires significant consideration as an integral part of the structural development.

The CLF is a high speed craft of significant displacement travelling at 40knots. To enhance the passenger survivability of a collision it will require FEA crash analysis to optimise structures and safety systems. This paper reports on the preliminary work to develop an optimised structure through crash modelling with occupant evaluation. In terms of navigation safety to avoid the potential for collision, there may be potential for transfer of innovation from air traffic control in the development of more sophisticated VTS solutions, required to support the remote pilotage for the CLF proposal. Bruno and Lutzhoft [6] recommend the inclusion the users of the system, that is, the ships and the crews that are subject to piloting in the development of these new systems.

3.0 AUTOMOTIVE CRASH MODELLING SIMULATION AND OCCUPANT/PEDESTRIAN INJURY EVALUATION

Accidents such as the Costa Concordia highlight the issues of structural damage due to crash impacts, either through grounding or involving other vessels. In such accidents the structural features, such as bulk heads are



insufficient to mitigate the loss of hydrostatic stability due to structural buckling and failure. Vessel structural loading conditions are primarily determined from hydrodynamic loading in a range of sea states. Due to the significantly higher speed of road vehicles compared to conventional marine vessels, automotive structural design, in which nonlinear FEA has been well established for over 20 years, is focussed on crash structural loading. Where crumple zones are designed to have structural compliance in order to absorb energy, and a rigid safety cell is designed to protect occupants. In1951, Daimler-Benz AG registered a patent [8] for the passenger car body with a passenger safety cell. This innovation is still seen as the fundamental feature of passive automotive safety to this day. Automotive design engineers previously thought that a body that was as rigid as possible was the best way to protect the driver and passengers in an accident. In fact it means that the forces generated during the impact are transferred to the occupants with hardly any prior absorption. Whereas, controlled body deformation at the front and rear of the passanger safety cell, absorbs the kinetic energy during a collision. At the same time a rigid passenger safety cell in the middle of the vehicle enclosed the occupants and protected them from the impact forces acting on the vehicle structure.

In order to facilitate direct evaluation of occupant risks and injuries in automotive crash scenarios using simulation data, Marzougi et al [9] developed and validated a non-linear FE model. The model consisted of a full size car, a 50th percentile Hybrid III dummy, and a driver side airbag. The FE model was used for the simulation of an NCAP full scale crash test, which involved frontal impact with a full rigid barrier at 30mph using LS-DYNA3D crash code. The validation process focused on the crush depth in the front of the vehicle, the acceleration at different locations of the vehicle as well as the head and chest accelerations and the femur loads of the dummy. The simulation results were found to be in agreement with the crash test data. Teng et al [10] examined the dynamic response of the human body in a frontal collision event and assessed the injuries sustained to the occupant’s head, chest and pelvic regions. They used Kane’s method to obtain the governing equations describing the response of the occupant. The numerical models were capable of predicting the severity of the injuries sustained by the vehicle occupant in an impact. They proposed that the multibody dynamics modeling method provides a valuable tool for engineers to study different design concepts and to evaluate the safety of vehicles at an early stage of the research and development process.

In the early 1990's in order to evaluate the impact response of the human body in car pedestrian accidents, a mathematical multibody-system model of the whole human body was developed by Ishikawa et al [11]. The aim of the model was to achieve better correlation with

results from impact tests with cadaver specimens. In order to verify the pedestrian model with pervious cadaver experiments, the computer simulations were carried out to replicate the conditions of cadaver tests. The model response to the following parameters were evaluated in simulations: impact speed, bumper height and bumper compliance. The responses from the model in various impact configurations, such as overall pedestrian behaviour, resultant head velocity, acceleration of the segments, were validated. The output parameters calculated from computer simulations with the new pedestrian model corresponded well to observations in cadaver studies and indicate its ability to analyse pedestrian kinematics in car-pedestrian accidents.

The vehicle safety and roadside safety communities utilize full-scale crash tests to assess the potential for occupant injury during collision loadings. While the vehicle community uses instrumented full-scale crash test dummies, the roadside community relies on the flail space model and the Acceleration Severity Index (ASI) models, which are based primarily on the deceleration of the test vehicle. Gabauer and Thompson [12] investigated the correlation of these differing metrics to gain insight into potential differences in threshold occupant risk levels in the roadside and vehicle safety communities. Full-scale vehicle crash tests were analyzed to compare the flail space model and ASI to crash test dummy injury criteria for different impact configurations, including frontal and frontal offset crash tests. The Head Injury Criterion (HIC), peak chest acceleration, peak chest deflection, and maximum femur force were each compared to the ASI, and flail space parameters. In terms of the vehicle crash test injury criteria, the occupant impact velocity and ASI are found to be conservative in the frontal collision mode. The occupant ridedown acceleration had the strongest correlation to HIC while the ASI had the strongest correlation to peak chest acceleration.

