Thinking About Psychology:

The Science of Mind and Behavior 2e

Charles T. Blair-BroekerRandal M. Ernst, borrowed happily

Consciousness Chapter

Sleep, Dreams, and Body Rhythms

Consciousness

• Awareness of yourself and your environment.

Consciousness: Personal Awareness • Awareness of Internal and External Stimuli

– Levels of awareness• William James & stream of consciousness (endless

flow of ideas), one stream of conscious mental activity seems to blend into another, effortlessly and seamlessly. Despite the changing focus of our awareness, our experience of consciousness as unbroken helps provide us with a sense of personal identity that has continuity from one day to the next.

• Freud & the unconscious – submerged thoughts, feelings, wishes and drives. He believed the interpretation of dreams is the royal road to knowledge of unconscious activities. First to recognize different levels of awareness.

Biological and Environmental “Clocks” Regulate Consciousness

• You probably notice that your level of consciousness varies through out the day. Two big examples: – Mental alertness– Sleep/wake cycle

• Daily cycles are called circadian rhythms. (combination of two Latin words for about and day)

• Over 100, many are closely syncronized

Circadian Rhythms• Biological rhythms that occur

approximately every 24 hours• Example: Sleep-wake cycle,temperature, release of growth hormone, urine production, strength, peak senses, sensitivity to pain, Peak allergic sensitivity…See table 4.1

• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus – cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus, the master biological clock that controls the circadian rhythm.

• Keeping circadian rhythms requires environmental cues.

• Light levels retina suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus pineal gland secretion of melatonin

• Melatonin makes you feel sleepy and peaks between 1am and 3am (temp the lowest). Bright light decreases production. – In the absence of light our bodies drift to our

intrinsic rhythm, which is about 25 hours, and our normal circadian rhythms become desynchronized. (cave example)• Normally for the sleep-wake cycle body temperature,

and melatonin cycles are closely related. – Jet lag interferes with thinking, concentration, and memory.

On top of physical and mental fatigue, depression and irritability occur. It can take a full week to adjust!

– Blind people

Hypothalamus & the SCN• Sleep control center in the brain• Monitors changes in light or dark in the

environment• Changes levels of hormones in the body

Sleep and Circadian Rhythms

• Play “Sleep and Circadian Rhythms” (6:09) Module #13 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

Ultradian Rhythms

• Biological rhythms that occur more than once each day.– Sleep cycles– Concentration cycles, some say the human mind

can focus and concentrate for 90 to 120 minutes at a time and work with sustained energy after which our attention span decreases and we need to take a break for at least 15 -20 minutes before we can focus once again.

Infradian Rhythms

• Biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a season (animals – hybernation)

• Example: Women’s menstrual cycle

Sleep and Sleep Deficit

Why We Sleep

Reasons for Sleep• Two primary reasons:

– Adaptive Theory: keep us protected from the dangers of the night, aka Evolutionary Theory

– Restorative Theory: recuperate from the wear and tear of the day, NREM restores the body and REM restores the mind

• Adenosine, inhibitory neurotransmitter, believed to play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal, with levels increasing with each hour an organism is awake.

• During the day GABA communicates excitatory messages at night GABA communicates inhibitory messages. Interesting that GABA is usually inhibitory.http://science.howstuffworks.com/caffeine3.htm

Sleep Deprivation Effects

• Decreases efficiency of immune system functioning

• Safety and accident issues• Contributes to hypertension, impaired

concentration, irritability, etc.• “The Sleep-Deprived Emotional Brain”

fMRI scans show the amygdala reacting 60% more strongly.

Major accidents caused by sleep deprivation..

