Thomas Hobbes

“Hobbes” redirects here. For other people calledHobbes, see Hobbes (disambiguation).For the Dean of Exeter, see Thomas Hobbes (priest) .For those of a similar name, see Thomas Hobbs.

Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury (/hɒbz/; 5 April 1588– 4 December 1679), in some older textsThomasHobbsof Malmsbury,[lower-alpha 1] was an English philosopher,best known today for his work on political philoso-phy. His 1651 book Leviathan established social con-tract theory, the foundation of most later Western politi-cal philosophy.[1]

Though on rational grounds a champion of absolutism forthe sovereign, Hobbes also developed some of the fun-damentals of European liberal thought: the right of theindividual; the natural equality of all men; the artificialcharacter of the political order (which led to the later dis-tinction between civil society and the state); the view thatall legitimate political powermust be “representative” andbased on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpre-tation of law which leaves people free to do whatever thelaw does not explicitly forbid.[2]

He was one of the founders of modern political philos-ophy and political science.[3][4] His understanding of hu-mans as being matter and motion, obeying the same phys-ical laws as other matter and motion, remains influential;and his account of human nature as self-interested co-operation, and of political communities as being basedupon a "social contract" remains one of the major topicsof political philosophy.In addition to political philosophy, Hobbes also con-tributed to a diverse array of other fields, includinghistory, geometry, the physics of gases, theology, ethics,and general philosophy.

1 Early life and education

Thomas Hobbes was born at Westport, now part ofMalmesbury in Wiltshire, England, on 5 April 1588.[5]Born prematurely when his mother heard of the com-ing invasion of the Spanish Armada, Hobbes later re-ported that “my mother gave birth to twins: myselfand fear.”[5] His childhood is almost a complete blank,and his mother’s name is unknown.[6] His father, alsonamed Thomas, was the vicar of Charlton and Westport.Thomas Hobbes Sr. had an older brother, FrancisHobbes, who was a wealthy merchant with no family of

his own. Thomas Hobbes, the younger, had one brotherEdmund who was about two years older than he. ThomasSr. abandoned his wife, two sons and a daughter, leav-ing them in the care of his brother, Francis, when hewas forced to flee to London after being involved in afight with a clergyman outside his own church. Hobbeswas educated at Westport church from the age of four,passed to the Malmesbury school and then to a privateschool kept by a young man named Robert Latimer, agraduate of the University of Oxford. Hobbes was agood pupil, and around 1603 he went up to MagdalenHall, which is most closely related to Hertford College,Oxford.[7][8][9][10] The principal John Wilkinson was aPuritan, and he had some influence on Hobbes.At university, Hobbes appears to have followed his owncurriculum; he was “little attracted by the scholasticlearning”. He did not complete his B.A. degree until1608, but he was recommended by Sir James Hussey,his master at Magdalen, as tutor to William, the son ofWilliam Cavendish, Baron of Hardwick (and later Earlof Devonshire), and began a lifelong connection with thatfamily.[11]

Hobbes became a companion to the youngerWilliam andthey both took part in a grand tour of Europe in 1610.Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and criticalmethods during the tour in contrast to the scholastic phi-losophy which he had learned in Oxford. His scholarlyefforts at the time were aimed at a careful study of clas-sic Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was, in1628, his great translation of Thucydides' History of thePeloponnesian War, the first translation of that work intoEnglish from a Greek manuscript. It has been argued thatthree of the discourses in the 1620 publication known asHorea Subsecivae: Observations and Discourses, also rep-resent the work of Hobbes from this period.[12]

Although he associated with literary figures like Ben Jon-son and thinkers such as Francis Bacon, he did not ex-tend his efforts into philosophy until after 1629. Hisemployer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, diedof the plague in June 1628. The widowed countess dis-missed Hobbes but he soon found work, again as a tu-tor, this time to Gervase Clifton, the son of Sir Ger-vase Clifton, 1st Baronet. This task, chiefly spent inParis, ended in 1631 when he again found work with theCavendish family, tutoring William, the eldest son of hisprevious pupil. Over the next seven years as well as tutor-ing he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy, awak-ening in him curiosity over key philosophic debates. Hevisited Florence in 1636 and was later a regular debater

1

2 3 CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND

in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by MarinMersenne. From 1637 he considered himself a philoso-pher and scholar.

2 In Paris

Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes’s first area of study was an interest in the physicaldoctrine of motion and physical momentum. Despite hisinterest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimentalwork as in physics. He went on to conceive the system ofthought to the elaboration of which he would devote hislife. His scheme was first to work out, in a separate trea-tise, a systematic doctrine of body, showing how phys-ical phenomena were universally explicable in terms ofmotion, at least as motion or mechanical action was thenunderstood. He then singled out Man from the realm ofNature and plants. Then, in another treatise, he showedwhat specific bodily motions were involved in the produc-tion of the peculiar phenomena of sensation, knowledge,affections and passions whereby Man came into relationwithMan. Finally he considered, in his crowning treatise,how Men were moved to enter into society, and arguedhow this must be regulated if Men were not to fall backinto “brutishness and misery”. Thus he proposed to unitethe separate phenomena of Body, Man, and the State.Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country riven with dis-content which disrupted him from the orderly executionof his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the ShortParliament in 1640, he had written a short treatise calledThe Elements of Law, Natural and Politic. It was notpublished and only circulated among his acquaintances inmanuscript form. A pirated version, however, was pub-