Considering the occupant risks and injuries in the CLF combines the traits of both occupant and pedestrian in the automotive sector. As a vessel passenger may be seated unrestrained or might be upright and walking at the time of impact. Here the impact with a table or other fixed objects would be analogous to a pedestrian being hit by a car. The opportunity for the transfer of innovation of active safety systems such as multiple airbag configurations would require a CAE application and study as an integral part of the vessel design process. Feng [13] reported on the CAE applications for balanced curtain airbag design meeting FMVSS226 and system/component performance as an integral part of the vehicle programme. The curtain airbag is a key restraint component to protect occupants in the event of side impact and rollover. It has to meet the requirements of restraint system performances and component performances such as the low risk deployment of Out-Of-Position (OOP) and component integrity. FMVSS226



Ejection Mitigation requires increased occupant containment in rollover and side crashes for belted/unbelted occupants. The rule requires the linear impact tests at two energy levels and two inflation times. This has resulted in the introduction of larger curtain airbags with higher power inflators for longer inflation. This has been a challenge to the integrity of the curtain airbag and surrounding trims as well as OOP performance. CAE studies were conducted using LS-DYNA to gain an understanding of energy requirements and control for balanced curtain design airbag to meet multiple requirements on restraint system performance, EjM, OOP and component integrity. As large high speed vessels such as the CLF evolve, these CAE approaches to safety systems will have to be developed.

4.0 VESSEL STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The design concept presented in this paper is a high speed vessel to compete with road transport and air transport. The vessel design combines the following functions: high speed ferry as an alternative to HGV road transport; high speed passenger ferry as a alternative to flights; luxury cruising cabins. The Previous CLF project developed by EBDIG-IRC was based on the steel trimaran preliminary structural design of Boote et al [5], which was designed for Mediterranean routes, shown in Figure 1. The Fast Jet Cargo BGV C160 design by Zoia, Boote and Colaianni [14] is an aluminium structured vessel design for the higher sea states of Northern European routes. Both vessels are stabilised mono-hull vessels, where a central slender displacement hull and two outriggers respectively reduce resistance and increase transverse stability.

The hull main dimensions, hydrostatic features, load definition and structural arrangement of the new design have been based on the preliminary structural design of Boote et al [5]. These are as follows:

Length bet. Perpendiculars: 120.0 m Maximum total breadth: 28 m Depth to main deck: 12.0 m Full load displacement: 2070 t Corresponding draft: 3.0 m Main hull L/B>10 Service speed: 40 knots Propulsion (TAG 1 x 25 MW + Diesel 2 x

5.5 MW) Side hulls displacement: around 5%

The vessel is designed to Lloyd’s Register regulations, specifically the Special Service Craft Code 2011, Rules for the Classification of Trimarans 2006, High speed Craft 2000 Code. Implemented using the LR SSP software.

Figure 1: Steel trimaran preliminary structural design

Figure 2: Aluminiun trimaran BGV C160



Figure 3: New CLF trimaran concept

The structural typology of the steel trimaran preliminary structural design [5], shown in Figure 1, is a mixed longitudinal and transversal one. It has 2400mm spacing between reinforced frames and 600mm spacing between ordinary frames. Using aluminium alloy as the structural material of the new CLF vessel concept, shown in Fig.3, enables two additional decks to be added to the superstructure compared to the steel preliminary design for the same vessel displacement. Due to the vessel shape, the slender central hull of the trimaran takes a considerable part of the longitudinal bending moment. This consideration combined with the reduced strength of aluminium compared to steel, has resulted in a longitudinal structural typology in order to increase longitudinal strength.

4.1 Scantling Procedure

For the preliminary structural design, the hull has been split in three blocks. The first one covers the engine room section, the second one is the greatest part of cargo decks and the last one considers the slamming loads at the bow. The use of aluminium alloy required to spacing of the ordinary stiffeners and the transversal primary stiffeners to be reduced to 400mm and 1600mm respectively. In order to use Lloyd’s Register rules to compute the minimum scantling dimensions required, geometrical assumptions were made. The bulkhead positions were arranged according to different criteria, such as stability and fire protection. For this reason the original arrangement of the steel trimaran preliminary structural design [5] were adopted for the calculations.