• 1979 Three Mile Island, PA– accidental melting of the core of nuclear reactor, no deaths, effects are still debated

• 1986Chernobyl, Ukraine (USSR) – nuclear explosion.. 31 deaths…

• 1989 Exxon Valdez – oil spill in Alaska• http://

healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/consequences/sleep-performance-and-public-safety

• http://library.thinkquest.org/25553/english/difficult/society/accidents.shtml

Sleep Deprivation

• Complete deprivation– 3 or 4 days max

• Partial deprivation or sleep restriction (one night’s sleep, or continued reduction of sleep)– impaired attention, reaction time,

coordination, and decision making – accidents: Chernobyl, Exxon Valdez

• Selective deprivation– REM: rebound effect

Sleep Deprivation

Figure 5.9 Effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance

Sleep Deprivation as punishment

http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1892897,00.html

Random Sleep Facts

• http://facts.randomhistory.com/facts-about-sleep.html

Sleep/Waking Research

• Instruments:– Electroencephalograph – brain electrical

activity– Electromyography – muscle activity – Electrooculograph – eye movements– Other bodily functions also observed

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

• Machine that amplifies and records waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface

• Electrodes placed on the scalp measure the waves

The Electroencephalograph:A Physiological Index of Consciousness

• EEG – monitoring of brain electrical activity

• Brain-waves– Amplitude (height)– Frequency (cycles per second)

• Beta (13-24 cps)• Alpha (8-12 cps)• Theta (4-7 cps)• Delta (<4 cps)

Table 5.1 EEG Patterns Associated with States of Consciousness

Sleep Stages, REM, and Dreaming:

The Stages of Sleep

• REM (rapid eye movement) – active sleep, heightened body and brain activity with dreaming

• NREM – quiet sleep, body’s physiological functions and brain activity slow down (4 stages)

1. NREM sleep immediately, and you progress through 4 NREM sleep stages.

– Brain and body activity decreasing with each2.REM sleep (increased activity and dreaming)• Total cycle about 90 minutes

Stage 1 Sleep• Breathing is slowed.• Brain waves become irregular.• It is easy to wake the person, who

will insist they are not asleep.• Rarely lasts longer than 5 minutes• alpha & theta brain waves • Hypnagogic jerks can happen• Imaging, but not true dreams

Stage 1

Stages of Sleep

Stage 1

Stage 2 Sleep• Brain wave cycle slows.• First time through stage 2 last about 20

minutes.• Onset of true sleep.• Sleep spindles (brief bursts)• K complexes (sudden spikes)• Rhythmical breathing• Small muscle twitches

Stage 2

Stages 3 and 4 Sleep• Slow wave sleep• When delta brain waves makes up more than 20%

of activity, stage 3. When more than 50%, stage 4. – During the 20-40 minutes spent in the night’s first

episode delta waves will make come to make up 100%– Heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing drop to their

lowest– Hard to wake, typically when sleep walking occurs

• First time through stage 4 is about 30 minutes and is where one gets rejuvenated.

• Can take 15 min to gain full waking consciousness

Stage 3

Stage 4

Figure 5.5 An overview of the cycle of sleep

Sleep

• Play “Sleep: Brain Functions” (11:12) Module #14 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

REM Sleep

• Rapid eye movement (REM Sleep) as eyes move quickly back and forth

• Vivid dreaming occurs in REM sleep• The first REM tends to be brief,

increasing in each cycle

REM Sleep

Paradoxical Sleep

• During REM sleep brain wave patterns are similar to when a person is awake

• Pulse and breathing quickens.• REM sleep is sometimes called

paradoxical sleep as one’s physiology is close to that of being awake but the brainstem blocks all muscle movement

REM Sleep

• Play “REM Sleep and Dreams” (8:23) Module #15 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

Typical Night’s Sleep

Stage 4/REM Changes

Sleep Changes through Life

Dreams• By adulthood you dream about 2 hours per night,

you’ll devote more than 50,000 hours or six years of your life to dreaming!!

• Sleep thinking v dreaming• 4-5 dreaming episodes each night• Usually the main character with at least one other

person, sometimes the observer• 1st REM 10 minutes, avg 30 min per cycle, last cycle

can be 40 minutes• Read “The Dreaming Brain: Turning REM On and Off”

– REM-off neurons produce norepinephrine and serotonin which suppress REM. REM-on neurons produce acetylcholine which promote REM.