lished about ten years later. Although it seems that muchof The Elements of Law was composed before the sittingof the Short Parliament, there are polemical pieces of thework that clearly mark the influences of the rising polit-ical crisis. Nevertheless, many (though not all) elementsof Hobbes’s political thought were unchanged betweenThe Elements of Law and Leviathan, which demonstratesthat the events of the English Civil War had little effect onhis contractarian methodology. It should be noted, how-ever, that the arguments in Leviathanwere modified fromThe Elements of Law when it came to the necessity ofconsent in creating political obligation. Namely, Hobbeswrote in The Elements of Law that Patrimonial kingdomswere not necessarily formed by the consent of the gov-erned, while in Leviathan he argued that they were. Thiswas perhaps a reflection either of Hobbes’s thoughts con-cerning the engagement controversy or of his reaction totreatises published by Patriarchalists, such as Sir RobertFilmer, between 1640 and 1651.When in November 1640 the Long Parliament succeededthe Short, Hobbes felt he was a marked man by the circu-lation of his treatise and fled to Paris. He did not returnfor eleven years. In Paris he rejoined the coterie aboutMersenne, and wrote a critique of the Meditations onFirst Philosophy of Descartes, which was printed as thirdamong the sets of “Objections” appended, with “Replies”from Descartes in 1641. A different set of remarks onother works by Descartes succeeded only in ending allcorrespondence between the two.Hobbes also extended his own works somewhat, work-ing on the third section, De Cive, which was finished inNovember 1641. Although it was initially only circulatedprivately, it was well received, and included lines of argu-mentation to be repeated a decade later in the Leviathan.He then returned to hard work on the first two sectionsof his work and published little except for a short trea-tise on optics (Tractatus opticus) included in the collec-tion of scientific tracts published by Mersenne as Cogi-tata physico-mathematica in 1644. He built a good repu-tation in philosophic circles and in 1645 was chosen withDescartes, Gilles de Roberval and others, to referee thecontroversy between John Pell and Longomontanus overthe problem of squaring the circle.

3 Civil war in England

The English Civil War broke out in 1642, and when theRoyalist cause began to decline in the middle of 1644there followed an exodus of the king’s supporters to Eu-rope. Many came to Paris and were known to Hobbes.This revitalised Hobbes’s political interests and the DeCive was republished and more widely distributed. Theprinting began in 1646 by Samuel de Sorbiere throughthe Elsevier press at Amsterdam with a new preface andsome new notes in reply to objections.

3

In 1647 Hobbes took up a position as mathematical in-structor to the young Charles, Prince of Wales,[13] whohad come over from Jersey around July. This engagementlasted until 1648 when Charles went to Holland.The company of the exiled royalists led Hobbes to pro-duce an English book to set forth his theory of civil gov-ernment in relation to the political crisis resulting fromthe war. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might beregarded as a great artificial man or monster (leviathan),composed ofmen, with a life that might be traced from itsgeneration under pressure of human needs to its dissolu-tion through civil strife proceeding from human passions.The work closed with a general “Review and Conclusion”,in direct response to the war, which raised the questionof the subject’s right to change allegiance when a formersovereign’s power to protect was irrevocably lost.

Frontispiece from De Cive (1642)

During the years of the composition of Leviathan,Hobbes remained in or near Paris. In 1647 a serious ill-ness disabled him for six months. On recovering fromthis near fatal disorder, he resumed his literary task, andcarried it steadily forward to completion by 1650. Mean-while, a translation ofDe Civewas being produced; schol-ars disagree over whether Hobbes translated the workhimself or not.In 1650 a pirated edition of The Elements of Law, Naturaland Politic was published. It was divided into two sepa-rate small volumes (Human Nature, or the FundamentalElements of Policie and De corpore politico, or the Ele-ments of Law, Moral and Politick). In 1651 the translationof De Cive was published under the title of Philosophicall

Rudiments concerning Government and Society. Mean-while, the printing of the greater work proceeded, andfinally it appeared about the middle of 1651, under thetitle of Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of aCommon Wealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil, with a famoustitle-page engraving in which, from behind hills overlook-ing a landscape, there towered the body (above the waist)of a crowned giant, made up of tiny figures of human be-ings and bearing sword and crozier in the two hands.The work had immediate impact. Soon Hobbes foundhimself more lauded and decried than any other thinkerof his time. However, the first effect of its publicationwas to sever his link with the exiled royalists, forcinghim to appeal to the revolutionary English government forprotection. The exiles might very well have killed him;the secularist spirit of his book greatly angered both An-glicans and French Catholics. Hobbes fled back to Eng-land, arriving in London in the winter of 1651. Followinghis submission to the Council of State he was allowed tosubside into private life in Fetter Lane.