In order to increase the longitudinal strength, the cross deck, which links the lateral hulls and the central hull together was modified. It is the most critical zone subjected to stresses, due to the reduce strength of aluminium alloy compared to steel. It was lengthened fore of the lateral hulls and integrated into the wet deck structure along the whole length of the hull, as shown in Fig.3, to distribute stress. The geometric shape of the sections at 24m, 60m, 90m from the Aft Perpendicular are shown in Fig.4. Each of these sections are used as input geometry for each block in LR SSP software. Where constant sections of the stiffeners have been assumed for the length of each block. For the load estimations, the design regulation prescribe different components for the pressure acting on the hull. These are

used for the computation of local design criteria. The components are determined from the environmental conditions for the specific area of operation of the craft, such as wind, wave and currents from which design data are derived.

Figure 4: Hull Sections at 24m, 60m, 90m from the AP

Each structural element, such as plating, framing, double bottom structures, bulkheads, etc., have relative design pressure. Estimating these values the greatest ones are used from a parametric combination of the geometric input data. The evaluated design pressures includes the effects of combined static and dynamic load components as well as the effects of impact or slamming loads. The variation of the different components of vessel design pressure with longitudinal distance forward of Aft Perpendicular are shown in Figure 5. The increase in pressure in the bow of the hull is due to slamming, which requires a stronger structure in that zone. Once the pressures are determined, the minimum thickness, inertia



and section modulus required are calculated using the formulas given in the Lloyd’s Register design rules. These formulas take into account different coefficients depending on the structural assumptions of the model. The scantlings of the three block sections shown in Figure 4 are determined using this procedure. Including the stiffening members dimensions.

Figure 5: Design pressure distribution over the ship length

At this preliminary design stage a main section checking is required. Due to the particular hull shape it is necessary to estimate a loads distribution to obtain the maximum value of the bending moment acting on the vessel, as required by the LR design rules. In order to get it, a preliminary total weight estimation was carried out, as shown in Table 1.In terms of structural weight the new concept is approximately the same as steel trimaran preliminary structural design [5], due to the change of the construction material to aluminium alloy and the two additional decks.

Table 1: Weight estimation based on block structure

In order to analysed the vessel structure in crash simulation using a non-linear FE model in LS-DYNA3D. A 3D CAD structural model derived from the scantlings, was developed from the exterior design Rhino CAD model, shown in Figure 3. Three perspective views of the structural model are shown in Figure 6, showing that only the basic structure of bulkheads and stanchions have been included. The structural detail of the GA (shown in Figure 7) has been omitted in this initial model due to it being preliminary study.

Figure 6: 3D CAD structural model

5.0 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA) CRASH SIMULATION METHODOLOGY

The trimaran crash simulation will be performed using an explicit finite element solver in LS-DYNA. As the load is of short duration, transient and involves contacts, explicit computation is favoured over implicit computation. The boat model was meshed with shell (plate) elements which will have 6 degrees of freedom per node and as such will be able to capture in-plane, out-of-plane and bending events. The computer model made the following assumptions:

The load case investigated an impact against a rigid wall which is representing a harbour peer.

The motion of the catamaran was unrestrained in all DOF’s of translation and rotation as would be the case in a fluid with minimal shear properties.

The velocity was set to 38 knots which is 20m/s The interface boat to water was ignored The material chosen is aluminium

The computer model has been modelled using Rhino and comprises of 70600 surfaces for half the symmetrical model. The model was transferred in HyperMesh for


Weight Centre of Gravity x y z [t] [m] [m] [m]BLOCK 1 1008,99 13,31 0,00 7,86BLOCK 2 443,61 62,22 0,00 11,77BLOCK 3 122,44 102,32 0,00 9,51TOTAL 1575,04 34,01 0,00 9,09