REM and Memory• Primary visual cortex and frontal cortex are pretty

much shut down • The amygdala and the hippocampus are activated• REM sleep helps consolidate memories, especially

procedural memories.– Studies have shown that REM sleep increases after learning

a task and that deprivation of REM sleep following training disrupts learning. REM sleep may help stabilize neural connections acquired through recent experience.

What do we dream about?• Calvin Hall analyzed about 10,000 dreams from hundreds of

people. – Daily concerns, worries, money, health, troubled

relationships, or jobs• The role of environment demonstrated by Punamaki and

Joustie by studying the dreams of children in Palestine living in the Gaza Strip, Palestinian children living in peaceful part of Israel, and children in Finland.

• Certain themes are also prevalent: falling, being chased, or being attacked. See table 4.3

• Aggression is more common, more likely to be a victim.• Environmental cues can influence dream content.

Why don’t we remember our dreams?• Memory requires information to be processed and

stored in a way that it can be retrieved. Fundamental changes in brain chemistry and functioning may fail to support such processing and storage. There is also a reduction of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

• More likely to recall if you wake up in the middle of it.• People who are better at remembering visual details

when awake are more likely to remember dreams. • The more vivid, bizarre, or emotionally intense a

dream is the more likely it is to be remembered.• Mary Calkins (1893) found that distractions interfere

with our ability. • Read the focus box 4.4 in in your book

The Significance of Dreams

Freud

• The Interpretation of Dreams– Repressed urges and wishes surface in

dreams• Manifest content – dream images

themselves• Latent content – the disguised

psychological meaning• Research has not supported Freud’s

beliefs.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

• Dreams are the mind’s attempt to make sense of random neural firings in the brain as one sleeps.

• J. Allan Hobson 1977

Information-Processing Theory

• Dreams serve an important memory- related function by sorting and sifting through the day’s experiences

• Research suggests REM sleep helps memory storage.

Physiological Function Theory

• Neural activity during REM sleep provides periodic stimulation of the brain.

Cognitive Development Theory

• Dreams part of the maturation process• Dreams reflect our knowledge• Reflection of normal cognitive

development

Nightmares

• Can produce spontaneous awakenings and content is immediately recalled.

• General theme is helplessness or powerless in face of danger

• Especially common in young children

Sleep Disorders and Sleep Problems

Sleep Disorders• Insomnia – difficulty falling or staying asleep• Narcolepsy – falling asleep uncontrollably

– http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001805/• Sleep Apnea – stops breathing. Carbon dioxide

builds up in the blood, carbon dioxide builds up in the blood causing the sleep to wake and gasp for air. http://sleepapnea.org/learn/sleep-apnea.html

• Night Terrors – intense arousal and panic – NREM http://www.nightterrors.org/

• Somnambulism – sleepwalkinghttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001811/

• REM sleep behavior disorder – acting out dreams, men over age 60. Brain fails to supress voluntary muscle movement.

Sleep Apnea• Sleep disorder characterized by temporary

cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings.

• Tend to be loud snorers• Continuous Positive Airway Pressure machine

Narcolepsy

• Sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks

• Person may lapse directly into REM sleep

Somnambulism• Formal name for sleepwalking• Starts in the deep stages of N-REM sleep• Person can walk or talk and is able to see• Rarely has any memory of the event

Night Terrors

• Sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and appearance of being terrified

• Unlike nightmares• Happens during stage 4 sleep; mostly

children• The children seldom remember the

event.

Other Sleep Disorders

• Bruxism – teeth grinding• Enuresis – bed wetting• Myoclonus – sudden jerk of a body part

occurring during stage 1 sleep–Everyone has occasional episodes of

myoclonus

Psychoactive Drugs Alter Consciousness

• Alter arousal, mood, thinking, sensations, and perceptions. – Depressants, Opiates, Stimulants,

Psychedelic Drugs

Common Properties of Psychoactive Drugs

• Physical dependence (addicting)• Drug tolerance• Withdrawal symptoms

– Drug rebound effect

Biological Effects

• Impact different areas, but related to the brain they alter synaptic transmission among neurons

• Effects vary among people– Age, weight, gender, race, ethnicity

• African-Americans absorb more nicotine than European-Americans or Mexican-Americans, and they metabolize nicotine more slowly.