4 Leviathan

Main article: Leviathan (book)In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foun-

Frontispiece of Leviathan

dation of states and legitimate governments and creating

4 5 OPPOSITION

an objective science of morality. This gave rise to socialcontract theory. Leviathanwas written during the EnglishCivil War; much of the book is occupied with demon-strating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoidthe evil of discord and civil war.Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of humanbeings and the passions, Hobbes postulates what lifewould be like without government, a condition which hecalls the state of nature; much of this was based on HugoGrotius' works. In that state, each person would have aright, or license, to everything in the world. This, Hobbesargues, would lead to a “war of all against all” (bellum om-nium contra omnes). The description contains what hasbeen called one of the best known passages in Englishphilosophy, which describes the natural state mankindwould be in, were it not for political community: [14]

In such condition, there is no place forindustry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain:and consequently no culture of the earth; nonavigation, nor use of the commodities thatmay be imported by sea; no commodiousbuilding; no instruments of moving, andremoving, such things as require much force;no knowledge of the face of the earth; noaccount of time; no arts; no letters; no society;and which is worst of all, continual fear, anddanger of violent death; and the life of man,solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.[15]

In such a state, people fear death, and lack both the thingsnecessary to commodious living, and the hope of beingable to toil to obtain them. So in order to avoid it peopleaccede to a social contract and establish a civil society.According to Hobbes, society is a population beneath asovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that so-ciety cede some rights for the sake of protection. Anypower exercised by this authority can not be resisted be-cause the protector’s sovereign power derives from indi-viduals’ surrendering their own sovereign power for pro-tection. The individuals are thereby the authors of all de-cisions made by the sovereign.[16] “he that complainethof injury from his sovereign complaineth that whereof hehimself is the author, and therefore ought not to accuseany man but himself, no nor himself of injury because todo injury to one’s self is impossible”. There is no doc-trine of separation of powers in Hobbes’s discussion.[17]According to Hobbes, the sovereign must control civil,military, judicial, and ecclesiastical powers.

5 Opposition

5.1 John Bramhall

Hobbes now turned to complete the fundamental treatiseof his philosophical system. He worked so steadily thatDe Corpore was first printed in 1654. Also in 1654, asmall treatise, Of Liberty and Necessity, was published byBishop John Bramhall, addressed at Hobbes. Bramhall,a strong Arminian, had met and debated with Hobbesand afterwards wrote down his views and sent them pri-vately to be answered in this form by Hobbes. Hobbesduly replied, but not for publication. But a French ac-quaintance took a copy of the reply and published it with“an extravagantly laudatory epistle.” Bramhall counteredin 1655, when he printed everything that had passed be-tween them (under the title of A Defence of the True Lib-erty of Human Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Ne-cessity). In 1656 Hobbes was ready with The Questionsconcerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance, in which hereplied “with astonishing force” to the bishop. As per-haps the first clear exposition of the psychological doc-trine of determinism, Hobbes’s own two pieces were im-portant in the history of the free-will controversy. Thebishop returned to the charge in 1658 with Castigations ofMr Hobbes’s Animadversions, and also included a bulkyappendix entitled The Catching of Leviathan the GreatWhale.

5.2 John Wallis

For more details on this topic, see Hobbes-Walliscontroversy.

Hobbes opposed the existing academic arrangements,and assailed the system of the original universities inLeviathan. He went on to publish "De Corpore", whichcontained not only tendentious views onmathematics, butalso an unacceptable proof of the squaring of the circle.This all ledmathematicians to target him for polemics andsparked JohnWallis to become one of his most persistentopponents. From 1655, the publishing date of “De Cor-pore”, Hobbes and Wallis went round after round tryingto disprove each other’s positions. After years of debate,the spat over proving the squaring of the circle gainedsuch notoriety that this feud has become one of the mostinfamous in mathematical history.

5.3 Atheism

Hobbes has been accused of atheism, or (in the caseof Bramhall) of teachings which could lead to atheism.This was an important accusation, and Hobbes himselfwrote, in his answer to Bramhall’s “the catching of theLeviathan” that “atheism, impiety, and the like are wordsof the greatest defamation possible”.[18] Hobbes alwaysdefended himself from such accusations.[19] In more re-cent times also, much has been made of his religious

5

views by scholars such as Richard Tuck and J. G. A.Pocock, but there is still widespread disagreement aboutthe exact significance of Hobbes’s unusual views on reli-gion.As Martinich (1995, p. 31) has pointed out, in Hobbes’stime, the term “atheist” was frequently applied to peo-ple who believed in God, but not divine providence, orto people who believed in God, but also maintained otherbeliefs which were inconsistent with such belief. He saysthat this “sort of discrepancy has led to many errors indetermining who was an atheist in the early modern pe-riod". In this extended early modern sense of atheism,Hobbes did indeed take positions which were in strongdisagreement with church teachings of his time. For ex-ample, Hobbes argued repeatedly that there are no in-corporeal substances, and that all things, including hu-man thoughts, and even God, heaven, and hell are corpo-real, matter in motion. He argued that “though Scriptureacknowledge spirits, yet doth it nowhere say, that theyare incorporeal, meaning thereby without dimensions andquantity”.[20] (In this view, Hobbes claimed to be follow-ing Tertullian, whose views were not condemned in theFirst Council of Nicaea.) He also, like Locke, statedthat true revelation can never be in disagreement with hu-man reason and experience,[21] although he also arguesthat people should accept revelation and its interpreta-tions also for the reason that they should accept the com-mands of their sovereign, in order to avoid war.