meshing, reflecting the element to form the full boat. Due to the complexity of the model a macro was developed in HyperMesh to cut each of the intersecting surfaces between the hull, floors, bulkheads and reinforcements. This ensured full connectively of the 1000’s of meshed surfaces. The problem studied is a stress propagation problem and requires a timestep integration constant based on the atomic properties of the materials, i.e. Young’s modulus (E), Density () and Poisson’s ratio (). In typical automotive applications, for a 0.1s and mesh size of 1,000,000 elements, an accepted timestep is between 0.8s and 1.0s. This sets a mesh average size to 5.0mm for a structure of 4.0m length and 2.0m width. The trimaran’s maximum length is 130.0m and 30.0m width, which would create a mesh beyond most computer capabilities. It has been decided that an average mesh of 100.0mm would be adequate to represent the trimaran’s collapse mode, leading to a mesh density of 5,500,000 shells. A cross section of the meshed model is shown in Figure 8. As the reflected stress wave propagation effect on the crash pulse shape was unknown, it was chosen to model the full length of the boat to capture this phenomenon. As only the first 50ms period would be unaffected by a reflecting wave, it is expected that the proceeding crush mode could be different. A further study would be required to quantify these differences. This has led to an 8 hour runtime on 160 processors.

Figure 8: Cross section of boat meshed

The material model used is based on a medium grade aluminium alloy with the properties listed in Table 2. As the strain rate effects on aluminium are negligible, a *MAT_PLASTIC_KINEMATIC material model was chosen [15].

Mat

eria

l m

odel

Den

sity

( )

(T

/mm

3)

You

ng’s

M

odul

us (

E)

(MPa

)

Pois

son’

s ra

tio (

)

Yie

ld s

tress

(M

Pa)

Etan

(MPa

)

Aluminium (deformable) – structural material

3 2.8e-9 70000 0.3 100 1000

Aluminium (rigid) – for boat boundary condition

20 2.8e-9 70000 0.3 N/A N/A

Table 2: Standard medium grade aluminium

The computer model developed to assess the structural integrity, deceleration levels and hull forces in the vessel. To monitor the boat’s impact deceleration,

accelerometers were placed in the lower quill. In order to reduce the ringing due to the vibration of panels to which the accelerometers were attached to, a 20kg masses were added. The location of the accelerometers is shown in Figure 9. To monitor hull forces, section forces have been added to capture the force propagation. The trimaran force cross sections were positioned 10m apart and are displayed in Figure 10.

Figure 9: Trimaran accelerometer positions

Figure 10: Trimaran force cross section positions

6.0 FEA CRASH RESULTSAs the system is a conservative system, the total energy, which is initially kinetic energy, will convert entirely in deformation, or potential energy. As the boat’s mass is 1580 tonnes and its velocity 20,000mm/s, its total energy is 3.16E8 J, as can be observed in Figure 11. The kinetic energy changing of curvature at 1.0s suggests that the main impact is complete at that time and that the vessel rounds from the rigid wall.

Figure 11: Computation stability criteria graph


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13


Figure 12: Hull Section Forces (N) – Full Event

The forces in the hull are initially negative as the primary impact generates compressive forces. These values are -42MN (-4.7E7N) at time 0.021s for cross sections 3, 4 and 5 which appear to be the stiffest part of the ship, as can be observed in Figure 12. Section 1 is weakest and bends and buckles away to absorb the crash event. At 0.06s, after the stress wave has been affected from the back of the ship causes tension forces which are maximum in the rearwards sections 10, 11 and 12 (21.7MN).

Figure 13: Hull Section Forces (N) – First 0.1s

The lag is explained by the distance between the cross sections. As the ship is made of aluminium, the stress propagation is 5000m/s. The distance between section 2 and section 14 is around 120m, which means that the signal lag is theoretically lagging by 0.024s. Looking at Figure 13, the force levels in section 1 ramps up at 0.003s and section 13 at 0.032s, leading to a lag of 0.029s, which supports the stress propagation theory. The variance being accounted by the growing section size and shape as the wave travels down the length of the boat.

Figure 14: Trimaran crash acceleration pulse

The crash acceleration pulses of the three accelerometers are shown in Figure 14. The peak deceleration is in the region of 8g, and decays to 4g by 0.3s. The vessel velocities for the three accelerometers are shown in Figure 14, suggesting a velocity decrease from 20.0m/s to 4.5ms at time 1.0s, as well as reaching 0m/s at time 1.3s. The displacement is measured from the position of the transom. The peak displacement of 14.0m is achieved at 1.3s for the 3rd accelerometer, with the other accelerometers achieving slightly lower displacements due to the compliance of the vessel structure.

Figure 15: Velocity curve of accelerometers

Figure 16: Displacement history of accelerometers

Figure 17: Strain rate of key elements deformed

The strain rate time history of key highly deformed elements in the area of impact is shown in Figure 17. The key peak values for a number of elements reach between 10s-1 and 20s-1, with a single element peak value of 54s-1. The deformation of the bow area is shown in Figure 17, indicating the localised nature of collapse. It can be observed that the boundary condition chosen are reasonable as the boat can be seen pitching which is representative of the boat being in water.