– Personality characteristics, mood, expectations, and experience with the drug

The Depressants• Inhibit central nervous system activity• Drowsiness, sedation, sleep, relieve

anxiety– Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, inhalants.

Alcohol– May reduce the risk of heart diseases due to effects

on cholesterol– Dangerous: each year 25,000 automobile fatalities,

12,000 murders, 2/3 of spouse abuse, 3rd leading cause of birth defects, binge drinking,

– Estimated 7 million alcoholics– Takes one hour to metabolize one drink (one oz of

whiskey, 4 oz of wine, and 12 oz of beer) Weight, gender, and food consumption also play a role.

– Depresses some neuron activity, but increases production of GABA (tells the brain to slow down)

Barbiturates• Reduce anxiety and promote sleep (deep

sleep) aka “downers”• Seconal, Nembutal• Depress brain centers that control arousal,

wakefulness• Low dose causes relaxation, mild euphoria,

reduced inhibitions• High doses can cause unconsciousness, coma,

and death• W/D produces irritability and nightmares. W/D

from high doses produces hallucinations, disorientation, restlessness, and convulsions

Tranquilizers

• Relieve anxiety• Xanax, Valium, Librium, and Ativan• Chemically similar to barbiturates but are

less powerful

Inhalants

• Paint solvents, model airplane glue, nitrous oxide, aerosol sprays

• Central nervous system depressants• High doses = hallucinations, loss of

consciousness• Suffocation, substances are toxic

Opiates aka Narcotics• Addictive drugs that relieve pain and

produce feelings of euphoria by mimicking endorphins

• Natural opiates derived form the opium poppy: morphine & codeine

• Synthetic: heroin, methadone, and prescription Percodan, Demerol, OxyContin

• w/d not life-threatening • Opiates and the Civil War

– http://www.4thus.com/opium

Stimulants• All vary in effects, legal status, and manner in which they

are taken. All are at least mildly addicting and increase brain activity.

• Caffeine – stimulates the cerebral cortex, resulting in increased mental alertness and wakefulness. Withdrawal symptoms: headaches, irritability, drowsiness, fatigue. High doses: high anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, and increased heart rate.

• Nicotine – it is stimulant not a depressant. Frontal lobes, thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. Reaches the brain in seconds, but leaves within 30 minutes. Pack a day smoker will average 70,000 “hits” a year. HIGHLY addictive. W/D: jumpiness, irritability, tremors, headaches, drowsiness, “brain fog”

• Amphetamines • “Uppers or speed” reduce appetite

(tolerance happens quickly).• Extended use followed by “crashing”, w/d

symptoms include fatigue, sleep, mental depression, and increased appetite.

• Prescriptions: Benzedrine & Dexedrine• Illegal: meth (methamphetamine) Made at

home with household chemicals, intense high and lasts longer.

Meth continued..

• PET scans show brain abnormalities & functioning, reduction of dopamine receptors and transporters (help recycle dopamine).

• Memory and motor skill loss

Cocaine

• Illegal stimulant derived from leaves of the coca tree (not cacao for chocolate).

• Inhaled, snorted in powder form reaches the brain within a few minutes.

• Euphoria, mental alertness, and self-confidence

• Crack a more concentrated form is smoked.

• http://www.cnn.com/2011/HEALTH/07/22/social.history.cocaine/index.html

Stimulant Induced Psychosis

• Schizophrenia-like symptoms develop, including auditory hallucinations of voices and bizarrely paranoid ideas.

• “Cocaine bugs” refers to an unusual tactile hallucination that occurs in stimulant-induced psychosis but not in schizophrenia. People itch, tingle, and claim insects are crawling on or under their skin.