6 Later life

In 1658, Hobbes published the final section of his philo-sophical system, completing the scheme he had plannedmore than twenty years before. De Homine consisted forthe most part of an elaborate theory of vision. The re-mainder of the treatise dealt cursorily with some of thetopics more fully treated in the Human Nature and theLeviathan. In addition to publishing some controversialwritings onmathematics and physics, Hobbes also contin-ued to produce philosophical works. From the time of theRestoration he acquired a new prominence; “Hobbism”became a byword for all that respectable society ought todenounce. The young king, Hobbes’ former pupil, nowCharles II, remembered Hobbes and called him to thecourt to grant him a pension of £100.The king was important in protecting Hobbes when, in1666, the House of Commons introduced a bill againstatheism and profaneness. That same year, on 17 Octo-ber 1666, it was ordered that the committee to whichthe bill was referred “should be empowered to receive in-formation touching such books as tend to atheism, blas-phemy and profaneness... in particular... the book ofMr. Hobbes called the Leviathan".[22] Hobbes was ter-rified at the prospect of being labelled a heretic, and pro-ceeded to burn some of his compromising papers. Atthe same time, he examined the actual state of the law

Tomb of Thomas Hobbes in St John the Baptist’s Church, AultHucknall

of heresy. The results of his investigation were first an-nounced in three short Dialogues added as an Appendixto his Latin translation of Leviathan, published in Ams-terdam in 1668. In this appendix, Hobbes aimed to showthat, since the High Court of Commission had been putdown, there remained no court of heresy at all to whichhe was amenable, and that nothing could be heresy ex-cept opposing the Nicene Creed, which, he maintained,Leviathan did not do.The only consequence that came of the bill was thatHobbes could never thereafter publish anything in Eng-land on subjects relating to human conduct. The 1668edition of his works was printed in Amsterdam becausehe could not obtain the censor’s licence for its publica-tion in England. Other writings were not made publicuntil after his death, including Behemoth: the History ofthe Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Coun-sels and Artifices by which they were carried on from theyear 1640 to the year 1662. For some time, Hobbes wasnot even allowed to respond, whatever his enemies tried.Despite this, his reputation abroad was formidable, andnoble or learned foreigners who came to England neverforgot to pay their respects to the old philosopher.His final works were a curious mixture: an autobiographyin Latin verse in 1672, and a translation of four books ofthe Odyssey into “rugged” English rhymes that in 1673led to a complete translation of both Iliad and Odyssey in1675.In October 1679, Hobbes suffered a bladder disorder,

6 7 WORKS

which was followed by a paralytic stroke from which hedied on 4 December 1679. He is said to have uttered thelast words “A great leap in the dark” in his final momentsof life.[23] He was interred within St John the Baptist’sChurch, Ault Hucknall in Derbyshire, England.

7 Works• 1602. Latin translation of Euripides’ Medea (lost).

• 1620. Three of the discourses in the Horae Subse-civae: Observation and Discourses (A Discourse ofTacitus, A Discourse of Rome, and A Discourse ofLaws).[12]

• 1626. De Mirabilis Pecci, Being the Wonders ofthe Peak in Darby-shire, (a poem first published in1636)

• 1629. Eight Books of the Peloponnesian Warre,translation with an Introduction of Thucydides'sHistory of the Peloponnesian War

• 1630. A Short Tract on First Principles, British Mu-seum, Harleian MS 6796, ff. 297–308: criticaledition with commentary and French translation byJean Bernhardt: Court traité des premiers principes,Paris, PUF, 1988 (authorship doubtful: this work isattributed by some critics to Robert Payne).[24]

• 1637 A Briefe of the Art of Rhetorique (inMolesworth’s edition the title is The Whole Art ofRhetoric)[25]

• 1639. Tractatus opticus II, (British Library, HarleyMS 6796, ff. 193–266; first complete edition1963)[26]

• 1640. Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (circu-lated only in handwritten copies, first printed edi-tion, without Hobbes’s permission in 1650)

• 1641. Objectiones ad Cartesii Meditationes de PrimaPhilosophia (Third series of Objections)

• 1642. De Cive (Latin, first limited edition)

• 1643. De Motu, Loco et Tempore (first edition 1973with the title: Thomas White’s De Mundo Exam-ined)[27]

• 1644. Part of the Praefatio to Mersenni Ballis-tica (in F. Marini Mersenni minimi Cogitata physico-mathematica. In quibus tam naturae quàm artis ef-fectus admirandi certissimis demonstrationibus expli-cantur)

• 1644. Opticae, liber septimus, (written in 1640)in Universae geometriae mixtaeque mathematicaesynopsis, edited by Marin Mersenne (reprinted byMolesworth in OL V pp. 215–248 with the titleTractatus Opticus)