Figure 18: Vessel model showing area of deformation

Figure 19: Vessel bow model barrier deformation

Figure 20: Location of standing occupants before crash

Figure 21: Motion of both occupant models

Figure 22: Motion of rear occupant

Figure 23: Motion of forward occupant striking surface

The detailed deformation of the bow area is displayed in Figure 18 and Figure 19, where the middle image shows the trace of the deformation of the bow. The lower image shows the final crash deformation, which suggests that the bulkhead is intact, implying that the impact has not compromised the hydrostatic stability of the vessel.



Several standing occupants were included in the model, as shown in Figure 20, in order to evaluate their response to the vessel crash, as shown in Figure 13. The motion of both occupant models is shown in Figure 21 as a composite of still images representing the position and posture of each occupant at time intervals. The individual motion of the mid position standing occupant is shown in Figure 22, where the occupant model travelled a distance of 30.0m during the first 2.0s. The motion of the forward occupant model is shown in Figure 23, where the head of a typical 50th percentile occupant standing on the vessel centreline travelled a distance of 14.0m before impacting the floor surface. Each of the occupant positions and relative velocities during the first 2.0s are shown is Figure 24. During this period they tumble a distance of 30.0 to 35.0m, however a velocity still remains. Further computation has shown this remaining velocity could result in a total throw distance of up to 50.0m if no obstruction was present. It can also be seen in Figure 23 that before impacting the ground at 14.0m, the velocity of the dummy relative to the cabin is maintained at 20m/s, creating potentially the most dangerous impact period.

Figure 24: Occupant position during impact (2.0s)

It has to be noted that the crash test dummies do not have bio-fidelic joints, neck and spine representations as such the distances computed may vary for a human being. This model has however the benefits to have an estimate based on a dummy based on comparable body masses.

7.0 DISCUSSION

The study discussed in this paper researched the crashworthiness mechanisms of a 130.0m trimaran against a rigid wall, based on computer simulations.The complexity of the FEA model proved challenging and focused on a fixed structure, being the worst case scenario with the vessel structure having to absorb all of the kinetic energy [16]. Due to the size of the vessel in terms of displacement the crash event had a 1.0s duration, which is significantly longer than an automotive crash event which contains considerably less structure and kinetic energy to dissipate. This resulted in significant analysis processing time. The complexity of the pre-process meshing due to the size of the CAD model requiring a large number of elements required a

macro to be developed in HyperMesh to resolve meshing issues identified through lack of initial model convergence during initial analysis.

The structural collapse deformed the bow 14.0m within the crash bulkhead, containment of deformation and rupture within this area ensured the hydrostatic integrity of the vessel for post crash evacuation of passengers. This localisation effect of deformation may enable a simplified lump parameter model to be used to expedite the analysis process. Reducing the model to a single mass attached to the crash bulk head area would significantly reduce structural modelling allowing design variations on the crash bulk head section to be evaluated. This modelling simplification would ignore the structurally induced characteristics of longitudinal stress waves, and would therefore have to be validated against a full FEA model in given load conditions.

Vehicle safety is looking into vehicle intrusions and the reduction of forces sustained by the occupant. The former being key, as excessive intrusions will lead to severe injuries. In the European market, it is law to wear the seatbelt, hence the airbag, classified as a supplementary restraint system, works with the seatbelt to reduce occupant decelerations [17]. In the US, some states still allow occupants to drive without a seatbelt, hence the legal safety test in FMVSS208, which assesses the viability of a vehicle airbag at 25mph with an unbelted 50th percentile driver [18] [19] . Statistics have shown that 41% of occupants in unbelted accidents were killed or seriously [20]. As passengers in the proposed vessel is 40knots (20m/s), which is higher than the FMVSS208 unbelted test speed, it is expected that some serious injuries may be expected.