Psychedelic Drugs“mind manifesting”

• Create perceptual distortions, alter mood, and affect thinking. Many have been used for thousands of years.

• Mescaline (cactus)• Psilocybin (mushrooms)• LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) – more potent than natural

psychedelic drugs. One-millionth of an ounce can produce profound psychological effects. Chemically similar to Serotonin (regulates moods & sensations). – “Bad trips”: extreme anxiety, panic, psychotic episodes– Usually no physical dependence or W/D symptoms– Adverse reactions: flashbacks, depressions, psychological

instability, prolonged psychotic reactions

Marijuana• Active chemical, tetrahydrocannabinol, THC.• Reaches the brain in seconds. Interferes with muscle

coordination and perception, intensified with alcohol. Has shown to interfere with learning, memory, and cognitive functioning.

• Low to moderate doses usually only produce mild psychedelic experiences. Sense of well-being, mild euphoria, and relaxation.

• Chronic users may develop w/d symptoms: irritability, restlessness, insomnia, tremors, and decreased appetite (rebound effect).

• In cancer patients it’s used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy.

• Has been shown to help with pain, epilepsy, hypertension, nausea, glaucoma, and asthma.

Designer “Club” Drugs

• Ecstasy (MDMA), structurally similar to mescaline and amphetamines, has stimulant and psychedelic effects. – “love drug”– Developed by German pharmaceutical for a

possible appetite suppressant (1912)– Dehydration, rapid heartbeat, temors, muscle

tension, teeth clenching, hyperthermia– Increases serotonin and prohibits reuptake– Depression, brain damage (serotonin receptors)

• Dissociative Anesthetics– Angel Dust, PCP (phencyclidine), Special K (ketamine)– Originally developed for surgery (1950s)– Produced feelings of dissociation and depersonalization,

detachment from reality. Distortions of time, space, and body image.

– Can be eaten, snorted, or injected. Sometimes combined with marijuana.

– Can last for several days. – Feelings of exaggerated strength. – Users can become violent and suicidal. – Affects neurotransmitter glutamate, indirectly stimulating the

release of dopamine (rewarding sensations). – Highly addictive– Memory problems, depression

• http://www.justice.gov/dea/about/history.shtml

• http://www.justthinktwice.com/• http://

www.washingtonpost.com/national/high-fliers-marijuana-votes-in-colorado-washington-state-raise-specter-of-pot-tourism/2012/11/09/7618a58c-2a54-11e2-aaa5-ac786110c486_story.html

Hypnosis• Person responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions with changes

in perception, memory, and behavior.• Greek hypnos means sleep.• Hypnosis is a therapeutic technique in which clinicians make

suggestions to individuals who have undergone a procedure designed to relax them and focus their minds.

• Although hypnosis has been controversial, most clinicians now agree it can be a powerful, effective therapeutic technique for a wide range of conditions, including pain, anxiety and mood disorders. Hypnosis can also help people change their habits, such as quitting smoking.

• Hypnotized people do not lose control of their behavior. They are not in a trance, they are highly focused. Hypnosis is seen to be voluntary. People who are highly susceptible have the ability to be deeply absorbed in fantasy and imaginary experience.

Some research says…• Sensory changes can be induced

(temporary blindness, deafness, or loss of sensation in a part of the body)

• Hallucinations• Posthypnotic suggestions • Posthypnotic amnesia• Hypermnesia (enhances memory)

Help Through Hypnosis• Reduce pain• Reduce the use of narcotics• Improve concentration, motivation, and

performance• Lessen and severity of asthma• Eliminate nightmares• Obesity, hypertension, and anxiety• Remove warts• Reduce or eliminate stuttering • Suppress gag reflex during dental procedures

Consciousness Divided?

• Ernest R. Hilgard (Stanford)– Dissociation (two or more simultaneous

streams of mental activity)– Neodissociation Theory of Hypnosis: one

stream of mental activity that is responding to the hypnotist’s suggestions and second that is processing information unavailable to the consciousness of the subject, “hidden observer.”

The End

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