• 1646. A Minute or First Draught of the Optiques(Harley MS 3360; Molesworth published only thededication to Cavendish and the conclusion in EWVII, pp. 467–471)

• 1646. Of Liberty and Necessity (published withoutthe permission of Hobbes in 1654)

• 1647. Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Tertia DeCive (second expanded edition with a new Prefaceto the Reader)

• 1650. Answer to Sir William Davenant’s Preface be-fore Gondibert

• 1650. Human Nature: or The fundamental Ele-ments of Policie (first thirteen chapters of The Ele-ments of Law, Natural and Politic, published withoutHobbes’s authorization)

• 1650. Pirated Edition of The Elements of Law, Nat-ural and Politic, repackaged to include two parts:

• Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elementsof Policie (chapters 14–19 of Part One of theElements of 1640)

• De Corpore Politico (Part Two of the Elementsof 1640)

• 1651. Philosophical Rudiments concerning Govern-ment and Society (English translation of De Cive)[28]

• 1651. Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Powerof a Commonwealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil

• 1654. Of Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise

• 1655. De Corpore (Latin)

• 1656. Elements of Philosophy, The First Section,Concerning Body (anonymous English translation ofDe Corpore)

• 1656. Six Lessons to the Professor of Mathematics

• 1656. The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessityand Chance (reprint of Of Libertie and Necessitie, aTreatise, with the addition of Bramhall’s reply andHobbes’s reply to Bramahall’s reply)

• 1657. Stigmai, or Marks of the Absurd Geometry,Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Bar-barisms of John Wallis

• 1658. Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Secunda DeHomine

• 1660. Examinatio et emendatio mathematicaehodiernae qualis explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii

• 1661. Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris

• 1662. Problematica Physica (translated in English in1682 as Seven Philosophical Problems)

7

• 1662. Seven Philosophical Problems, and TwoPropositions of Geometru (published posthumously)

• 1662. Mr. Hobbes Considered in his Loyalty, Reli-gion, Reputation, and Manners. By way of Letter toDr. Wallis (English autobiography)

• 1666. De Principis & Ratiocinatione Geometrarum

• 1666. A Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Stu-dent of the Common Laws of England (published in1681)

• 1668. Leviathan (Latin translation)

• 1668. An Answer to a Book published by Dr.Bramhall (published in 1682)

• 1671. Three Papers Presented to the Royal SocietyAgainst Dr. Wallis. Together with Considerations onDr. Wallis his Answer to them

• 1671. Rosetum Geometricum, sive PropositionesAliquot Frustra antehac tentatae. Cum Censura breviDoctrinae Wallisianae de Motu

• 1672. Lux Mathematica. Excussa Collisionibus Jo-hannis Wallisii

• 1673. English translation of Homer's Iliad andOdyssey

• 1674. Principia et Problemata Aliquot GeometricaAntè Desperata, Nunc breviter Explicata & Demon-strata

• 1678. Decameron Physiologicum: Or, Ten Dia-logues of Natural Philosophy

• 1679. Thomae Hobbessii Malmesburiensis Vita. Au-thore seipso (Latin autobiography, translated in En-glish in 1680)

Posthumous works

• 1680. An Historical Narration concerning Heresie,And the Punishment thereof

• 1681. Behemoth, or The Long Parliament (writtenin 1668, unpublished at the request of the King, firstpirated edition 1679)

• 1682. Seven Philosophical Problems (English trans-lation of Problematica Physica, 1662)

• 1682. A Garden of Geometrical Roses (Englishtranslation of Rosetum Geometricum, 1671)

• 1682. Some Principles and Problems in Geome-try (English translation of Principia et Problemata,1674)

• 1688. Historia Ecclesiastica Carmine ElegiacoConcinnata

8 Bibliography

8.1 Bibliographic resources

• MacDonald, Hugh & Hargreaves, Mary. ThomasHobbes, a Bibliography, London: The Bibliographi-cal Society, 1952.

• Hinnant, Charles H. (1980). Thomas Hobbes: AReference Guide, Boston: G. K. Hall & Co.

• Sacksteder, William (1982). Hobbes Studies (1879–1979): A Bibliography, Bowling Green: PhilosophyDocumentation Center.

• Garcia, Alfred (1986). Thomas Hobbes: bibliogra-phie internationale de 1620 à 1986 Caen: Centrede Philosophie politique et juridique Université deCaen.

8.2 Works by Hobbes

Complete editions

• Thomae Hobbes Malmesburiensis Opera Philosoph-ica quae Latina Scripsit, Studio et labore GulielmiMolesworth, (Londini, 1839–1845). 5 volumes.Reprint: Aalen, 1966 (= OL).

• Volume I. Elementorum Philosophiae I:De Corpore

• Volume II. Elementorum Philosophiae IIand III: De Homine and De Cive

• Volume III. Latin version of Leviathan.• Volume IV. Various concerning mathe-matics, geometry and physics.

• Volume V. Various short works.

• The English Works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmes-bury; Now First Collected and Edited by Sir WilliamMolesworth, Bart., (London: Bohn, 1839–45). 11volumes. Reprint London, 1939-–; reprint: Aalen,1966 (= EW).

• Volume 1. De Corpore translated fromLatin to English.