OEM use computer models to assess vehicle structures, in order to tune the vehicle architecture and the restraint system for crash test dummies. These tests follow the legislative requirements, as well as other consumer tests, like EuroNCAP which set a standard protocol to meet. The real challenge is that these crash test dummies, although very useful reference engineering tools, do not represent the real trauma people are experiencing, which are gender, age and pre-medical condition specific. In the near future, human computer models will push further the boundaries of safety. The initial occupant crash simulation requires further validation as the thrown away distance is very large compared to a simple unbelted car driver [21] [22]. The thrown distance of up to 50.0m could lead to occupants impacting each other, as they are not restrained to the vessel, which could cause severe trauma and would be potentially worse for seated occupants or occupants standing in restricted spaces where they would strike surfaces or other passengers [23]. These values suggest a very severe impact, however it has to be noted that the computer model used only contained thick aluminium sheet metal and no upholstery, hence the real values are likely to be less. Nevertheless this type of impact configuration looks



comparable to a scenario in a rail carriage, where the maximum deceleration is about 8.0g, but only lasting 200ms [24].

This highlights the need to apply interior design regulations from the automotive and rail industry such as UN-ECE21 which requires all radii within 0.5 m radius of the H-point of the occupant to be greater than 3.0mm to minimise trauma upon surface impact and respecting a head deceleration not exceeding 80g during a 3ms duration. This area of analysis will be investigated by the authors in further work to quantify risk based on GA location and potential people flow scenarios. The use of airbag technology and restraints for seated passengers would at first seem to be an obvious transfer of innovation to mitigate the risk of injury [17] [18]. Installation and maintenance costs combined would need to be investigated as additional weight may be prohibitive. More importantly the sense of confidence that the user has in the vessel would be severely compromised, which is one of the reasons trains do not have seatbelts.

Prediction for occupant/pedestrian knee-thigh-hip (KTH) injuries at the tissue level for various loading conditions observed in automotive crashes is still challenging. Hu et al [25] developed a model-based tissue injury criteria and a tool to predict occupant KTH injuries subject to different postures and loading rates. They produced an effective plastic strain based injury criterion, with a defined universal threshold developed for identification of the potential injury locations in the KTH body region. The simulation results indicated a possible mode shift of the impact rate-associated injury with assumptions of viscous effects on hip-joint. A high rate impact more likely generates a fracture at the femur shaft; and the impact at a lower rate more likely fractures the hip-joint. The validated KTH injury criteria and tool were applied to full frontal and offset frontal impacts, where the simulations matched the injury outcomes of the reported field observations. In further work these advanced validated injury prediction models will be applied to both seating and standing positions, to simulate injuries and trauma at selected positions throughout the ship. This will be repeated for the different accident scenarios to develop a probabilistic prediction of fatalities or disabling injuries that would compromise escape and egress from a damaged vessel. The results of this task will feed into the evacuation models.

Integrated occupant-vehicle analysis plays an important role in vehicle safety developments. Car manufacturers are using detailed full system models consisting of vehicle structure, interior, restraint systems, barrier, and occupant to develop safety measures and assure compliance with legal requirements and vehicle safety in real life crash configurations. While full models are best suited to evaluate occupant risks in complex crash configurations taking the interactions of all participating components into account, reduced models can be useful

for developing new restraint systems or other component models. Reichert et al [26] described efficient methodologies for fully integrated occupant-vehicle simulations as well as sub-system evaluations using prescribed motion in LS-DYNA. This included short duration impacts such as frontal impact with termination times of less than 200ms and long duration impacts such as rollover events having termination times of 400 to 2500ms. For the frontal offset impact with a hybrid III dummy model, the sub-system evaluation of occupant area and dummy had a model size of 190 000 elements vastly reduced from the 1 600 000 of the full model, resulting in a 1hr run time, which is 20% of the full model run time.

Figure 25 THUMS4.0 Toyota Human Model [27]

Other models, like the THUMS4.0 (Total Human Model for Safety), shown in Figure 25, is proposing a deterministic rather than a probabilistic model of trauma assessment [27]. Such human computer model would be ideal to use to capture a more realistic throw away kinematics during the vessel crash event, as well as specific organ injury patterns. Such model however would be very computer intensive and work requires a ‘sled’ type analysis scenario configuration in order to allow interior cabin design for safety.

The on-board comfort of large motoryachts has become the object of specific attention by most Classification Societies which issued new rules and regulations for the evaluation of noise and vibration maximum levels; this is an equivalent to NVH analysis in the automotive industry. In a comprehensive investigation into the dynamic behaviour of superyacht structures, Boote et al [28] carried out a detailed FEA analysis of a 60.0m superyacht. In order to investigate the natural frequencies of the main steel deck and of the superstructure aluminium alloy decks. The numerical results were validated with experimental data of components carried out during vessel construction. This marine NVH analysis process resulted in the addition of extra structural mass to reduce aft deck vibration. In the context of the CLF design such structural modification would need to be evaluated in the context of crash behaviour.