• Volume 2. De Cive.• Volume 3. The Leviathan• Volume 4.

• TRIPOS ; in Three Dis-courses:• I. Human Nature, orthe Fundamental El-ements of Policy

8 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• II. De CorporePolitico, or theElements of Law

• III. Of Liberty andNecessity

• An Answer to BishopBramhall’s Book, called “TheCatching of the Leviathan”

• An Historical Narration con-cerning Heresy, and the Pun-ishment thereof

• Considerations upon the Rep-utation, Loyalty, Manners, andReligion of Thomas Hobbes

• Answer to Sir WilliamDavenant’s Preface before“Gondibert”

• Letter to the Right HonourableEdward Howard

• Volume 5. The Questions concerning Lib-erty, Necessity and Chance, clearly statedand debated between Dr Bramhall Bishopof Derry and Thomas Hobbes of Malmes-bury.

• Volume 6.

• A Dialogue Between a Philoso-pher & a Student of the Com-mon Laws of England

• A Dialogue of the CommonLaw

• Behemoth: the History of theCauses of the Civil Wars ofEngland, and of the Counselsand Artifices By Which TheyWere Carried On From theYear 1640 to the Year 1660

• The Whole Art of Rhetoric(Hobbes’s translation of hisown Latin summary of Aris-totle’s Rhetoric published in1637 with the title A Briefe ofthe Art of Rhetorique)

• The Art of Rhetoric Plainly SetForth. With Pertinent Exam-ples For the More Easy Un-derstanding and Practice ofthe Same (this work is not ofHobbes but by Dudley Fen-ner, The Artes of Logike andRethorike, 1584)

• The Art of Sophistry

• Volume 7.

• Seven Philosophical Problems

• Decameron Physiologicum• Proportion of a straight line tohalf the arc of a quadrant

• Six lessons to the Savilian Pro-fessors of the Mathematics

• ΣΤΙΓΜΑΙ, orMarks of the ab-surdGeometry etc. of DrWal-lis

• Extract of a letter from HenryStubbe

• Three letters presented to theRoyal Society against Dr Wal-lis

• Considerations on the answerof Dr Wallis

• Letters and other pieces

• Volume 8 and 9. The Peloponnesian Warby Thucydides, translated into English byHobbes.

• Volume 10. The Iliad, and The Odyssey,translated by Hobbes into English

• Volume 11. Index.

Posthumous works not included in the Molesworth editions

• The Elements of Law, Natural and Politics, editedwith a preface and critical notes by Ferdinand Tön-nies, London, 1889 (first complete edition).

• Short Tract on First Principles, in “The Elements ofLaw Natural and Politics”, Appendix I, pp. 193–210 (this work is now attributed by some critics toRobert Payne).

• Tractatus opticus II, (1639, British Library, HarleyMS 6796, ff. 193–266) first partial edition in “TheElements of Law Natural and Politics”, AppendixII, pp. 211–226; first complete edition (but with theomission of the diagrams) by Franco Alessio, Rivistacritica di storia dela filosofia, 18, 1963, pp. 147–228.

• Critique du 'De mundo' de Thomas White, editedby Jean Jacquot and Harold Whitmore Jones, Paris,1973, with three appendixes:

• DeMotibus Solis, Aetheris & Telluris (pp. 439–447: a Latin poem on the movement of theEarth).

• Notes in English on an ancient redaction ofsome chapters of De Corpore (July 1643;pp. 448–460: MS 5297, National Library ofWales).

8.3 Critical studies 9

• Notes for the Logica and Philosophia primaof the De Corpore (pp. 461–513: ChatsworthMS A10 and the notes of Charles Cavendishon a draft of the De Corpore: British Library,Harley MS 6083).

• Of the Life and History of Thucydides, in Hobbes’sThucydides, edited by Richard Schlatter, NewBrunswick, pp. 10–27, 1975.

• Three Discourses: a Critical Modern Edition ofNewly Identified Work of the Young Hobbes (TD),edited by Noel B. Reynolds and Arlene Saxonhouse,Chicago, 1975.

• A Discourse upon the Beginning of Tacitus, inTD, pp. 31–67.

• A Discourse of Rome, in TD, pp. 71–102.• A Discourse of Law, in TD, pp. 105–119.

• Thomas Hobbes’ A minute or First Draught of theOptiques, (British Library, HarleyMS 3360) CriticalEdition by Elaine C. Stroud, Ph.D. dissertation, TheUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison, 1983.

• Of Passions, Edition of the unpublished manuscriptHarley 6093 by Anna Minerbi Belgrado, in: Rivistadi storia della filosofia, 43, 1988, pp. 729–738.

• The Correspondence of Thomas Hobbes, edited byNoel Malcolm, Oxford: the Clarendon Edition, vol.6–7, 1994 (I: 1622–1659; II: 1660–1679).

Translations in modern English

• De Corpore, Part I. Computatio Sive Logica. Editedwith an Introductory Essay by L C. Hungerland andG. R. Vick. Translation and Commentary by A.Martinich. New York Abaris Books, 1981.

• Thomas White’s De mundo Examined, translation byH. W. Jones, Bradford: Bradford University Press,1976 (the appendixes of the Latin edition (1973) arenot enclosed).

New critical editions of Hobbes’ works (in progress)

• Clarendon Edition of the Works of Thomas Hobbes,Oxford: Clarendon Press (10 volumes published of27 planned).

• Traduction des Œuvres Latines de Hobbes, under thedirection of Yves Charles Zarka, Paris: Vrin (5 vol-umes published of 17 planned).

8.3 Critical studies

• Brandt, Frithiof (1928). Thomas Hobbes’ Mechan-ical Conception of Nature, Copenhagen: Levin &Munksgaard.

• Jesseph, Douglas M.(1999), Squaring the Circle.TheWar Between Hobbes andWallis, Chicago: Uni-versity of Chicago Press.

• Leijenhorst, Cees (2002). The Mechanisation ofAristotelianism. The Late Aristotelian Setting ofThomas Hobbes’ Natural Philosophy, Leiden: Brill.

• Lemetti, Juhana (2011). Historical Dictionary ofHobbes’s Philosophy, Lanham: Scarecrow Press.

• Macpherson, C. B. (1962). The Political Theory ofPossessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke, Oxford:Oxford University Press.

• Malcolm, Noel. (2002). Aspects of Hobbes, NewYork: Oxford University Press.

• Malcolm, Noel. (2007). Reason of State, Propa-ganda, and the Thirty Years’ War: An UnknownTranslation by Thomas Hobbes, New York: OxfordUniversity Press.

• Manent, Pierre. (1996) An Intellectual History ofLiberalism, Princeton: Princeton University Press.

• Martinich, A. P. (2003) “ThomasHobbes,”TheDic-tionary of Literary Biography, Volume 281: BritishRhetoricians and Logicians, 1500–1660, Second Se-ries, Detroit: Gale, pp. 130-144.

• Martinich, A. P. (1995) A Hobbes Dictionary, Cam-bridge: Blackwell.

• Martinich, A. P. (1997) Thomas Hobbes, NewYork:St. Martin’s Press.

• Martinich, A. P. (1992) The Two Gods ofLeviathan: Thomas Hobbes on Religion and Politics,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Martinich, A. P. (1999)Hobbes: A Biography, Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). “Hobbes,Thomas (1588 –1679)". In Hamowy, Ronald. TheEncyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks,CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 226–7. ISBN978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC750831024.

• Oakeshott, Michael (1975), “Hobbes on Civil Asso-ciation”, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

• Pettit, Philip (2008). Made with Words. Hobbes onLanguage, Mind, and Politics, Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press.

10 11 REFERENCES

• Robinson, Dave&Groves, Judy (2003). IntroducingPolitical Philosophy, Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X.

• Ross, George MacDonald (2009). Starting withHobbes, London: Continuum.

• Shapin, Steven and Shaffer, Simon (1995),Leviathan and the Air-Pump. Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press.

• Skinner, Quentin. (1996). Reason and Rhetoric inthe Philosophy of Hobbes, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

• Skinner, Quentin (2002). Visions of Politics. Vol.III: Hobbes and Civil Science, Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press

• Stomp, Gabriella (ed.) (2008). Thomas Hobbes,Aldershot: Ashgate.

• Strauss, Leo (1936). The Political Philosophy ofHobbes; Its Basis and Its Genesis, Oxford: ClarendonPress.

• Strauss, Leo (1959). “On the Basis of Hobbes’s Po-litical Philosophy,” inWhat Is Political Philosophy?,Glencoe, IL: Free Press, chap. 7.

• Tönnies, Ferdinand (1925). Hobbes. Leben undLehre, Stuttgart: Frommann, 3rd ed.

• Tuck, Richard (1993) Philosophy and Government,1572–1651, Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

• Vieira, Monica Brito. (2009) The Elements of Rep-resentation in Hobbes, Leiden: Brill Publishers.

• Zagorin, Perez. (2009) Hobbes and the Law of Na-ture, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.

9 See also• Natural and legal rights#Thomas Hobbes• Natural law#Hobbes• Hobbesian trap

10 Notes[1] Tracts of Mr. Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury : Containing

I. Behemoth, the history of the causes of the civil wars ofEngland, from 1640. to 1660. printed from the author’sown copy: never printed (but with a thousand faults) be-fore. II. An answer to Arch-bishop Bramhall’s book, calledthe Catching of the Leviathan: never printed before. III. Anhistorical narration of heresie, and the punishment thereof:corrected by the true copy. IV. Philosophical problems,dedicated to the King in 1662. but never printed before,1682.

11 References

This article incorporates text from a publication nowin the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge Univer-sity Press.

• “Hinduism” to “Home, Earls of” at Project Gutenberg

[1] “Hobbes’s Moral and Political Philosophy”. Stanford En-cyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 11 March 2009.

[2] Manent, Pierre (1994), An Intellectual History of Liberal-ism, pp. 20–38.

[3] “Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy”. UTM.

[4] Sheldon, Dr. Garrett W. The History of Political Theory:Ancient Greece to Modern America.

[5] “Thomas Hobbes Biography”. Notable biographies. Re-trieved 24 July 2009.