There is therefore a need to integrate the crash analysis and NVH analysis into a single design optimisation process. Adduri et al [29] demonstrated a design system to efficiently perform optimisation based on responses computed from multiple LS-DYNA analysis while also taking into consideration the linear loading conditions such as those for NVH and static responses. The design system ESLDYNA is based on Equivalent Static Load (ESL) method, which requires the iterative process of non-linear structural analysis (LS-DYNA) and linear structural analysis and optimisation (GENESIS). They carried out the topometry optimization of a full vehicle model for frontal crash, static stiffness and normal modes. This approach would be necessary to optimise the CLF to minimise structural vibration and maximise crumple zone energy absorption. However it has been found that this method has serious limitation when extreme non-linear buckling was observed [24]. Combining topology and NVH using this process is also questionable as NVH is dependent on the density and mass location. Since topology only gives an indicative mass fraction which is not conducive for accurately predicting the NVH response.

Lilja [30] presents a selection of benchmark problems that verify the capability of new features in LS-DYNA to conform to the DNV-RP-C208, recommended practices on the usage of non-linear implicit finite element simulations in offshore applications. These practices will be used for investigations, studies and dimensioning of offshore structures in the future. Given the high speed nature of the CLF and the need to optimise for both crash and NVH, recommended practices for topometry optimisation will be required. Christensen et al [31] have conducted research into lightweight Body In White (BIW) design and lightweight crash structure development utilising structural optimisation. This is a very different approach to the static loading conditions used in Naval Architecture. Developing new vessel structural design methodologies based on structural optimisation for crash and associated design rules would enhance the survivability of large next generation high speed craft such as the CLF through reducing the kinetic energy being transferred to the occupants.

The process of evacuation of potentially infirm passengers, who have just experienced significant HIC or other trauma, has nothing to do with current maritime evacuation technology. It would have more in common with a paramedic team arriving at a car accident. Passengers would become patients in need of acute treatment and immobilisation onto stretchers. Extraction to medical facilities would be time critical as with car accidents. Given that these vessels could be coastal cruisers helicopter evacuation could be a feasible option. There may also be a potential for life boats with advanced medical facilities. Given the size of modern life boats it may be possible to have one as a floating medical facility for acute patients with the vessel medical officer present. Another approach would be the use of a medical

technician to stabilise patients in medically equipped lifeboats which could be helicopter airlifted to hospitals.

Advanced Automatic Crash Notification (AACN) systems developed in the automotive industry, are capable of predicting post-crash injury severity and subsequent automatic transfer of injury assessment data to emergency medical services. If applied to the CLF this could potentially improve the timeliness and appropriateness of care provided given the potential number of casualties. The estimation of injury severity based on statistical field data, as incorporated in current AACN systems, lack specificity and accuracy to identify the risk of life threatening conditions. To enhance the existing AACN framework, Bose et al [32] developed a computational methodology to predict injury risk for motor vehicle crash victims. Their objective was to predict risk of injury in specific body regions, from AIS (body Abbreviated Injury Scales), based on specific characteristics of the crash, occupant and vehicle. The computational technique involved multibody models of the vehicle and the occupant to simulate the case-specific occupant dynamics and subsequently predict the injury risk using established physical metrics. To demonstrate the computational-based injury prediction methodology, three frontal crash cases involving adult drivers in passenger cars were extracted from the US National Automotive Sampling System Crashworthiness Data System. The representative vehicle model, anthropometrically scaled model of the occupant and kinematic information related to the crash cases, selected at different severities, were used for the blinded verification of injury risk estimations in five different body regions. When compared to existing statistical algorithms, their computational methodology was suggesting a significant improvement toward post-crash injury prediction specifically tailored to individual attributes of the crash. Variations in the initial posture of the driver, analyzed as a pre-crash variable, were shown to have a significant effect on the injury risk.

Injury prediction based on data from event data recorders in automatic collision notification is expected to reduce trauma deaths. Known to affect on injury, the crash pattern is required to be classified to accurately predict injury profiles of each crash pattern. A method to classify a crash pattern by comparing vehicle acceleration with the typical profiles was found to be effective. They performed multi-body simulations with a vehicle interior and a dummy model, and developed injury prediction algorithms of each crash pattern. This approach will be applied to the risk analysis of the GA in further work. As it is a critical aspect of evacuation planning and equipment location.