[6] Jacobson, Norman; Rogow, Arnold (1987). “ThomasHobbes: Radical in the Service of Reaction”. PoliticalPsychology 8 (3): 469. doi:10.2307/3791051. JSTOR3791051.

[7] “Philosophy at Hertford College”. Oxford. Retrieved 24July 2009.

[8] “Thomas Hobbes”. Hertford College. Retrieved 24 July2009.

[9] “The Galileo Project”. Rice. Retrieved 24 July 2009.

[10] Thomas Hobbes: Politics and law. Google Books. 1993.ISBN 978-0-41508083-5. Retrieved 24 July 2009.

[11] “Hobbes biography”. St And. Retrieved 24 July 2009.

[12] Hobbes, Thomas (1995). Reynolds, Noel; Saxonhouse,Arlene, eds. Three Discourses: A Critical Modern Editionof Newly Identified Work of the Young Hobbes. Universityof Chicago Press.

[13] “People”. NNDB. Retrieved 24 July 2009.

[14] Gaskin. “Introduction”. Human Nature and De CorporePolitico. Oxford University Press. p. xxx.

[15] “Chapter XIII.: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind AsConcerning Their Felicity, and Misery.”. Leviathan.

[16] Gaskin. “Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution”.Leviathan. Oxford University Press. p. 117.

[17] “1000 Makers of the Millennium”, page 42. DorlingKindersley, 1999

[18] p. 282 of Molesworth’s edition.

[19] Martinich (1995, p. 35)

[20] Human Nature I.XI.5.

[21] Leviathan III.xxxii.2. "...we are not to renounce ourSenses, and Experience; nor (that which is undoubtedWord of God) our naturall Reason”.

11

[22] “House of Commons Journal Volume 8”. British HistoryOnline. Retrieved 14 January 2005.

[23] Norman Davies, Europe: A history p. 687

[24] Richard Tuck, Timothy Raylor, and Noel Malcolm votefor Robert Payne. Karl Schuhmann, Cees Leijenhorst,and Frank Horstmann vote for Thomas Hobbes. See theexcellent and extended essays Robert Payne, the HobbesManuscripts, and the 'Short Tract' (Noel Malcolm, in:Aspects of Hobbes. Oxford University Press, Oxford2002. pp. 80-145) and Der vermittelnde Dritte (FrankHorstmann, in: Nachträge zu Betrachtungen über Hobbes’Optik. Mackensen, Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-926535-51-1. pp. 303-428.)

[25] A new edition was edited by John T. Harwood, TheRhetorics of Thomas Hobbes and Bernard Lamy, Carbon-dale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986.

[26] For this dating see the convincing arguments givenby Frank Horstmann, Nachträge zu Betrachtungen überHobbes’ Optik. Mackensen, Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-926535-51-1. pp. 19-94

[27] A critical analysis of Thomas White (1593-1676) Demundo dialogi tres, Parisii, 1642.

[28] Modern scholars are divided as to whether or not thistranslation was done by Hobbes. For a pro-Hobbes ac-count see H. Warrender’s introduction to De Cive: TheEnglish Edition in the Clarendon Edition of the Works ofThomas Hobbes (Oxford, 1984). For the contra-Hobbesaccount see Noel Malcolm’s 'Charles Cotton, Translatorof Hobbes’s De cive' in Aspects of Hobbes (Oxford, 2002)

12 External links

• Works by Thomas Hobbes at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Thomas Hobbes at InternetArchive

• Works by Thomas Hobbes at LibriVox (public do-main audiobooks)

• Hobbes Texts English translations by George MacDonald Ross

• Contains Leviathan, lightly edited for easier reading

• Thomas Hobbes, A minute or first Draught of theOptiques at Digitised Manuscripts

• Clarendon Edition of the Works of Thomas Hobbes

• Richard A. Talaska (ed.), The Hardwick Library andHobbes’s Early Intellectual Development

• Hobbes studies Online edition

• Bulletin Hobbes in the Journal Archives de Philoso-phie

• Thomas Hobbes at the Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy

• Hobbes’sMoral and Political Philosophy at the Stan-ford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

• Hobbes: Methodology at the Internet Encyclopediaof Philosophy

• Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy at the In-ternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

• A Brief Life of Thomas Hobbes, 1588–1679 byJohn Aubrey

• A short biography of Thomas Hobbes

• Hobbes at The Philosophy pages

•

• Thomas Hobbes on In Our Time at the BBC. (listennow)

• Thomas Hobbes nominated by Steven Pinker for theBBC Radio 4 programme Great Lives.

12 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Thomas Hobbes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes?oldid=688703422 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, MagnusManske, General Wesc, MichaelTinkler, The Cunctator, Derek Ross, Brion VIBBER, The Anome, Manning Bartlett, Andre Engels,Dachshund, JeLuF, Christian List, Deb, William Avery, AdamWill, Renata, Olaf Solstrand, DrRetard, Stevertigo, Pamplemousse, PaulBarlow, BoNoMoJo (old), Kalki, Sannse, Delirium, Geoffrey~enwiki, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, ThirdParty, William M. 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