The risk of explosion of the LNG tank and associated loss of hydrostatic stability presents a significant challenge, given the potential increase in evacuation time over a conventional vessel. Further structural analysis will address the challenges posed by LNG tanks. The use



of fixed inflation air bag technology could be used to secure hydrostatic stability during evacuation and perhaps be of significant value to the underwriter given the potential to recover the vessel in a repairable state.

8.0 CONCLUSION

A computational method has been developed to assess the structural integrity and crash pulse signature of a very large high speed vessel. This method has also been able to evaluate occupant crash kinematics. The crash simulation shows that the crash bulk head works ensuring hull hydrostatic stability after impact. Oblique test need to be carried out to validate this over a range of conditions, as well as including water buoyancy. The use of a rigid wall as a worst case scenario crash target implies that if the CLF hit another vessels the crash pulse would be less. While this would be beneficial to occupant injury, the potential for the bow to penetrate the hull of another vessel and cause pollution needs further examination.

The crash simulation clearly identifies the issues of potential injury trauma and associated evacuation challenges. This requires a very different approach to the design of CLF based on crash injury risk from simulation. A more detailed risk analysis of passenger location on the GA is required to inform passenger safety requirements as an integral part of the design process.

9.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the following 3rd year Coventry University Boat Design students, who's professional collaborative project with EBDIG-IRC constitutes the exterior form and GA presented in this paper: Aron Phillimore; Manos Tzevelekakis; Olie Seppala; Joseph Zammit. We would also like to thank Ginevra Giustiniani and Francesco Conoscitore, the Genoa University interns at the EBDIG-IRC, who developed the hull structural design, scantling calculations and structural CAD model used in the FEA analysis.

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11.0 AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY

Christophe Bastien is a Principal Lecturer in Engineering Simulations. He has a PhD in biomechanics linked with active safety, occupant kinematics and trauma computer modelling. Christophe has academic and industrial experience in the field of structural and occupant crashworthiness (15 years), where he has contributed to frontal, occupant and pedestrian safety systems at various OEM sites. He has to date 19 patents on vehicle and highway engineering safety systems.

Sean McCartan holds the current position of Course Tutor, Boat Design at Coventry Univesity, UK. His key research area is TOI (Transfer of Innovation) from other sectors to the marine industry, in the areas of Design-Driven Innovation (DDI), advanced visualisation and Human Systems Integration( HSI). He leads the EBDIG (European Boat Design Innovation Group) network, which includes: Chalmers University; Genoa University; TU-Delft; and a number of leading European marine design consultancies. He is currently project co-ordinator for the Leonardo TOI project EBDIG-WFSV (European Boat Design Innovation Group - Wind Farm Support Vessels), which aims to develop online training material for Naval Architects in the subject areas of: Human Factors; WFSV design (Industrial Design); WFSV mothership design (Industrial Design).

Oliver Grimes holds the position of Structures and Safety Researcher at Coventry University, UK. His area of specialty is in structural non-linear optimisation of dynamic crash problems and occupant safety. His

extensive experience with a wide range of state of the art finite element tools has been developed through half a decade of industrial research projects. He is currently the lead researcher on PLACES (Premium Lightweight Architecture for Carbon Efficient Seating) in conjunction with Jaguar Land Rover and Johnson Controls Inc. Background in the moulded composites industry including ballistic armours for the British MoD.

Dario Boote holds the current position of Ship Structure Professor at the Naval Architecture section of the Department of Electrical, Electronic, Tele-communications Engineering and Naval Architecture (DITEN) of the University of Genoa. He is the Chairman of the Bachelor and Master Course in Yacht Design in La Spezia. His initial experiences include a long research activity in the field of Ship and Offshore Structures followed, since 2000, by an intense activity in the field of sailing and motor yachts. From 2009 to 2012 he has been Chairman of the V.8 ISSC Committee on "Yacht Design"

Tommaso Colaianni, graduated in 2001 at Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering of the Genova University, he has a Ph.D. in Ship Design, specialized in Unconventional Ships, mainly involved in researches about ships structures design using numerical methods. He is also a free-lance technical consultant.

Tatiana Pais holds the current position of PhD in the Naval Architecture section of the Department of Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunications Engineering and Naval Architecture (DITEN) of the University of Genoa. Her research activity deals with the dynamic behaviour of hull structures and the analysis of seakeeping characteristics of ships and motor and sailing yachts.





Figure 7: CLF GA


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TITLE OF PAPER · Web viewBoth vessels are stabilised mono-hull vessels, where a central slender displacement hull and two outriggers respectively reduce resistance and increase transverse